mb0034 research methodology set 1 2

8/8/2019 MB0034 Research Methodology Set 1 2

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Name:

DEEPA RAJ.L

Subject:

Research Methodology

Roll Number:

510927179

Assignment Number:

MB0034 SET 1 & 2

Study Center:

38

Date of Submission:

June, 2010


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SMU Research Methodology

MBOO34 Research Methodology

SET 1

SOLVED ASSIGNMENT

1. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in social and business

sciences.

Answer:

Research simply means a search for facts answers to questions and solutions to

problems. It is a purposive investigation. It is an organized inquiry. It seeks to findexplanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify the doubtful facts and to correct themisconceived facts.

The search for facts may be made through either: Arbitrary (or unscientific) Method: Its a method of seeking answers toquestion consists of imagination, opinion, blind belief or impression. E.g. it wasbelieved that the shape of the earth was flat; a big snake swallows sun or mooncausing solar or lunar eclipse. It is subjective; the finding will vary from person toperson depending on his impression or imagination. It is vague and inaccurate. Or Scientific Method: this is a systematic rational approach to seeking facts. Iteliminates the drawbacks of the arbitrary method. It is objective, precise and arrivesat conclusions on the basis of verifiable evidences.

Therefore, search of facts should be made by scientific method rather than by arbitrarymethod. Then only we may get verifiable and accurate facts. Hence research is asystematic and logical study of an issue or problem or phenomenon through scientificmethod.Young defines Research as a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical andsystematic techniques, aims to:

a) Discover of new facts or verify and test old facts,b) Analyze their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations,c) Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitatereliable and valid study of human behaviour.d) Kerlinger defines research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and criticalinvestigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among naturalphenomena.

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Significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences

According to a famous Hudson Maxim, All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt isoften better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention. It

brings out the significance of research, increased amounts of which makes progresspossible. Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting thedevelopment of logical habits of thinking and organization.

The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business isgreatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of government and business has raised the use of research in solving operational problems. Researchassumes significant role in formulation of economic policy, for both the government andbusiness. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of an economic system.Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the analysis ofneeds and desires of the people, and the availability of revenues, which requires research.Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the

consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision making ofpolicy-makers, although in itself it is not a part of research. In the process, research alsohelps in the proper allocation of a countrys scare resources. Research is also necessaryfor collecting information on the social and economic structure of an economy tounderstand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statisticalinformation though not a routine task, involves various research problems. Therefore,large staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the government these days toundertake this work. Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulationinvolves three distinct stages of operation which are as follows:

Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts Diagnoses of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying

them; and The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developmentsResearch also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning

problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research,market research, and motivational research are vital and their results assist in takingbusiness decisions. Market research is refers to the investigation of the structure anddevelopment of a market for the formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational research relates to the application of logical,mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems such ascost minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivationalresearch helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect tomarket characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analyzing themotivations underlying consumer behaviour. All these researches are very useful forbusiness and industry, which are responsible for business decision making.

Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships andseeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction ofknowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses practical utility for the socialscientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient

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manner. This, research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its ownsake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.

2. What is meant by research problem? And what are the characteristics of a good

research problem?

Answer:

Research really begins when the researcher experiences some difficulty, i.e., aproblem demanding a solution within the subject-are of his discipline. This general areaof interest, however, defines only the range of subject-matter within which the researcherwould see and pose a specific problem for research. Personal values play an importantrole in the selection of a topic for research. Social conditions do often shape thepreference of investigators in a subtle and imperceptible way.

The formulation of the topic into a research problem is, really speaking the firststep in a scientific enquiry. A problem in simple words is some difficulty experienced bythe researcher in a theoretical or practical situation. Solving this difficulty is the task ofresearch.

R.L. Ackoffs analysis affords considerable guidance in identifying problem for research.He visualizes five components of a problem.

1. Research-consumer: There must be an individual or a group which experiencessome difficulty.

2. Research-consumers Objectives: The research-consumer must have available,alternative means for achieving the objectives he desires.

3. Alternative Means to Meet the Objectives: The research-consumer must haveavailable, alternative means for achieving the objectives he desires.

4. Doubt in Regard to Selection of Alternatives: The existence of alternative coursesof action in not enough; in order to experience a problem, the research consumermust have some doubt as to which alternative to select.

