Meaning and Dimensions of Culture

Chapter 4

The nature of culture The nature of culture Values and folkways Comparing cultural values Sub-cultures and cultural change How culture affects management – see page

95 How cultures view each other

Chapter Outline

Cultural dimensions – how people look at life Hofstede's dimensions Trompenaars’ dimensions

Chapter Outline (2)

The Nature of Culture

Culture is the acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behavior

Cultural knowledge forms values, creates attitudes, and influences behavior

Not everyone in a culture has exactly the same values.

Values and Folkways

Culture sets norms (expectations) for behavior Values are cultural beliefs about right and

wrong. Values have moral significance and are often included in law.

Folkways are customary ways of behaving, with little or no moral significance.Examples: wedding customs, what to wear to a funeral

Table 4-1: Cultural Values

1. Freedom2. Independence3. Self-reliance4. Equality5. Individualism6. Competition7. Efficiency8. Time9. Directness10.Openness

United States 1. Belonging

2. Group harmony

3. Collectiveness

4. Age/seniority5. Group

consensus6. Cooperation7. Quality8. Patience9. Indirectness10. Go-between

Japan1. Family

security2. Family

harmony3. Parental

guidance4. Age5. Authority6. Compromise7. Devotion8. Patience9. Indirectness10. Hospitality

Arab Countries

Sub-cultures and Cultural Change

Groups within a culture may be part of a sub-culture that varies in some ways from the national culture.

Cultures can change gradually over time.

People who have worked outside their own country or have friends from other cultures may pick up some attitudes or behaviors from the other culture.

How Cultures View Each Other

Stereotyping: assumes that all people within one culture or group behave, believe, feel, and act the same.

Ethnocentrism: occurs when people from one culture believe that theirs are the only correct norms, values, and beliefs.

Self-reference criterion: the assumption that people in another culture will behave like people in your culture

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

Power Distance

Power distance: The extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally High power distance countries: people may blindly obey

the orders of their superiors and are less likely to question authority. Companies tend to use centralized decision-making and tall organization structures (many levels of management)

Low power distance countries: flatter and decentralized organization structures, smaller ratio of supervisors. Employees are more likely to question their bosses. Participative management may be used.

Hofstede’s Cultural DimensionsIndividualism and Collectivism

Individualism: Tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only Countries high in individualism: High individual

initiative. Promotions are based on achievement. Salaries are based on market value.

Collectivism: Tendency of people to belong to groups or collectives and to look after each other in exchange for loyalty Countries high in collectivism: Low individual

initiative. Salaries and promotions may be based on seniority

Hofstede’s Cultural DimensionsUncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance: Extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid such situations High uncertainty avoidance countries: people have high

need for security, strong belief in experts and their knowledge, more written rules and procedures, less risk taking by managers

Low uncertainty avoidance countries: people are more willing to accept risks associated with the unknown, fewer written rules and procedures, more risk taking by managers, higher employee turnover, more ambitious employees

Hofstede’s Cultural DimensionsMasculinity and Femininity

Masculinity: the dominant social values are success, money and things Countries high in masculinity: People place great

importance on earnings, recognition, advancement, challenge, and wealth. High job stress.

Femininity: the dominant social values are caring for others and the quality of life Countries high in femininity: great importance on

cooperation, friendly atmosphere, employment security, and the natural environment. Low job stress.

Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions

Universalism vs. particularism Universalism – the belief that ideas and

practices can be applied everywhere in the world without modification. People tend to focus on formal rules and expect business partners to do the same.

Particularism – the belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and practices should be applied and some things cannot be done the same way everywhere. People tend to focus on relationships, working things out to suit those involved.

Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (2)

Neutral vs. Emotional Cultures Neutral culture – a culture in which

emotions are held in check. People try not to show their feelings

Emotional culture – a culture in which emotions are expressed openly and naturally. People smile, may talk loudly, greet each other with enthusiasm, show happiness or unhappiness.

Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (3)

Achievement vs. Ascription n Achievement culture - culture in which

people are accorded status based on how well they perform their work and what they have accomplished

Job, work performance, education, etc. Ascription culture - culture in which status is

attributed based on who or what a person is For example, status may be accorded on

the basis of age, gender, family, tribe, ethnic group, etc.

Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (4)

Use of time Sequential use of time - people do one thing

at a time, keep appointments strictly, follow plans to the letter

Synchronous use of time - people do more than one thing at a time, appointments are approximate

Trompenaars' Research onPeople and the External

Environment

Inner-directed: People believe in controlling environmental outcomes and think that they can control what happens to them

Outer-directed: People believe in allowing things to take their natural course and living in harmony with nature. People are less likely to believe that they can control what happens to them.