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8/2/2019 Masalah Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di dalam kelas mengikut Teori Pembelajaran 3.0 Masalah Pengajaran dan P

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MAJL[JHAJ

@{ma S{ya|

1*4 Tkjlan{e{aj 1

9*4 Tkjlkma|aj Tsgmoeohg ;6-1737' wajh

ikytkjlata| ianaxa skianahgaj iksay |gjhman eam{ lgtkjhay{ng oekn

tyosks-tyosks tsgmoeohg |glam sklay wajh `ky{b{m mktala tk`gmgyaj%

mkigìajhaj sky|a nayataj wajh |glam lgsklayg oekn skskoyajh |kyàs{m

tkyeam{aj joyàe laj aijoyàe nasge laygtala fam|oy hajk|gm laj

tkyskmg|ayaj* Aneg |koyg tkjlkma|aj tsgmoajaeg|gm `kjkmajmaj mktkj|gjhaj

raàj axae gjlgvgl{ laj tkycawa ianaxa tkygs|gxa àsa mkcge

`k`t{jwag mksaj sktajbajh nawa| tala mkalaaj tsgmoeohg gjlgvgl{*

\koyg s|y{m|{y tkysojaeg|g Sgh`{jl Fyk{l `kìanahgmaj s|y{m|{y

tsgmgm mktala |gha gag|{ gl% kho laj s{tkykho* Gl `ky{tamaj s{ìky

loyojhaj laj jafs{ wajh lgxaygsg% `k`kj|gjhmaj lgyg skjlgyg laj |glam

ala tkjhay{n mktala l{jga ykaeg|g laj `k`tkjhay{ng |gjhman eam{ iawg

ataigea loyojhaj a|a{ mkàn{ajjwa ikhg|{ m{a|* Kho t{ea c{ia

tkyeanaj-eanaj `kjhaìge |ajhh{jhbaxai `kjloyojh gl s{tawa

`kjhgm{| mknkjlam òyae laj k|gma àswayama| sk`kj|aya s{tkykho t{ea

ikyf{jhsg skiahag tkjhnaj|ay àme{à| jgeag òyae wajh ikymkìajh

laygtala lglgmaj ahaà mktala kho wajh `kjhaxae gl* @kjhgm{|

tkjlkma|aj gjg% skmgyajwa gl laj s{tkykho c{m{t m{a| {j|{m `kjh{asag

kho igasajwa mojfegm laeaàj amaj ikyeam{ laea` lgyg gjlgvgl{* \koyg

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7/26

Fyk{l `kjwayajmaj skmgyajwa mojfegm aj|aya gl% kho laj s{tkykho |glam

skeksag ga amaj `kìaxa mktala mkckeay{aj `kj|ae* Coj|onjwa%

R{emayjagj skoyajh `{ygl laea` |an{j kja` wajh amaj `kjhnalatg

tktkygmsaaj [TSY amaj ikeabay laj iky{sana ikys{jhh{n-s{jhh{n

laea` tkeabayajjwa {j|{m `kjlata| mkt{|{saj wajh ck`kyeajh laea`

tktkygmsaaj |kyski{| lkjhaj skeae{ `kjh{eajhmabg tkeabayaj% iky|ajwa

mktala h{y{ laj ikysagjh lkjhaj yamaj-yamajjwa laea` sk|gat {bgaj laj

tktkygmsaaj tkyc{iaaj wajh lgbaeajmaj*

9*3 Tkjlkma|aj Mohjg|gvgs`k

Gs|gean mohjg|gf ky{b{m mktala am|gvg|g-am|gvg|g kj|ae sktky|g ikyfgmgy%

`kjaam{e% `kjhajaegsgs% `kìkj|{m mojskt% `kjwkeksagmaj àsaean

laj skiahagjwa* Tkjlkma|aj Mohjg|gvgs`k `ky{tamaj tkjlkma|aj wajh

`kìkyg tkyna|gaj mn{s{s mktala tyosks tk`gmgyaj gjlgvgl{ sktky|g

mkàngyaj ikyfgmgy skcaya myg|gs laj myka|gf% mkàngyaj ikeabay laj ò|gvasg

wajh lgtkeotoyg oekn aneg tsgmoeohg Hks|ae|% Tgkhk|% Vwho|smw% Hahjk%

Iy{jky laj A{s{ike* @kj{y{| `kykma laea` tyosks tkìkeabayaj% tkeabay`kìkj|{m s|y{m|{y mohja|gf laea` gjha|ajjwa* Sk|gat maeg skskoyajh