5. There must be One or More Environments to which the Difficulty or ProblemPertains: A change in environment may produce or remove a problem. Aresearch-consumer may have doubts as to which will be the most efficient meansin one environment but would have no such doubt in another.

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:

1. Verifiable evidence: That is factual observations which other observers can seeand check.

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2. Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of astatement or describing things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping tounwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or fantasizing.

3. Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number ormeasurement. This avoids colourful literature and vague meanings.

4. Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collectingdata in a systematic and organized way so that the conclusions drawn are reliable.Data based on casual recollections are generally incomplete and give unreliablejudgments and conclusions.

5. Objectivity: That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It meansobservation is unaffected by the observers values, beliefs and preferences to theextent possible and he is able to see and accept facts as they are, not as he mightwish them to be.

6. Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Sincehuman memory is fallible, all data collected are recorded.

7. Controlling conditions: That is controlling all variables except one and thenattempting to examine what happens when that variable is varied. This is the basictechnique in all scientific experimentation allowing one variable to vary whileholding all other variables constant.

8. Training investigators: That is imparting necessary knowledge to investigatorsto make them understand what to look for, how to interpret in and avoidinaccurate data collection.

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3. What is hypothesis? Examine the procedures for testing hypothesis

Answer:

A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentativeexplanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome. Beforestarting the research, the researcher has a rather general, diffused, even confused notionof the problem. It may take long time for the researcher to say what questions he hadbeen seeking answers to. Hence, an adequate statement about the research problem isvery important. What is a good problem statement? It is an interrogative statement that

asks: what relationship exists between two or more variables? It then further asksquestions like: Is A related to B or not? How are A and B related to C? Is A related to Bunder conditions X and Y? Proposing a statement pertaining to relationship between Aand B is called a hypothesis.

Procedure for Testing Hypothesis:

To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher hascollected) whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the mainquestion is: whether the null hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedurefor hypothesis testing refers to all those steps that we undertake for making a choicebetween the two actions i.e., rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis.

The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below:

1) Making a Formal Statement:

The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho) andalso of the alternative hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypothesis should clearly state,considering the nature of the research problem. For instance, Mr. Mohan of the CivilEngineering Department wants to test the load bearing capacity of an old bridge whichmust be more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his hypothesis as under:

Null hypothesis HO: =10 tons

Alternative hypothesis Ha: >10 tons

Take another example. The average score in an aptitude test administered at the nationallevel is 80. To evaluate a states education system, the average score of 100 of the statesstudents selected on the random basis was 75. The state wants to know if there is asignificance difference between the local scores and the national scores. In such asituation the hypothesis may be state as under:

Null hypothesis HO: =80

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Alternative hypothesis Ha: 80

The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must be accomplished with duecare in accordance with the object and nature of the problem under consideration. It alsoindicates whether we should use a tailed test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the typegreater than, we use alone tailed test, but when Ha is of the type whether greater or

smaller then we use a two-tailed test.2) Selecting a Significant Level:

The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the sameshould have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted forthe purpose. The factors that affect the level of significance are:

The magnitude of the difference between sample ;

The size of the sample;

The variability of measurements within samples;

Whether the hypothesis is directional or non directional (A directionalhypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say,means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of thepurpose and nature of enquiry.

3) Deciding the Distribution to Use:

After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is todetermine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally remains betweendistribution and the t distribution. The rules for selecting the correct distribution aresimilar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation.

4) Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value:

Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate valuefrom the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. Inother words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.

5) Calculation of the Probability:

One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge aswidely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.

6) Comparing the Probability:

Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with thespecified value for , the significance level. If the calculated probability is equal tosmaller than value in case of one tailed test (and /2 in case of two-tailed test), thenreject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the probability is

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4. Write an essay on the need for research design and explain the principles of

experimental designs.

Answer:

The need for the methodologically designed research:

a)- In many a research inquiry, the researcher has no idea as to how accurate the results ofhis study ought to be in order to be useful. Where such is the case, the researcher has to

determine how much inaccuracy may be tolerated. In a quite few cases he may be in aposition to know how much inaccuracy his method of research will produce. In eithercase he should design his research if he wants to assure himself of useful results.

b)- In many research projects, the time consumed in trying to ascertain what the datamean after they have been collected is much greater than the time taken to design aresearch which yields data whose meaning is known as they are collected.

c)- The idealized design is concerned with specifying the optimum research procedurethat could be followed were there no practical restrictions.

