mas113 introduction to probability and statistics · dr jonathan jordan school of mathematics and...
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![Page 1: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
MAS113 Introduction to Probability and
Statistics
Dr Jonathan Jordan
School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Sheffield
2019–20
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 2: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Standard continuous distributions
We consider three standard probability distributions forcontinuous random variables: the exponential distribution, theuniform distribution, and the normal distribution.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 3: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
The exponential distribution
The exponential distribution is used to represent a ‘time to anevent’. Examples of ‘experiments’ that we might describeusing a exponential random variable are
a patient with heart disease is given a drug, and weobserve the time until the patient’s next heart attack;
a new car is bought and we observe how many miles thecar is driven before it has its first breakdown.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 4: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
The exponential distribution
The exponential distribution is used to represent a ‘time to anevent’. Examples of ‘experiments’ that we might describeusing a exponential random variable are
a patient with heart disease is given a drug, and weobserve the time until the patient’s next heart attack;
a new car is bought and we observe how many miles thecar is driven before it has its first breakdown.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 5: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
The exponential distribution
The exponential distribution is used to represent a ‘time to anevent’. Examples of ‘experiments’ that we might describeusing a exponential random variable are
a patient with heart disease is given a drug, and weobserve the time until the patient’s next heart attack;
a new car is bought and we observe how many miles thecar is driven before it has its first breakdown.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 6: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Definition
Definition
If a random variable X has an exponential distribution, withrate parameter λ, then its probability density function is givenby
fX (x) = λe−λx ,
for x ≥ 0, and 0 otherwise.
We writeX ∼ Exp(λ),
to mean “X has an exponential distribution with rateparameter λ”.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Definition
Definition
If a random variable X has an exponential distribution, withrate parameter λ, then its probability density function is givenby
fX (x) = λe−λx ,
for x ≥ 0, and 0 otherwise.We write
X ∼ Exp(λ),
to mean “X has an exponential distribution with rateparameter λ”.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 8: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
C.d.f.
Theorem
Cumulative distribution function of an exponential randomvariableIf X ∼ Exp(λ), then for x > 0
FX (x) = 1− e−λx .
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Valid p.d.f.
We can see that limx→∞ F (X )(x) = 1 (so that “FX (∞) = 1”).
So, as required of a p.d.f.,∫ ∞−∞
fX (x)dx =
∫ ∞0
λe−λxdx = 1.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Valid p.d.f.
We can see that limx→∞ F (X )(x) = 1 (so that “FX (∞) = 1”).
So, as required of a p.d.f.,∫ ∞−∞
fX (x)dx =
∫ ∞0
λe−λxdx = 1.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 11: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Mean and variance
Theorem
(Expectation and variance of an exponential random variable)If X ∼ Exp(λ), then
E (X ) =1
λ,
Var(X ) =1
λ2.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 12: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Mean and variance
Theorem
(Expectation and variance of an exponential random variable)If X ∼ Exp(λ), then
E (X ) =1
λ,
Var(X ) =1
λ2.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 13: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Lack of memory
Theorem
(The ‘lack of memory’ property of an exponential randomvariable)If X ∼ Exp(λ), then
P(X > x + a|X > a) = P(X > x).
Exponential random variables have the property that they‘forget’ how ‘old’ they are.
If the lifetime of some object has an exponential distribution,and the object survives from time 0 to time a, it will ‘carry on’as if it was starting at time 0.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Lack of memory
Theorem
(The ‘lack of memory’ property of an exponential randomvariable)If X ∼ Exp(λ), then
P(X > x + a|X > a) = P(X > x).
Exponential random variables have the property that they‘forget’ how ‘old’ they are.
If the lifetime of some object has an exponential distribution,and the object survives from time 0 to time a, it will ‘carry on’as if it was starting at time 0.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 15: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Lack of memory
Theorem
(The ‘lack of memory’ property of an exponential randomvariable)If X ∼ Exp(λ), then
P(X > x + a|X > a) = P(X > x).
Exponential random variables have the property that they‘forget’ how ‘old’ they are.
If the lifetime of some object has an exponential distribution,and the object survives from time 0 to time a, it will ‘carry on’as if it was starting at time 0.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 16: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Example
Example
A computer is left running continuously until it first develops afault.
The time until the fault, X , is to be modelled with anexponential distribution.The expected time until the first fault is 100 days.