gjlgvgl{ g|{ ikeabay% lga amaj `kjw{s{j tkjhaeaàj wajh lgtkeabayg laj

`kjwg`tajjwa laea` gjha|aj* @kykma b{ha ikytkjlata| ianaxa sk|gat

àj{sga `k`t{jwag mk{tawaaj `kj|ae {j|{m `kjhkeoea% `kjw{s{j%

`kjwg`taj laj `kjhh{jamaj sk`{ea skhaea tkjhaeaàj wajh

|kysg`taj {j|{m `kìoeknmaj ga `kjhn{i{jhmag|maj tkjhaeaàj

|kyski{| lkjhaj àsaean wajh lgnalatg* Mkioeknaj gjg lgmkjaeg skiahag

ckegm amae*

@kj{y{| Hahjk .1784'% tyosks tkìkeabayaj ikyhkyam layg

tkygjhma| wajh taegjh `{lan mktala tkygjhma| wajh y{`g|* Tkìkeabayaj

tala ayas wajh |gjhhg ikyhaj|{jh mktala tkìkeabayaj tala ayas wajh

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8/26

ykjlan* Mabgaj \koyg Iy{jky `kjlata|g majam-majam lata| ikyfgmgy lkjhaj

`kjhh{jamaj ianasa gag|{ l{a tyosks tkjh{asaaj= s{tkyoylgja| laj

mo`tekmsgf* S{tkyoylgja| `ky{b{m mktala tyosks tkjhh{jaaj mojskt%

tygjsgt a|a{ n{m{` wajh skàmgj ikymkìajh skeayas lkjhaj

tkymkìajhaj mk{tawaaj `kj|ae laj tkygjhma| {`{y àjamaea

mo`tekmsgf tyosks tkjh{yajhaj tkjhh{jaaj ianasa wajh |glam ikycoyam

mojskt a|a{ tygjsgt skeayas lkjhaj tkymkìajhaj laj mk{tawaaj

`kj|ae* G`tegmasgjwa skàmgj ikymkìajhaj tk`gmgyaj skskoyajh

gjlgvgl{% skàmgj iajwam mojskt iay{ wajh amaj lgtkyoekngjwa*

Coj|onjwa% Ngswa`{llgj% `{ygl |an{j kja` |kean àngy `kj{egs kskg

tajbajh lkjhaj `k`tyam|gmmaj |kmjgm `kj{egs kskg sk|kean

`k`tkeabaygjwa skcaya ikytkygjhma| sk`kjbam layg |an{j k`ta| eahg*

9*< Tkjlkma|aj N{àjgs|gm

Aneg Tsgmoeohg laea` tkjlkma|aj gjg alaean sktky|g Aiyana`

@aseox% Yoeeo @aw% Cayes Yohkys laj Hoyloj Aeetoy|* \koyg tkjlkma|aj

N{àjgs|gm `kìkyg |{`t{aj mktala ata wajh ikyeam{ laea` lgygskoyajh gjlgvgl{ sktky|g tkyasaaj a|a{ kòsgjwa* \koyg gjg `kjwa|amaj

ianaxa gjlgvgl{ |kyloyojh iky|gjlam `keam{maj sks{a|{ mkyaja

`k`t{jwag sa|{ mkàn{aj a|a{ mktkye{aj laj iky|ajhh{jhbaxai lg a|as

skhaea |gjlammajjwa* @kj{y{| tkjlkma|aj gjg% m{asa ò|gvasg skskoyajh

gjlgvgl{ alaean mkckjlky{jhajjwa {j|{m ikymkìajh laj `kjcatag

nasya| lgyg .skef-ac|{aegra|goj'* Gjg ikyàmja sk|gat gjlgvgl{ `k`t{jwag

mktkye{aj {j|{m `kjhkìajhmaj to|kjsgjwa mk |anat àmsg`{`*

Xaea{t{j |kylata| naeajhaj% mkckjlky{jhaj sk`{eabalg alaean {j|{m

`kjcatag nasya| lgyg a|a{ `kjhkìajhmaj to|kjsg mk |anat wajh

àmsg`{`* Mojskt gjg .tkjcatagaj nasya| lgyg' skikjayjwa lgtkeotoyg

oekn Aiyana` @aseox wajh b{ha `ky{tamaj aneg tsgmoeohg n{àjgs*

>


9/26

Aiyana` @aseox .1784' `kjhk`{mamaj \koyg Ngkyaymg Mktkye{aj

@aseox lkjhaj ajlagaj ianaxa àj{sga |glam tkyjan ikyasa t{as

lkjhaj ata wajh |kean lgcatag* @kjhgm{| @aseox mknkjlam àj{sga

|kyianahg eg a `kjhgm{| mk{|aàaj gag|{ mktkye{aj asas fgsgoeohg%

mkskeaà|aj% tkjhnayhaaj laj masgn sawajh% tkjhnoy a|aj mkjlgyg

sk|ky{sjwa mktkye{aj sk`t{yja mkjlgyg* Yohkys .17;6' t{ea `kjha|amaj

ianaxa àj{sga skj|gasa iky{sana `kàna`g lgyg skjlgyg%

`k`tkjhay{ng laj `kjhaxae tkyeam{aj lgygjwa laj oyajh eagj* Yohkys

ikytkjlata| ianaxa àj{sga eangy lkjhaj mkckjlky{jhaj {j|{m

mksk`t{yjaaj wajh amaj `kàjl{jwa `kjbalg gjsaj wajh à|ajh laj

sgna|* Bkeas lg sgjg ianaxa tkjlkma|aj gjg ekign `kìkyg |{`t{aj mktala

mkàn{aj skskoyajh laj `kjkmajmaj mk{jgmaj àj{sga sky|a

mkikiasaj `kykma {j|{m `k`gegn à|eaà| ngl{t* Coj|onjwa% Mayg

`{ygl |an{j kja` wajh |glam `kjlata| masgn sawajh layg gi{ iatajwa

laj skj|gasa lgjafgmaj namjwa layg algm ikyalgmjwa wajh eagj |kean

`kjwkiaimaj ga s{ma `kjwkjlgyg laj |glam wamgj tala lgygjwa skjlgyg

skngjhha `kjbkbasmaj tkeabayajjwa*

9*; Tkjlkma|aj Igoeohg

Tkjlkma|aj Igoeohg c{ia `kjhag|maj |gjhman eam{ àj{sga lkjhaj

mkbalgaj laea` o|am laj sgs|k` sayaf àj{sga* Mabgaj-mabgaj iay{

`kj{jb{mmaj alajwa tky|aegaj yata| aj|aya am|gvg|g o|am lkjhaj |gjhman

eam{ laj tkjhaeaàj* Tkjlkma|aj gjg b{ha lgmkjaeg skiahag tkjlkma|aj

igo`klgm laj lgmkjaeg b{ha skiahag @olke Tkjwamg| .Lgskskask @olke'