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:1. The principle of replication:

The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus, each treatment is appliedin many experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of theexperiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of twovarieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field into two parts and grow onevariety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We can compare the yield of thetwo parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle ofreplication to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow onevariety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can collect

the data yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The resultso obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw withoutapplying the principle of replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated severaltimes for better results. Consequently replication does not present any difficulty, butcomputationally it does. However, it should be remembered that replication is introducedin order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy withwhich the main effects and interactions can be estimated.

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2. The principle of randomization:

It provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneousfactors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should design orplan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors canall be combined under the general heading of chance. For instance if we grow onevariety of rice say in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown inthe other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first halfin comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic.

In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different partsof the field on the basis of some random sampling technique i.e., we may applyrandomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects of extraneous factors.As such, through the application of the principle of randomization, we can have a betterestimate of the experimental error.

3. Principle of local control:

It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the extraneousfactors, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a rangeas necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be

measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we shouldplan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, inwhich the total variability of the data is divided into three components attributed totreatments, the extraneous factor and experimental error. In other words, according to theprinciple of local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts, knownas blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number oftreatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. Ingeneral, blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factors fixed, so that we canmeasure its contribution to the variability of the data by means of a two-way analysis ofvariance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can eliminate the variabilitydue to extraneous factors from the experimental error.

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5. Distinguish between primary and secondary of data collection. Explain the

features, uses, advantages and limitations of secondary data. Which is the best

way of collecting the data for researchPrimary or secondary. Support your

answer.

Answer:

Primary Data:

Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data thathave not been previously collected e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher onbrand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviorfrom a sample of consumers by interviewing them,.Primary data are first handinformation collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailingetc.

Secondary Data:

These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiledstatistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studiese.g., census reports , annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statisticalstatement, Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency and financepublished by the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to Co-operatives

and Regional Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National sample surveyOrganization, Reports of trade associations, publications of international organizationssuch as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journalsnewspapers etc.

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublishedrecords. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by thefirms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, registerof members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.

Features of Secondary Sources

1. Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, theyhave certain common characteristics.

2. First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble ofconstructing tools and administering them.

3. Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control overcollection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources

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are shaped by others. Clearly, this is a feature which can limit the research valueof secondary sources.

4. Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, theresearcher using them need not have been present when and where they weregathered.

Use of Secondary Data

1. The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specificinformation from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose. Forexample, the general statistical information in the number of co-operative creditsocieties in the country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volumeof business etc., may be taken from published reports and quoted as backgroundinformation in a study on the evaluation of performance of cooperative creditsocieties in a selected district/state.

2. Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings ofresearch may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may becompared with the national averages; the performance indicators of a particularbank may be tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industryas a whole; and so on.

3. Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for aresearch project. Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysisof companies, Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks, sociological studieson crimes, historical studies, and the like, depend primarily on secondary data.Year books, statistical reports of government departments, report of publicorganizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises, Censes Reports etc, serve as major

data sources for such research studies.

Advantages of Secondary Data

1. Secondary sources have some advantages:

2. Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once theirsource of documents and reports are located, collection of data is just matter ofdesk work. Even the tediousness of copying the data from the source can now beavoided, thanks to Xeroxing facilities.

3. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered withoutmuch cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researchers space andtime reach.

4. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientificgeneralizations can be made.

5. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.

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6. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases onprimary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. Theresearcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

1. The use of a secondary data has its own limitations.

2. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specificneeds. The definitions adopted by those who collected those data may bedifferent; units of measure may not match; and time periods may also be different.

3. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy we

need to know how the data were collected.4. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in

print, because of time lag in producing them. For example, population census dataare published tow or three years later after compilation, and no new figures willbe available for another ten years.

5. Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to allsocial scientists. Even if the location of the source is known, the accessibilitydepends primarily on proximity. For example, most of the unpublished officialrecords and compilations are located in the capital city, and they are not withinthe easy reach of researchers based in far off places.

6. Describe interview method of collecting data. State the conditions under which it

is considered most suitable. You have been assigned to conduct a survey on the

reading habits of the house wives in the middle class family. Design a suitable

questionnaire consisting of 20 questions you propose to use in the survey.

Answer:

1) Structured Directive Interview:

This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same questions areput to all the respondents and in the same order. Each question is asked in the same wayin each interview, promoting measurement reliability. This type of interview is used forlarge-scale formalized surveys.