1 If X ∼ Exp(λ), determine the value of λ. What is thestandard deviation of X?
2 What is the probability that is the computer develops afault within the first 100 days?
3 If the computer is still working after 100 days, what is theprobability that it will still be working after 150 days?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 17: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Example
Example
A computer is left running continuously until it first develops afault.The time until the fault, X , is to be modelled with anexponential distribution.
The expected time until the first fault is 100 days.
1 If X ∼ Exp(λ), determine the value of λ. What is thestandard deviation of X?
2 What is the probability that is the computer develops afault within the first 100 days?
3 If the computer is still working after 100 days, what is theprobability that it will still be working after 150 days?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 18: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Example
Example
A computer is left running continuously until it first develops afault.The time until the fault, X , is to be modelled with anexponential distribution.The expected time until the first fault is 100 days.
1 If X ∼ Exp(λ), determine the value of λ. What is thestandard deviation of X?
2 What is the probability that is the computer develops afault within the first 100 days?
3 If the computer is still working after 100 days, what is theprobability that it will still be working after 150 days?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 19: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Example
Example
A computer is left running continuously until it first develops afault.The time until the fault, X , is to be modelled with anexponential distribution.The expected time until the first fault is 100 days.
1 If X ∼ Exp(λ), determine the value of λ. What is thestandard deviation of X?
2 What is the probability that is the computer develops afault within the first 100 days?
3 If the computer is still working after 100 days, what is theprobability that it will still be working after 150 days?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 20: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Example
Example
A computer is left running continuously until it first develops afault.The time until the fault, X , is to be modelled with anexponential distribution.The expected time until the first fault is 100 days.
1 If X ∼ Exp(λ), determine the value of λ. What is thestandard deviation of X?
2 What is the probability that is the computer develops afault within the first 100 days?
3 If the computer is still working after 100 days, what is theprobability that it will still be working after 150 days?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 21: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Example
Example
A computer is left running continuously until it first develops afault.The time until the fault, X , is to be modelled with anexponential distribution.The expected time until the first fault is 100 days.
1 If X ∼ Exp(λ), determine the value of λ. What is thestandard deviation of X?
2 What is the probability that is the computer develops afault within the first 100 days?
3 If the computer is still working after 100 days, what is theprobability that it will still be working after 150 days?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 22: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Earthquakes
Example
Suppose the number of earthquakes Nt in an interval [0, t] hasa Poisson(φt) distribution, for any value of t.
Let T be the time until the first earthquake.What is the cumulative distribution function of T?What is the distribution of T?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 23: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Earthquakes
Example
Suppose the number of earthquakes Nt in an interval [0, t] hasa Poisson(φt) distribution, for any value of t.Let T be the time until the first earthquake.
What is the cumulative distribution function of T?What is the distribution of T?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 24: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Earthquakes
Example
Suppose the number of earthquakes Nt in an interval [0, t] hasa Poisson(φt) distribution, for any value of t.Let T be the time until the first earthquake.What is the cumulative distribution function of T?
What is the distribution of T?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 25: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Earthquakes
Example
Suppose the number of earthquakes Nt in an interval [0, t] hasa Poisson(φt) distribution, for any value of t.Let T be the time until the first earthquake.What is the cumulative distribution function of T?What is the distribution of T?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 26: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Probability density functions and histograms
In a probability density function area represents probability.
In a histogram area represents observed data.
We illustrate this connection using simulations of theexponential distribution.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 27: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Probability density functions and histograms
In a probability density function area represents probability.
In a histogram area represents observed data.
We illustrate this connection using simulations of theexponential distribution.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 28: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Probability density functions and histograms
In a probability density function area represents probability.
In a histogram area represents observed data.
We illustrate this connection using simulations of theexponential distribution.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 29: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
R code
We can simulate a sample of n independent random valuesfrom an Exp(1) distibution and draw a histogram of themusing the R code
x<-rexp(n)
hist(x,freq=FALSE)
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 30: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Results
With large values of n, the shape of the plot should show aclose resemblance to the probability density function ofExp(1), which is e−x for x > 0. For n = 10000:
Histogram of x
x
Den
sity
0 2 4 6 8 10
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
x
PD
F o
f Exp
(1)
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The uniform distribution
The uniform distribution is used to describe a random variablethat is constrained to lie in some interval [a, b], but has thesame probability of lying in any interval contained within [a, b]of a fixed width.