a|a{ @olke Tky{ia|aj wajh ikytajlajhaj ianaxa àsaean wajh

lgnalatg alaean nasge mkcaca|aj |{i{n ialaj% mkcklkyaaj a|a{ tkjwamg|

wajh skeae{jwa `k`t{jwag mksaj mk a|as o|am*

Ykamsg kòsg sktky|g mk|am{|aj laj mkànayaj |kean lg|ojboemaj

oekn nagxaj laj àj{sga mk|gma lgeam{maj yajhsajhaj kekm|ygm lg

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10/26

maxasaj-maxasaj |ky|kj|{ lg laea` o|am sktky|g kmstkyg`kj wajh |kean

lgbaeajmaj oekn Klxayl Ng|rgh .1>73-1798' laj H{s|av Fyg|scn .1>37-

1748' |kynalat ajbgjh wajh lgàs{mmaj l{a ia|ajh laxag mk tky`{maaj

moy|gmae o|amjwa* Kmstkyg kj gjg bkeas `kj{jb{mmaj |gjlam iaeas amaj

ikyeam{ ataigea yajhsajhaj kekm|ygm lgikygmaj laj sk|ky{sjwa `kìkyg

mksaj mk a|as |gjhman eam{jwa* Oekn wajh lk`gmgaj% saean sa|{ fom{s

laea` tkjlkma|aj gjg alaean tkyajaj sgs|k` sayaf t{sa| wajh

iky|ajhh{jhbaxai `kjhaxae sk|gat tk`gmgyaj laj tkyhkyamaj àj{sga*

Coj|onjwa% Saeàn `{ygl |an{j kja`% `kjhgm{| ykmol mkeangyajjwa |kean

`kjhaea g àsaean wajh `kjwkiaimaj o|amjwa |glam `k`tkyoekng

omsghkj skc{m{tjwa mkyaja eaìa| lgeangymaj laea` tyosks |kyski{| %

|kean `kìkyg mksaj mktala mkà`t{aj `gjlajwa {j|{m `kjkygà laj

`kjhgjha| s{a|{ àme{à| sktky|g |glam à`t{ `kjhgjha| sgfgy l{a*

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11/26

3*4 @{ygl @{jl{y layg Tykstkm|gf Tsgmoeohg*

@{ygl `{jl{y `ky{tamaj `{ygl ekìa` wajh |glam `k`t{jwag

mkioeknaj {j|{m `kjhgm{|g tkeabayaj skcaya joyàe sktky|g `{ygl eagj% laj oekn

g|{ `kykma |glam `k`t{jwag mkioeknaj {j|{m àb{ skcaya joyàe lg skmoean*

Bgma lgiajlgjhmaj lkjhaj `{ygl eagj laea` egjhm{jhaj {`{y wajh saà% `kykma

`kj{jb{mmaj mkekànaj wajh jwa|a laea` tkeabayaj* @kykma igasajwa |glam

lata| `kjhgm{|g m{ygm{e{` skmoean wajh igasa laj b{ha |glam lata| `kjhgm{|g

tkeabayaj wajh lgabay oekn h{y{ wajh `kjhh{jamaj maklan laj tyoskl{y

tkjhabayaj wajh igasa* I{y| .17;4' `kjwgfa|maj `{ygl `{jl{y skiahag `{ygl

wajh tala tky|kjhanaj aea` tkyskmoeanajjwa |glam ikymkioeknaj {j|{m

`kjhgm{|g tkeabayaj laea` mkeas sa|{ tkygjhma| ekign ykjlan laygtala mkeas wajh

sks{ag lkjhaj {`{yjwa* @kjhgm{| Mgym .1789'% mk`{jl{yaj tala {`{`jwa

`ky{tamaj eaike wajh lgikygmaj mktala mks `{ygl wajh tkjcatagaj

amalk`gmjwa ba{n ekign ykjlan laygtala mkioeknaj sk`{ea balgjwa*

Ata b{a gj|kytyk|asg wajh lgh{jamaj {j|{m `kj{jb{mmaj gs|gean

mk`{jl{yaj% tkymaya wajh `kjcgygmajjwa alaean mk|ajl{saj tkjlglgmaj*

Mk`{jl{yaj `{jhmgj ikyikj|{m mn{s{s a|a{ {`{`* Mk`{jl{yaj {`{` talalasayjwa alaean amgia| mkekànaj gj|kekm a|a{ ekìa` .o|am ekìat'% xaea{