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Advantages: This interview has certain advantages. First, data from oneinterview to the next one are easily comparable. Second, recording and codingdata do not pose any problem, and greater precision is achieved. Lastly, attentionis not diverted to extraneous, irrelevant and time consuming conversation.

Limitation: However, this type of interview suffers from some limitations. First,

it tends to lose the spontaneity of natural conversation. Second, the way in whichthe interview is structured may be such that the respondents views are minimizedand the investigators own biases regarding the problem under study areinadvertent introduced. Lastly, the scope for exploration is limited.

2) Unstructured or Non-Directive Interview:

This is the least structured one. The interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freelyabout a give topic with a minimum of prompting or guidance. In this type of interview, adetailed pre-planned schedule is not used. Only a broad interview guide is used. Theinterviewer avoids channelling the interview directions. Instead he develops a verypermissive atmosphere. Questions are not standardized and ordered in a particular way.

This interviewing is more useful in case studies rather than in surveys. It is particularlyuseful in exploratory research where the lines of investigations are not clearly defined. Itis also useful for gathering information on sensitive topics such as divorce, socialdiscrimination, class conflict, generation gap, drug-addiction etc. It provides opportunityto explore the various aspects of the problem in an unrestricted manner.

Advantages: This type of interview has certain special advantages. It can closelyapproximate the spontaneity of a natural conversation. It is less prone tointerviewers bias. It provides greater opportunity to explore the problem in anunrestricted manner.

Limitations: Though the unstructured interview is a potent research instrument, itis not free from limitations. One of its major limitations is that the data obtainedfrom one interview is not comparable to the data from the next. Hence, it is notsuitable for surveys. Time may be wasted in unproductive conversations. By notfocusing on one or another facet of a problem, the investigator may run the risk of being led up blind ally. As there is no particular order or sequence in thisinterview, the classification of responses and coding may required more time.This type of informal interviewing calls for greater skill than the formal surveyinterview.

3) Focused Interview:

This is a semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus thediscussion on the actual effects of a given experience to which the respondents have beenexposed. It takes place with the respondents known to have involved in a particularexperience, e.g, seeing a particular film, viewing a particular program on TV., involvedin a train/bus accident, etc. The situation is analyzed prior to the interview. An interviewguide specifying topics relating to the research hypothesis used. The interview is focusedon the subjective experiences of the respondent, i.e., his attitudes and emotional

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responses regarding the situation under study. The focused interview permits theinterviewer to obtain details of personal reactions, specific emotions and the like.

Merits: This type of interview is free from the inflexibility of formal methods, yetgives the interview a set form and insured adequate coverage of all the relevanttopics. The respondent is asked for certain information, yet he has plenty of

opportunity to present his views. The interviewer is also free to choose thesequence of questions and determine the extent of probing,

4) Clinical Interview:

This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference. While the focusedinterview is concerned with the effects of specific experience, clinical interview isconcerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of theindividuals life experiences.

The personal history interview used in social case work, prison administration,psychiatric clinics and in individual life history research is the most common type ofclinical interview. The specific aspects of the individuals life history to be covered bythe interview are determined with reference to the purpose of the study and therespondent is encouraged to talk freely about them.

5) Depth Interview:

This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the respondents opinion,emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview guide. This requires much moretraining on inter-personal skills than structured interview. This deliberately aims to elicitunconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and emotions.

This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free expression of affectivelycharged information. It requires probing. The interviewer should totally avoid advising orshowing disagreement. Of course, he should use encouraging expressions like uh-huhor I see to motivate the respondent to continue narration. Some times the interviewerhas to face the problem of affections, i.e. the respondent may hide expressing affectivefeelings. The interviewer should handle such situation with great care.

1. Start the interview. Carry it on in an informal and natural conversational style.

2. Ask all the applicable questions in the same order as they appear on the schedulewithout any elucidation and change in the wording. Ask all the applicable questionslisted in the schedule. Do not take answers for granted.

3. If interview guide is used, the interviewer may tailor his questions to eachrespondent, covering of course, the areas to be investigated.

4. Know the objectives of each question so as to make sure that the answersadequately satisfy the question objectives.

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5. If a question is not understood, repeat it slowly with proper emphasis andappropriate explanation, when necessary.