iahagàjat{j ga |glam sk`ks|gjwa ikjay mkyaja yaàg b{ha `{ygl wajh `{jl{y

|k|atg |glam ekìa * Mk`{jl{yaj `kykma `{jhmgj i{maj lgskiaimaj

mkykjca|aj gj|kekm |a|atg mkalaaj tkyskmg|ayajjwa a|a{ fam|oy-fam|oy kms|ygjsgm

sktky|g maklan `kjhabay wajh |glam ikymksaj% sgmat `kj|ae laj kòsg wajh

|glam sks{ag |kynalat h{y{ laj tkeabayaj% tkjwamg| laj mkalaaaj fgrgmae wajh

ekàn* Xaea{t{j mk`{jl{yaj tala asasjwa `kj{jb{mmaj sa|{ mkalaaj

gj|kekm|{ae |k|atg tala namgma|jwa ga `kj{jb{mmaj sa|{ cgyg a|a{ sgfa| tsgmoeohg

wajh |gì{e layg tkysojaeg|g nasge hai{jhaj sgfa| wajh lgxaygsg laj tkjhay{n

tkyskmg|ayaj laea` tyosks tkymkìajhaj wajh amngyjwa `k`tkjhay{ng

tkysojaeg|g gjlgvgl{*

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12/26

Laea` tkj{egsaj gjg mabgaj lgeam{maj tala egà oyajh `{ygl |an{j kja`

laea` ski{an skmoean wajh `k`t{jwag àsaean mk`{jl{yaj wajh mk|aya

laea` tkeabayaj* @{ygl-`{ygl |kyski{| gaean Hnaraeg% R{emayjagj% Ngswa`{llgj%

Mayg` laj Saeàn wajh |kean lgjwa|amaj laea` tkjkyajhaj tkjlkma|aj

tsgmoeohg lg a|as* @{ygl-`{ygl gjg lgtgegn mkyaja `k`t{jwag ikyiahag àsaean

|kyàs{mean mkckeay{aj tkysojaeg|g% ngeajh mkwamgjaj lgyg% eaìa| `kjh{asag

s{a|{ mkàngyaj% hahae `kjhgm{|g tkjhabayaj h{y{% àsaean mk`{y{jhaj laea`

igegm layban laj skiahagjwa wajh `kjwkiaimaj ikyeam{jwa mk`{jl{yaj laea`

tkeabayaj `kykma* Mk`{jl{yaj gjg amaj lgm{tas laj lgbkeasmaj `keae{g

tkjlkma|aj aneg-aneg tsgmoeohg*

3*1 Tkjlkma|aj Iknavgoygs`k

@keae{g tykstkm|gf aegyaj gjg% tkyajaj tkyskmg|ayaj |kynalat

mk`{jl{yaj `{ygl alaean saà% saà ala lg iajlay a|a{ lg e{ay iajlay*

\kylata| `{ygl ngl{tjwa ikyala laea` tkyskmg|ayaj wajh igasa lkjhaj

tkjhngjaaj% ck`{n `kjck`{n laj `kykjlan-ykjlanmaj oyajh eagj*

Xaea{t{j sgmat gjg lgajhhat igasa lg sksk|kjhan |k`ta| % ianmaj igasaiahg sksk|kjhan oyajh lkxasa lg|k`ta| |kyski{|% |k|atg ga `k`t{jwag

mksaj wajh `ky{hgmaj ataigea `{ygl-`{ygl gjg ngeajh mkwamgjaj lgyg laj

`kyasa àe{ {j|{m ikyha{e laj ikeabay ikysaà yamaj-yamaj `kykma

wajh eagj*

\kylata| b{ha `{ygl wajh ikyha{e lkjhaj m{`t{eaj wajh anegjwa

s{ma `keam{maj tkyi{a|aj jamae= |glam ala s{a|{ mkiagmmaj wajh

lgnayatmaj laygtala `kykma* M{`t{eaj sktky|g gjgean wajh

iky|ajhh{jhbaxai `kjwkiaimaj igeajhaj lkegjm{kjs* Mksajjwa `{ygl-

`{ygl gjg igasajwa iky|gjhmaneam{ `kjwkekxkjh ba{n laygtala |gjhman

eam{ wajh lg|kygà oekn sosgae laj tygjsgt wajh lg|kygà oekn àswayama|

|kyàs{m |aiga| yabgj ikeabay*

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13/26

Gi{ iata `{ygl gjg igasajwa |glam `kìkyg tkyna|gaj laj

`kjwklgamaj tkyskmg|ayaj wajh mojl{sgf mktala tkeabayaj ajam-ajam

`kykma* @{ygl-`{ygl wajh `k`t{jwag gi{ iata sktky|g gjg i{maj sanaba

`kjhaea g mk`{jl{yaj amalk`gm ianmaj sksk|kjhanjwa mkìaeg

`kjbalg i{|a n{y{f* @{ygl-`{ygl wajh `k`t{jwag mkckjlky{jhaj {j|{m

ikysgmat yksksgf% |kyeae{ ahyksgf% skj|gasa ig iajh% hk`{y{n% |gala

mkwamgjaj lgyg igasajwa ba{n |ky|gjhhae laea` tkjcatagaj amalk`gm*

\ajla laj |gjhman eam{ ikyàsaean gjg |gì{e amgia| tkjbahaaj gi{ iata

wajh saean% wajh lgjwa|amaj `keae{g tkjwgsgnaj `kykma% |kyeae{

`kjh{asag a|a{ |kyeae{ `kàjbamaj a|a{ ataigea n{i{jhaj aj|aya gi{

iata ba{n |glam `k`{asmaj*

3*9 Tkjlkma|aj Tsgmoajaeg|gm

Mkalaaj kòsg laj òyae laea` tkyskmg|ayaj |k`ta| |gjhhae `{ygl

b{ha ioekn `k`tkjhay{ngjwa |kynalat mkàb{aj tkjlglgmajjwa* Bgma

mkngl{taj naygaj lg y{àn lgcgygmaj oekn kòsg mkigìajhaj a|a{

mk|am{|aj% tkyiaeanaj wajh mkyat ikyeam{% hayajh laj lo`gjaj a|a{t{j|kyeae{ `kjhojhmojh a|a{ hajhh{aj jk{yo|gm% `kykma amaj `kìksay