6. Talk all answers naturally, never showing disapproval or surprise. When therespondent does not meet the interruptions, denial, contradiction and otherharassment, he may feel free and may not try to withhold information. He will be

motivated to communicate when the atmosphere is permissive and the listenersattitude is non judgmental and is genuinely absorbed in the revelations.

7. Listen quietly with patience and humility. Give not only undivided attention, butalso personal warmth. At the same time, be alert and analytic to incomplete, nonspecific and inconsistent answers, but avoid interrupting the flow of information. Ifnecessary, jot down unobtrusively the points which need elaboration or verificationfor later and timelier probing. The appropriate technique for this probing is to ask forfurther clarification in such a polite manner as I am not sure, I understood fully, isthis.what you meant?

8. Neither argue nor dispute.

9. Show genuine concern and interest in the ideas expressed by the respondent; atthe same time, maintain an impartial and objective attitude.

10. Should not reveal your own opinion or reaction. Even when you are asked of yourviews, laugh off the request, saying Well, your opinions are more important thanmine.

11. At times the interview runs dry and needs re-stimulation. Then use suchexpressions as Uh-huh or That interesting or I see can you tell me more about

that? and the like.12. When the interviewee fails to supply his reactions to related past experiences,represent the stimulus situation, introducing appropriate questions which will aid inrevealing the past. Under what circumstances did such and such a phenomenonoccur? or How did you feel about it and the like.

13. At times, the conversation may go off the track. Be alert to discover drifting, steerthe conversation back to the track by some such remark as, you know, I was verymuch interested in what you said a moment ago. Could you tell me more about it?

14. When the conversation turns to some intimate subjects, and particularly when itdeals with crises in the life of the individual, emotional blockage may occur. Then

drop the subject for the time being and pursue another line of conversation for a whileso that a less direct approach to the subject can be made later.

15. When there is a pause in the flow of information, do not hurry the interview. Takeit as a matter of course with an interested look or a sympathetic half-smile. If thesilence is too prolonged, introduce a stimulus saying You mentioned that Whathappened then?

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MBOO34 Research Methodology

SET 2

SOLVED ASSIGNMENT

1. Write a short notes on the following:

Answer:

a) Null Hypothesis:

A null hypothesis is a hypothesis which a researcher tries to disprove. Normally,the null hypothesis represents the current view/explanation of an aspect of the world thatthe researcher wants to challenge. The null hypothesis is a hypothesis which theresearcher tries to disprove, reject or nullify.The 'null' often refers to the common view ofsomething, while the alternative hypothesis is what the researcher really think is the causeof a phenomenon.An experiment conclusion always refers to the null, rejecting or accepting H0 rather thanH1.A researcher may postulate a hypothesis:

H1: Tomato plants exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost ratherthan in soil.And a null hypothesis:

H0: Tomato plants do not exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compostrather than soil.

b)Exploratory research:

It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliarproblem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge.

It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It usuallytakes the form of a pilot study.

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http://www.experiment-resources.com/null-hypothesis.htmlhttp://www.experiment-resources.com/drawing-conclusions.htmlhttp://www.experiment-resources.com/null-hypothesis.htmlhttp://www.experiment-resources.com/drawing-conclusions.html


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The purpose of this research may be to generate new ideas, or to increase theresearchers familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation of theproblem or to gatherinformation for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible toattempt the study.

Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies.At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations;at the second, the discovery of relationships between variables.

The objective of exploratory research is to gather preliminary information that will helpdefine problems and suggest hypotheses.

c) Random Sampling:

Random Sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is alsoknown as random sampling. It provides a known nonzero chance of selection for each

population element. It is used when generalization is the objective of study, and a greaterdegree of accuracy of estimation of population parameters is required. The cost and timerequired is high hence the benefit derived from it should justify the costs.

d)Rank Order Correlation:

Charles Edward Spearman, a British psychologist devised amethod for measuring correlation between two variables based on ranks given to theobservations. This method is adopted when the variables are not capable of quantitativemeasurements like intelligence, beauty etc. in such cases, it is impossible to assignnumerical values for change taking place in such variables. It is in such cases rank

correlation is useful.Spearmans rank correlation coefficient is given byrk = 1- 6 * D ^2 / n (n2-1)Where D is the difference between ranks and n, number of pairs correlated.

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2. Elaborate the format of a research report touching briefly on the mechanics of

writing.