laea` s{asaja kòsg laj sosgae wajh |glam lata| `kjhkìajhmaj m{aeg|g

mkikiasaj laj mkwamgjaj lgyg wajh tkj|gjh {j|{m `kjcatag mkàb{aj

laea` tkyskmoeanajjwa*

@{ygl-`{ygl wajh |kyeae{ lg ajbamaj layg eangy skngjhha |glam

tkyjan ikytke{ajh {j|{m iky{sana skjlgyg amaj `kjhkìajhmaj sgmat

ikyhaj|{jh mktala oyajh eagj laj |glam `k`t{jwag gjgsga|gf {j|{m

`kàb{maj lgyg* @kykma wajh |kean lgmkjamaj lgsgtegj wajh |kyeae{ mk|a|

laj `kjbaeajg mkngl{taj lkjhaj `kjhgm{| ayanaj `{jhmgj mkgjhgjaj

{j|{m iky{sana skjlgyg* Amgia|jwa% `{ygl-`{ygl wajh la|ajh layg mke{ayha

sktky|g gjg `k`t{jwag tkymkìajhaj kho wajh ekàn lg àja `kykma

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14/26

|glam `k`t{jwag ò|gf wajh ekign |gjhhg {j|{m ikmkyba mkyas

`kjwkiaimaj `kykma skhkya iky{ian `kjbalg àeas laj ekìat* Gjg

lgskàyammaj eahg bgma s{asaja laea` mke{ayha lgyosammaj oekn sgmat gi{

iata wajh saìge ekxa% |glam tkl{eg% |glam `kjkta|g xam|{ laj

`kjhkeammaj |ajhh{jhbaxai* Sgmat sktky|g gjg amaj `kjhhaeammaj `{ygl

|kyski{| `kjbalg |glam ikylgsgtegj% |glam |an{ `kjh{y{s lgyg% |glam

`k`t{jwag tkya|{yaj% sajhh{t `kjgt{ laj |glam b{b{y laea` mkyba-mkyba

skmoean skngjhha `kjhamgia|maj mk`{jl{yaj amalk`gm* Layg mk|kyajhaj

lg a|as bkeas `kj{jb{mmaj tkymag|aj lkjhaj |koyg aneg tsgmoajaeg|gm wajh

`kjkmajmaj mktkj|gjhaj raàj axae gjlgvgl{ laj `k`tkycawag

ianaxa tkygs|gxa àsa mkcge `k`t{jwag mksaj laea` tkymkìajhaj

gjlgvgl{*

3*3 Tkjlkma|aj Mohjg|gvgs`k

@{ygl-`{ygl wajh `{jl{y igasajwa |glam `k`tkyoekng

tkymkìajhaj `kj|ae skiahagàja skta|{|jwa lgskiaimaj tkyskmg|ayaj

wajh |glam `kjhaeammaj `kykma `keae{g tyosks-tyosks tkmkìajhajtk`gmgyaj sktky|gàja tkjkmajaj wajh lgikygmaj laea` aegyaj

mohjg|gvgs`k* @kj{y{| Tgahk| tkymkìajhaj mohjg|gf majam-majam amaj

`keae{g sa|{ sgyg {y{|aj wajh ikytkygjhma|-tkygjhma| gag|{ tkygjhma| lkyga

ò|oy .4-9 |an{j'% tkygjhma| tyaotkyasg .9-8 |an{j'% tkygjhma| otkyasg

mojmyg| .8-11 |an{j' laj tkygjhma| otkyasg foyàe .11 |an{j mk a|as'* Gi{

iata `{ygl `{jl{y b{ha skygjhmaeg bayajh `kìkyg tke{ajh ajam `kykma

`kì{a| mkt{|{saj laj |glam `kjlklanmaj `kykma lkjhaj sg|{asg wajh

`kìaj|{ tkymkìajhaj tk`gmgyaj* Bgma `{ygl-`{ygl gjg |glam lata|

ikyfgmgy laj `kj|afsgy sks{a|{ `kjhgm{| tkygjhma| {`{y wajh skta|{|jwa

`kykma ioeknean lgma|amaj `{ygl `{jl{y* Scnojjke .17


15/26

`kjwks{agmaj lgyg layg skhg sosgae laj kòsg* Mkekìataj gjg |kj|{ean

`kjhnalmaj `{ygl gjg `k`tkyoekng majl{jhaj ge`{ tkjhk|an{aj laj

tkjcatagaj laea` tkeabayaj*

3*< Tkjlkma|aj N{àjgs|gm

Lgsa`tgjh fam|oy-fam|oy tkyskmg|ayaj% lglgmaj laea` mke{ayha%

n{i{jhaj sosgae laj mkckylasaj wajh ykjlan sktky|g wajh |kean

lgigjcajhmaj lg a|as% fam|oy mk`gsmgjaj b{ha `kjbalg fam|oy laea`

mk`{jl{yaj amalk`gm* Saean sa|{ astkm mk`gsmgjaj alaean y{àn wajh

sksam |ky{|aà ataigea igeajhaj aneg laea` mke{ayha yaàg laj s{ìky

mkxajhaj a|a{ s{ìky tkyikeajbaaj |kynal* Laea` mke{ayha iksay wajh

mk{tawaajjwa |kynal% |ayaf mkngl{taj igasajwa ykjlan laj |glam

|kylata| c{m{t àmajaj wajh ikymnasga| wajh |glam iah{s {j|{m

tkymkìajhaj `gjla* Y{àn wajh sksam `kjhamgia|maj sa|{ eahg

mkm{yajhaj a|a{ tkjlkyg|aaj wajh skyg{s* \kylata| m{yajhjwa

tkyn{i{jhaj aj|aya gi{ iata laj ajam-ajam wajh `kjwkiaimaj gi{

iata m{yajh `kìkygmaj haeamaj laj yajhsajhaj sky|a masgn sawajhmktala ajam-ajam `kykma* Mkalaaj gjg b{ha amaj `kjg i{emaj eahg

àsaean% `gsaejwa àsaean hajhh{aj àsa |gl{y% ykna| laj mkek|gnaj

wajh amaj `kìkyg mksaj mktala mksgna|aj |{i{n ialaj sk|ky{sjwa

tkjcatagaj amalk`gm `kykma* Bkeas lg sgjg mktkye{aj asas àj{sga layg

wajh ykjlan skngjhhaean mktkye{aj tkygjhma| |ky|gjhhg sktky|g wajh

|kylata| laea` Mktkye{aj Nkyaymg @aseox amaj `kìkygmaj mksaj

|kynalat tkymkìajhaj gjlgvgl{ bgma |glam sk`t{yja a|a{ hahae lgtkj{ng*

1;


16/26

3*; Tkjlkma|aj Igoeohg

Tkymkìajhaj fgrgmae wajh s{ijoyàe alaean saean sa|{ laygtala

tkjwkiai mk`{jl{yaj wajh tkj|gjh* Sksk|kjhan `{ygl wajh `{jl{y

lgeangymaj lkjhaj `kxaygsg cgyg-cgyg |ky|kj|{ wajh ioekn `kjbalg tkjwkiai

mk`{jl{yaj% aj|ayajwa mkm{yajhaj |kjaha gag|{ ekàn layg skhg

loyojhaj laj mkaraàj {j|{m ikymkìajh wajh `kjwkiaimaj `kykma

ikymkìajh tala malay wajh tkyeanaj .Snajmky% 17;8'* I{y| .17;3' t{ea

`kjlata|g ianaxa 87+ laygtala `{ygl- {ygl wajh `{jl{y laea`

tkeabayaj `kjhaea`g skbkjgs mkykjca|aj tkymkìajhaj a|a{ mkykjca|aj

fksgoeohg* Mk`{jl{yaj b{ha `{jhmgj lgskiaimaj mkykjca|aj `kj|ae*

Mkykjca|aj `kj|ae gjg `{jhmgj lgamgia|maj oekn iajwam skiai aj|ayajwa=

hkjk|gm mkalaaj skàsa laea` majl{jhaj gi{% mkalaaj skàsa

lgeangymaj% mkalaaj skektas lgeangymaj laj skiai-skiai i{lawa* Mk|khoyg

{`{` gjg `kegt{|g skiai-skiai mn{s{s sktky|g tkjwamg| wajh lgaea`g oekn

gi{ skàsa `kjhajl{jh .tnkjwemk|oj{yga laj y{ikeea' % |glam lata|

c{m{t omsghkj skàsa lgeangymaj% mkyosamaj o|am% lalan laj mkalaaj

kmojo`g mke{ayha* Hkbaea gjg igasajwa amaj `kìkyg mksaj |kynalat

tkymkìajhaj `kj|ae gjlgvgl{*

Skeagj laygtala fam|oy hajh{aj `kj|ae wajh lgbkeasmaj lg a|as%

`{ygl-`{ygl `{jl{y b{ha lgtkjhay{ng oekn mkcaca|aj fgrgmae laj tkjwamg|

sktky|g mkcaca|aj tkjhegna|aj% tkjlkjhayaj% mkmglaeaj% laj b{ha tkjwamg|

sktky|g tkjwamg| ngl{jh laj mkyojhmojh% iyojhmo|gs% tkjwamg| |ojsge a|a{

alkjogls% lkà` tajas% tkjhnalaàj laj tkjwamg| mkekjbay wajh eagj*

@kj{y{| I{y| .17;3 laj Mgym .1789' tkjwamg| gjg a|a{ tkjwamg|-tkjwamg|

eagj wajh lgnalatg amaj `kjhajhh{ tyosks tkìkeabayaj `{ygl-`{ygl gjg

saà ala lg y{àn a|a{ lg skmoean ngjhha `kjwkiaimaj tkjcatagaj

amalk`gmjwa ekign ykjlan laygtala |anat joyàe laea` à|atkeabayaj

|ky|kj|{ a|a{ `kjwkiaimaj mk`{jl{yaj skcaya {`{`* Mkcaca|aj fgrgmae

tala sksk|kjhan `{ygl `{jl{y ikyky|g sksk|kjhan tajcagjlkyajwa |glam

16


17/26

ikyf{jhsg lkjhaj iagm wajh amaj `kjwkiaimaj lgsmyg`gjasg wajh saean

a|a{ caca|% tky|g`iajhaj wajh saean laj ek`an tk`gmgyaj*

18


18/26


19/26

tkjh{a|m{asa {jlajh-{jlajh lkjhaj `kx{b{lmaj tkyskmg|ayaj

tk`ikeabayaj wajh mojl{sgf*


20/26

tkjhk|an{aj `{ygl layg mojmyg| laj ajaeohg mktala àsaean wajh ekign

ais|yam* Sk|gat |ab{m tkeabayaj tkye{ lgs{s{j laj lgtky|gjhma|maj* Gjg

`kìoeknmaj tkjwa`tagaj |ab{m tkeabayaj laygtala tkygjhma| wajh

skjajh mktala tkygjhma| wajh s{san* Gsg laj am|gvg|g-am|gvg|g tkeabayaj

wajh lgsklgamaj tkye{ skeayas lkjhaj tkymkìajhaj mohjg|gf `{ygl-`{ygl

`{jl{y* Bgma |glam% ianaj a|a{ am|gvg|g tkeabayaj |kyski{| `{jhmgj amaj

`kìosajmaj `kykma a|a{ lglata|g |kyeae{ s{may iahg `kykma* Am|gvg|g

tkeabayaj gjg sknay{sjwa `kjhajl{jhg |{has-|{has mojmyg| a|a{ |otgm wajh

x{b{l layg gja| sk`{eabalg {ygl-`{ygl |kyski{| laj mkngl{taj sknaygaj

sktky|g àmajaj mg|a% mksgna|aj mg|a% bgyaj |k|ajhha mg|a laj

skiahagjwa* Tkjhh{jaaj aea| tajlajh lkjhay sktky|g mal haìay% fgek`%

cay|a laj òlke `kjoeojh `kykma `kìgja |ai{jh àme{à| wajh

ikyh{ja wajh àmjajwa bkeas iahg `kykma* Saean sa|{ tygjsgt maklan

`kjhabay wajh iagm iahg `{ygl `{jl{y alaean mkwamgjaj lgyg `kykma

tkye{ lgx{b{lmaj tkyeanaj-eanaj `keae{g |aiga| mkbawaaj* H{y{ tkye{

`kìgìgjh `kykma lkjhaj saiay laj tkyeanaj-eanaj% `kjkj|{maj

wajh sk|gat eajhman ikjay-ikjay |kean lgm{asag skike{`

`k`tkymkjaemaj wajh eagj lkjhaj ea|gnaj wajh ekign mkyat eahg*


21/26

`k`tkeabaygjwa* Gjg `k`kye{maj tkjhabayaj gjlgvgl{ laea` m{`t{eaj