Answer:

Communicate to a Specific Audience:The first step is to know the audience, its background, and its objectives. Most

effective presentations seem live conversations or memos to a particular person asopposed to an amorphous group. Audience identification affects presentation decisionssuch as selecting the material to be included and the level of presentation. Excessivedetail or material presented at too low a level can be boring. The audience can becomeirritated when material perceived as relevant is excluded or the material is presented attoo high level. In an oral presentation, the presenter can ask audience whether theyalready know some of the material.

Frequently, a presentation must be addressed to two or more different audiences.In a written presentation, an executive summary at the outset can provide an overview ofthe conclusions for the benefit of those in the audience who are not interested in details.The presentation must respect the audiences time constraints. An appendix can be usedto reach some people selectively, without distracting the others. Sometimes introductionto a chapter or a section can convey the nature of the contents, which certain audiencesmay bypass.

Structure the Presentation:Each piece of presentation should fit into the whole, just as individual pieces fit

into a jigsaw puzzle. The audience should not be muttering. The solution to this is toprovide a well-defined structure. The structure should include an introduction, a body,and a summary. Further, each of the major sections should be structured similarly. Theprecept is to tell the audience what you are going to say, say it and then tell them whatyou said. Sometimes you want to withhold the conclusion to create interest.Introduction should play several roles.

First, it should provide audience interest. A second function is to identify the presentations central idea or objective. Third, it should provide a road map to the rest of the presentation so that the

audience can picture its organisation and flow.

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It is better to divide the body of the presentation into two to five parts. Theaudience will be able to absorb only so much information. If that information can beaggregated into chunks, it will be easier to assimilate. Sometimes the points to be madecannot be combined easily or naturally. In that case, it is necessary to use a longer list.One way to structure the presentation is by the research questions. Another method that is

often useful when presenting the research proposal is to base it on the research process.The purpose of the presentation summary is to identify and underline theimportant points of the presentations and to provide some repetition of their content. Thesummary should support the presentation communication objectives by helping theaudience to retain the key parts of the content. The audience should feel that there is anatural flow from one section to another.

Create Audience Interest:

The audience should be motivated to read or listen to the presentations majorparts and to the individual elements of each section the audience should know why the

presentation is relevant to them and why each section was included. A section that cannothold interest should be excluded or relegated to appendix.The research purpose and objectives are good vehicles to provide motivation. The

research purpose should specify decisions to be made and should relate to the researchquestions. A presentation that focuses on those research questions and their associatedhypothesis will naturally be tied to relevant decisions and hold audience interest. Incontrast, a presentation that attempts to report on all the questions that were included inthe survey and in the cross- tabulations often will be long, uninteresting and of littlevalue. As the analysis proceeds and presentation is being prepared, the researcher shouldbe on the lookout for results that are exceptionally persuasive, relevant, interesting, andunusual. Sometimes, the deviant respondent with strange answers can provide the mostinsight in his or her responses that are pursued and not discarded.

Be Specific and Visual:

Avoid taking or writing in the abstract. If different members of the audience havedifferent or vague understandings of important concepts, there is a potential problem.Terms that are ambiguous or not well known should be defined and illustrated or elseomitted. The most interesting presentations usually use specific stories, anecdotes,studies, or incidents to make points.

Address Validity and Reliability Issues:

The presentation should help the audience avoid misinterpreting the results. The

wording of the questions, the order in which they are asked, and the sampling design areamong the design dimensions that can lead to biased results and misinterpretations. Thepresentation should not include an exhaustive description of all the design considerations.Nobody is interested in a textbook discussion of the advantages of telephone over mailsurveys, or how you locate homes in an area sampling design.

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The presentation should include some indication of the reliability of the results.At the minimum, it always should be clear what sample size was involved. The keyresults should be supported by more precise information in the form of interval estimatesor a hypothesis test. The hypothesis test basically indicates, given the sample size, whatprobability exists that the results were merely an accident of sampling. If the probability

of the latter is not low, then the results probably would not be repeated. Do not implymore precision than is warranted.

3. Discuss the importance of case study method.

Answer:

Let us discuss the criteria for evaluating the adequacy of the casehistory or life history which is of central importance for case study. John Dollard hasproposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows:

i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is, the case drawnout from its total context for the purposes of study must be considered a member of theparticular cultural group or community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons mustbe done with a view to identify thee community values, standards and their shared way oflife.

ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is, the action of theindividual cases must be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situation. Inother words, the social meaning of behaviour must be taken into consideration.

iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized.That is, in case of an individual being the member of a family, the role of family inshaping his behaviour must never be overlooked.iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behavior must beclearly shown. That is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biologicalorganism, the man, gradually blossoms forth into a social person, are especially fruitful.

v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through adulthood mustbe stressed. In other words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships between thee persons various experiences.

vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of theimportant criteria for the life history is that a persons life must be shown as unfoldingitself in the context of and partly owing to specific social situations.

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vii) The life history material itself must be organized according to some conceptualframework, this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level.

4. Give the importance of frequency tables and discuss the principles of table

construction, frequency distribution and class intervals determination

Answer:

Construction of Frequency Table Frequency tables provide a shorthandsummary of data. The importance of presenting statistical data in tabular form needs noemphasis. Tables facilitate comprehending masses of data at a glance; they conservespace and reduce explanations and descriptions to a minimum. They give a visual pictureof relationships between variables and categories. They facilitate summation of item andthe detection of errors and omissions and provide a basis for computations.It is important to make a distinction between the general purpose tables and specifictables. The general purpose tables are primary or reference tables designed to includelarge amount of source data in convenient and accessible form. The special purposetables are analytical or derivate ones that demonstrate significant relationships in the dataor the results of statistical analysis. Tables in reports of government on population, vitalstatistics, agriculture, industries etc., are of general purpose type. They representextensive repositories and statistical information. Special purpose tables are found inmonographs, research reports and articles and reused as instruments of analysis. Inresearch, we are primarily concerned with special purpose.

a) Principles of Table Construction:

There are certain generally accepted principles of rules relating to construction of tables.They are:1. Every table should have a title. The tile should represent a succinct description of thecontents of the table. It should be clear and concise. It should be placed above the body ofthe table.2. A number facilitating easy reference should identify every table. The number can becentered above the title. The table numbers should run in consecutive serial order.3. The captions (or column headings) should be clear and brief.4. The units of measurement under each heading must always be indicated.5. Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed directly beneath thetable and in order to obviate any possible confusion with the textual footnotes suchreference symbols as the asterisk (*) DAGGER (+) and the like may be used.

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6. If the data in a series of tables have been obtained from different sources, it isordinarily advisable to indicate the specific sources in a place just below the table.7. Usually lines separate columns from one another. Lines are always drawn at the topand bottom of the table and below the captions.8. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.

9. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and plus or minussigns should be in perfect alignment.10. Columns and rows that are to be compared with one another should be brought closedtogether.11. Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column andtotals of columns at the bottom.12. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories, different kinds oftype, spacing and identifications can be used.13. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical,alphabetical or according to magnitude Numerical categories are usually arranged indescending order of magnitude.

14. Miscellaneous and exceptions items are generally placed in the last row of the table.15. Usually the larger number of items is listed vertically. This means that a tableslength is more than its width.16. Abbreviations should be avoided whenever possible and ditto marks should not beused in a table.17. The table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible.

b) Frequency Distribution:

Variables that are classified according to magnitude or size are often arranged inthe form of a frequency table. In constructing this table, it is necessary to determine thenumber of class intervals to be used and the size of the class intervals.A distinction is usually made between continuous and discrete variables. A continuousvariable has an unlimited number of possible values between the lowest and highest withno gaps or breaks. Examples of continuous variable are age, weight, temperature etc. Adiscrete variable can have a series of specified values with no possibility of valuesbetween these points. Each value of a discrete variable is distinct and separate. Examplesof discrete variables are gender of persons (male/female) occupation (salaried, business,profession) car size (800cc, 1000cc, 1200cc)

In practice, all variables are treated as discrete units, the continuous variablesbeing stated in some discrete unit size according to the needs of a particular situation. Forexample, length is described in discrete units of millimetres or a tenth of an inch.

c) Class Intervals:

Ordinarily, the number of class intervals may not be less than 5 not more than 15,depending on the nature of the data and the number of cases being studied. After notingthe highest and lower values and the feature of the data, the number of intervals can beeasily determined.

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For many types of data, it is desirable to have class intervals of uniform size. Theintervals should neither be too small nor too large. Whenever possible, the intervalsshould represent common and convenient numerical divisions such as 5 or 10, rather thanodd division such as 3 to 7. Class intervals must be clearly designated in a frequencytable in such a way as to obviate any possibility of misinterpretation of confusion. For

example, to present the age group of a population, the use of intervals of 1-20, 20-50, and50 and above would be confusing. This may be presented as 1-20, 21-50, and above 50.

Every class interval has a mid point. For example, the midpoint of an interval 1-20 is 10.5and the midpoint of class interval 1-25 would be 13.

One-Way Tables: One-way frequency tables present the distribution of cases on only asingle dimension or variable. For example, the distribution of respondents of gender, byreligion, socio economic status and the like are shown in one way tables (Table 10.1)lustrates one-way tables. One way tables are rarely used since the result of frequencydistributions can be described in simple sentences. For instance, the gender distribution ofa sample study may be described as The sample data represents 58% by males and 42%of the sample are females.

Tow-Way Table: Distributions in terms of two or more variables and the relationshipbetween the two variables are show in two-way table. The categories of one variable arepresented one below another, on the left margin of the table those of another variable atthe upper part of the table, one by the side of another. The cells represent particularcombination of both variables. To compare the distributions of cases, raw numbers areconverted into percentages based on the number of cases in each category. (Table 10.2)illustrate two-way tables.

Another method of constructing a two-way table is to state the percent of representationas a within brackets term rather than as a separate column. Here, special care has beentaken as to how the percentages are calculated, either on a horizontal representation ofdata or as vertical representation of data. Sometimes, the table heading itself provides a

meaning as to the method of representation in the two-way table.

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5. Write a short notes on the following:

Answer:

(a). Type I error and type II error:

In the context of testing of hypothesis there are basically two types of errors thatresearchers make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true & we may accept H0 when it is nottrue. The former is known as Type I & the later is known as Type II. In other words,Type I error mean rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted & Type IIerror means accepting of hypothesis which should have been rejected. Type I error isdonated by (alpha), also called as level of significance of test; and Type II error isdonated by (beta).

Decision

Accept H0 Reject H0

H0 (true) Correct decision Type I error ( error)

Ho (false) Type II error ( error) Correct decision

The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and isunderstood as the level of significance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at5%, it means there are about chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. Wecan control type I error just by fixing it at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%,we will say that the maximum probability of committing type I error would only be 0.01.But with a fixed sample size, n when we try to reduce type I error, the probability ofcommitting type II error increases. Both types of errors can not be reduced

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simultaneously. There is a trade-off in business situations, decision-makers decide theappropriate level of type I error by examining the costs of penalties attached to both typesof errors. If type I error involves time & trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals thatshould have been accepted, where as type II error means taking a chance that an entiregroup of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one

should prefer a type I error to a type II error means taking a chance that an entire group ofusers of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one shouldprefer a type II error. As a result one must set very high level for type I error in onestesting techniques of a given hypothesis. Hence, in testing of hypothesis, one must makeall possible effort to strike an adequate balance between Type I & Type II error.

(b). One tailed and two tailed test:

In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms are quite important and mustbe clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the samplemean is significantly higher or lower than the hypnotized value of the mean of thepopulation. Such a test inappropriate when we haveH0: = H0 and Ha: H0 whichmay > H0 or


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6. Explain Karl Pearson Co-efficient of correlation. Calculate Karl Pearson coefficient

for the following data:

Answer:

X(height-cm)

174 175 176 177 178 182 183 186 189 193

Y(weight-kg)

61 65 67 68 72 74 80 87 92 95

Karl Pearsons Co-Efficient of Correlation is a mathematical method formeasuring correlation. Karl Pearson developed the correlation from the covariancebetween two sets of variables. Karl Pearsons Co-Efficient of Correlation is denoted bysymbol r. The formula for obtaining Karl Pearsons Co-Efficient of Correlation is:

Direct method

X Y dx dy dx2 dy2 dxdy

174 61 -8 -13 64 169 104175 65 -7 -9 49 81 63176 67 -6 -7 36 49 42177 68 -5 -6 25 36 30178 72 -4 -2 16 4 8

(A)182 (A)74 0 0 0 0 0183 80 1 6 1 36 6

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186 87 4 13 16 169 52189 92 7 18 49 324 126193 95 11 21 121 441 231

Total -7 21 377 1309 662

R = dxdy/N (dx/N x dy/N)

(dx2/N) - (dx/N)2 x (dy2/N) - (dy/N)2

662/10 (-7/10 x 21/10)= = 0.986 Answer

377/10 (-7/10)2 x 1309/10 (21/10)2

mb0034 research methodology set 1 2

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