mkcge* Tkeabayaj tkye{ lgs{s{j ahay `{ygl-`{ygl |kyski{| `k`tkeabayg

sks{a|{ wajh ikyàmja* Ataigea gjg ikyeam{% `{ygl amaj `k`t{jwag

nasya| {j|{m ikeabay% ikymkìajh% `kjkyoma laj `kjcgt|a* Tkìkeabayaj

n{`gjgs|gm `kjg|gmikya|maj tkymkìajhaj skcaya ikias laj iky|{b{aj

{j|{m `kìaj|{ `kykma `kjajhajg |kmajaj mke{ayha laj àswayama|*

Nasge sosgae laj kòsg ekign lgtkj|gjhmaj laygtala nasge amalk`gm * Aneg-

aneg tkìkeabayaj n{àjgs|gm ikytkjlata| ianaxa tala amngyjwa%

tkjcatagaj amalk`gm `{ygl amaj `kjbalg ekign iagm ikyiajlgjh lkjhaj

sgs|k` tkìkeabayaj |yalgsgojae* Gjg ikyeam{ mkyaja laea` tkjhabayaj

n{àjgs|gm% tkìkeabayaj ayan mkjlgyg aà| lg|kmajmaj* Caya gjg

`kjwkiaimaj tkìkeabayaj `kjbalg aà| ikyàmja laj iky{tawa

`kjhhkìgyamaj `{ygl*

>4-1761'% iama wajh lgmag|maj lkjhaj kjlohkj `ky{tamaj fam|oy

tkj|gjh tkymkìajhaj majam-majam wajh `kìkj|{m |gjhman eam{* Oekn

wajh lk`gmagaj% tk`kygmsaaj lom|oy tky{ia|aj mn{s{s |kynalat `{ygl-

`{ygl `{jl{y tkye{ lgikygmaj* Mk`{lanaj ta|{| lgsklgamaj {j|{m

`k`{egnmaj tkjwamg| a|a{ mkcaca|aj wajh lglata|g `keae{g tk`kygmsaaj

g|{* Iaj|{aj cky gj à|a ioekn lgikygmaj mktala `{ygl `{jl{y wajh

lgskiaimaj oekn àsaean tkjhegna|aj ikhg|{ b{ha lkjhaj aea| iaj|{aj

tkjlkjhayaj {j|{m `kykma wajh `kjhaea`g àsaean tkjlkjhayaj*

Ma{jskegjh mktala gi{ iata nay{s lgikygmaj mkyaja ala lgaj|aya `kykma

wajh ikyasa àe{ a|a{ hahae `kjhksaj mkcaca|aj `kj|ae wajh lgnalatg

oekn ajam `kykma wajh `{jl{y*

91


22/26

Mabgskeglgm laea` `kjhkjaetas|g fam|oy igoeohg skiahag tkjwkiai

mkckeay{aj òol wajh `kjwkiaimaj mk`{jl{yaj alaean tksa|

lgbaeajmaj* Iglajh tkjwkeglgmaj |kyski{| alaean |kyàs{m mabgaj hkjk|gm

laea` iglajh jk{ygigomg`ga* Fom{s tkjlkma|aj igo`klgm tala {jgtoeay

lktykssgoj mkikeamajhaj gjg alaean tala ngto|ksgs ca|kcnoea`gjk= gag|{

|koyg wajh `kjwayajmaj ianaxa mk`{y{jhaj `{ygl `{jl{y alaean nasge

m{yajhjwa am|gvg|g jk{yo|yajs`g||kys-joyktgjktnygjk laj skyo|ojgj*

Yaxa|aj igoeohg àsaean gjg alaean lkjhaj `kjgjhma|maj am|gvg|g

jk{yo|yajs`g||kys |kyski{|* Ikikyata s|ya|khg |kean `kj{jb{mmaj

mkbawaaj |kyàs{m tkjhh{jaaj lalan .|ycwegcs% @AO gjngig|oys% laj

TYORAC'% kekc|yocojv{esgvk snocm |nkyatwlaj ea|gnaj akyoigm*

99


23/26

;*4 Mksg`t{eaj

Aneg-aneg tsgmoeohg |kean `kjhh{jamaj ikikyata tkjlkma|aj iahg

`kjhn{yagmaj mojskt-mojskt a|a{ glka `kykma ikymag|aj lkjhaj |gjhman eam{

àj{sga* Aj|aya tkjlkma|aj wajh lgh{jamaj alaean tkjlkma|aj iknavgoygs`k%

tkjlkma|aj tsgmoajaeg|gm% tkjlkma|aj mohjg|gvgs`k% tkjlkma|aj n{àjgs|gm laj

tkjlkma|aj igoeohg* Tkjlkma|aj-tkjlkma|aj gjg `k`t{jwag mkm{a|aj |kyskjlgyg

laj malajhmaea ikymksgjaì{jhaj aj|aya sa|{ tkjlkma|aj lkjhaj tkjlkma|aj

wajh eagj*

Tkjlkma|aj Iknavgoygs`k `kjkmajmaj tkjhay{n tkyskmg|ayaj |kynalat

tkymkìajhaj |gjhman eam{ gjlgvgl{ wajh `kjhh{jamaj kek`kj hajbayaj laj

tkeargàj laea` tkjlkma|ajjwa* Tk`gmgyaj wajh |glam sklay t{ea lgbkeasmaj

laea` |koyg tsgmoajaeg|gm wajh `kìanasmaj mkskgìajhaj gl% kho laj

s{tkykho wajh iajwam `kjkmajmaj tkye{jwa mkskgìajhaj `kj|ae laj kòsg

laea` tkjlkma|aj wajh lgh{jamajjwa laea` tkymkìajhaj |gjhman eam{

gjlgvgl{* Lgsa`tgjh mksgìajhaj kòsg wajh eangy layg mkwamgjaj lgyg% mooylgjasg

tyosks tk`gmgyaj gjlgvgl{ b{ha tkye{ lgikyg tkyna|gaj laea` tkjlkma|aj

mohjg|gvgs`k* Tkjlkma|aj gjg `kjwayajmaj ahay lgeam{maj tk`kygjhma|aj laea``kìgja |anat tk`gmgyaj gjlgvgl{ sks{ag lkjhaj tkymkìajhajjwa* Mktkye{aj-

mktkye{aj asas laea` lgyg gjlgvgl{ tkye{ lgtkj{ng `kjhgm{| tkjlkma|aj

n{àjgs|gm* Yasa masgn sawajh laj noyà| `kjhnoyà|g laea` gj|kyamsg gjlgvgl{

amaj `k`tkjhay{ng tkymkìajhaj |gjhman eam{jwa* Fam|oy-fam|oy igoeohg sktky|g

mkcaca|aj `kj|ae laj fgrgmae sk|ky{sjwa |anat mksgna|aj |{i{n skskoyajh

gjlgvgl{ b{ha ioekn `k`tkjhay{ng |gjhman eam{jwa* Laea` nae gjg% tkjlkma|aj

igoeohg ioekn lgh{jamaj {j|{m `kjha|asgjwa wajh aj|aya eagj `kjg|gmikya|maj

soae tkàmajaj% tkjhaìgeaj {ia|-{ia|aj laj |kyatg*

Tkjlkma|aj-tkjlkma|aj tsgmoeohg wajh lgigjcajhmaj ioekn lgsktal{ laj

lgh{jamaj laea` `kìaj|{ `{ygl-`{ygl `{jl{y wajh lgbalgmaj gmoj laea`

tkj{egsaj gjg* @{ygl-`{ygl `{jl{y `k`t{jwag àsaean wajh mn{s{s |k|atg

93


24/26

`k`t{jwag mktkye{aj asas wajh saà sktky|g `{ygl-`{ygl wajh eagj*

Mk`{jl{yaj `kj|ae alaean nasge layg ikyiahag fam|oy= hkjk|gm% mkcaca|aj fgrgmae%

tkymaya a|a{ tkjwamg| wajh lgaea g oekn gi{ skàsa laea` majl{jhaj

mkckylasaj wajh ykjlan% tkjwamg| laj mkalaaj sosgo kmojo`g laj tkyskmg|ayaj

lg àja ga lgiksaymaj* Alaean tkj|gjh àsaean gjg lgmkjaetas|g axae s{tawa

iaj|{aj laj igìgjhaj lata| lgikygmaj skhkya* Mkybasaà aj|aya h{y{ laj gi{

iata alaean tkye{ laea` `kìgìgjh `{ygl-`{ygl `{jl{y* \{has {|aà h{y{

laea` nae gjg alaean `kjhmooylgjasgmaj `{ygl- {ygl `{jl{y laea`

`kjhkjaetas|g% `kìkyg tkjhabayaj laj tkyna|gaj sk|ky{sjwa `kjhaìge

eajhman-eajhman tkye{ `kjhh{jamaj tkjlkma|aj-tkjlkma|aj wajh lgsayajmaj

oekn aneg-aneg tsgmoeohg*

9


25/26

Y{b{maj

A|aj Eojh .17>4'* Tsgmoeohg Tkjlglgmaj* M{aea E{`t{y= Lkxaj Ianasa laj

T{s|ama*

I{y|% C* .17;4'* \nk Iacmxayl Cngel* Eojloj = [jgvkysg|g of Eojloj Tykss*

I{y|% C* .17;3'* \nk Ca{sks ajl \yka|`kj| of Iacmxayljkss* Eojloj= [jgvkysg|g

of Eojloj Tykss*

K* \noyjlgmk*Cojjkc|gojgs` A|as |aegaj n||t2//|gt*tswcnoeohw*oyh/|noyj*n|è 1

Ohos 944;*

Klxayl E* \noyjlgmk .1714'% \nk Coj|ygi{|goj Of Tswcnoeohw \o Kl{ca|goj%

Coe{ìga [jgvkysg|w* A|as |aegaj n||t2//tswcnceassgcs*woym{*ca/\noyjlgmk/

kl{ca|goj*n|` 1 Ohos 944;*

Hkoyhk Iokykk C*\nk Ngs|oyw of Tswcnoeohw% Tkjjswevajga= Sngttkjsi{yh

[jgvkysg|w* A|as |aegaj n||t2//xxx*sngt*kl{/zchiokykk/ngs|oywoftswcn*n|è

1 Ohos 944;*

Maày{lgj Nb* N{sgj .1773'* Tklahohg 3* Tkjhh{jaaj Tsgmoeohg laea` Igegm

Layban* Tk|aegjh Bawa* Eojhàj @aeawsga*

Mnalgban Yonajg% @anajg Yaraeg% Yaèan Baj|aj .944;'* Tsgmoeohg Tkjlglgmaj*

M{aea E{`t{y= [JG\K@ Slj* Inl*Mgym% S* .1789'* Kl{ca|gjh K~ckt|gojae Cngelykj* Ios|oj = No{hn|oj @gffegj*

@anòol Jaray @ona`kl* .1779'* Tkjhnaj|ay Tsgmoeohg* M{aea E{`t{y=

Lkxaj Ianasa laj T{s|ama*

@klegjk Te{s* \y{s|kl Nket Gjfoyà|goj Foy Wo{ [*S* Ja|gojae Eagiyayw of

@klgcgjk A|as |aegaj n||t2//xxx*je`*jgn*hov/`klegjkte{s/tykja|aecayk*

n|è 1 Ohos 944;*

Yaèan Baj|aj laj @anajg Yaraeg .9441'* Tsgmoeohg Tkjlglgmaj Moj|k`toyayg%

M{aea E{`t{y% @c Hyax Ngee*

Scnojkee% F*B .17


26/26

Sg|g Naxa @{jbg% @aay{f Yklr{aj .1773'* Tkjhnaj|ay Tsgmoeohg* M{aea E{`t{y=

Tkjkyig| Fabay Iam|g Slj* Inl*

S{yalg Saeg` .1776'% Ig igjhaj laj Ma{jskegjh* M{aea E{`t{y= [|{saj

T{iegca|gojs & Lgs|y{i{|oys Slj* Inl*

96

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