It is an important concept in probability theory, but it is lessuseful for modelling uncertainty in the real world:
It is not often plausible in real situations that all intervals ofthe same width are equally likely.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 32: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
The uniform distribution
The uniform distribution is used to describe a random variablethat is constrained to lie in some interval [a, b], but has thesame probability of lying in any interval contained within [a, b]of a fixed width.
It is an important concept in probability theory, but it is lessuseful for modelling uncertainty in the real world:
It is not often plausible in real situations that all intervals ofthe same width are equally likely.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 33: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
The uniform distribution
The uniform distribution is used to describe a random variablethat is constrained to lie in some interval [a, b], but has thesame probability of lying in any interval contained within [a, b]of a fixed width.
It is an important concept in probability theory, but it is lessuseful for modelling uncertainty in the real world:
It is not often plausible in real situations that all intervals ofthe same width are equally likely.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 34: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Definition
Definition
If a random variable X has a uniform distribution over theinterval [a, b], then its probability density function is given by
fX (x) =1
b − a,
for x ∈ [a, b], and 0 otherwise.
We writeX ∼ U[a, b],
to mean “X has a uniform distribution over the interval [a, b].”
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 35: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Definition
Definition
If a random variable X has a uniform distribution over theinterval [a, b], then its probability density function is given by
fX (x) =1
b − a,
for x ∈ [a, b], and 0 otherwise.We write
X ∼ U[a, b],
to mean “X has a uniform distribution over the interval [a, b].”
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 36: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Facts about uniform distributions
If X ∼ U[a, b], then
For x ∈ [a, b] FX (x) =x − a
b − a
E (X ) =a + b
2,
Var(X ) =(b − a)2
12.
Proofs on course website
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Facts about uniform distributions
If X ∼ U[a, b], then
For x ∈ [a, b] FX (x) =x − a
b − a
E (X ) =a + b
2,
Var(X ) =(b − a)2
12.
Proofs on course website
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 38: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Facts about uniform distributions
If X ∼ U[a, b], then
For x ∈ [a, b] FX (x) =x − a
b − a
E (X ) =a + b
2,
Var(X ) =(b − a)2
12.
Proofs on course website
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 39: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Example
Example
Let X ∼ U[−1, 1].
Calculate E (X ), Var(X ) and P(X ≤ −0.5|X ≤ 0).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 40: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Example
Example
Let X ∼ U[−1, 1].Calculate E (X ), Var(X ) and P(X ≤ −0.5|X ≤ 0).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 41: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Gaussian integral
The normal distribution is very important distribution in bothprobability and statistics.
Before studying it, we first introduce the Gaussian integral:∫ ∞−∞
e−x2
dx =√π. (1)
(A proof is given in Applebaum (2008), though you will needto understand changes of variables within double integration).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 42: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Gaussian integral
The normal distribution is very important distribution in bothprobability and statistics.
Before studying it, we first introduce the Gaussian integral:∫ ∞−∞
e−x2
dx
=√π. (1)
(A proof is given in Applebaum (2008), though you will needto understand changes of variables within double integration).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 43: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Gaussian integral
The normal distribution is very important distribution in bothprobability and statistics.
Before studying it, we first introduce the Gaussian integral:∫ ∞−∞
e−x2
dx =√π. (1)
(A proof is given in Applebaum (2008), though you will needto understand changes of variables within double integration).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 44: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Gaussian integral
The normal distribution is very important distribution in bothprobability and statistics.
Before studying it, we first introduce the Gaussian integral:∫ ∞−∞
e−x2
dx =√π. (1)
(A proof is given in Applebaum (2008), though you will needto understand changes of variables within double integration).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Standard normal
We first define the standard normal distribution, beforeconsidering the more general case.
Definition
If a random variable Z has a standard normal distribution,then its probability density function is given by
fZ (z) =1√2π
exp
(−z2
2
).
We writeZ ∼ N(0, 1),
to mean “Z has the standard normal distribution.”
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Standard normal
We first define the standard normal distribution, beforeconsidering the more general case.
Definition
If a random variable Z has a standard normal distribution,then its probability density function is given by
fZ (z) =1√2π
exp
(−z2
2
).
We writeZ ∼ N(0, 1),
to mean “Z has the standard normal distribution.”
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Standard normal
We first define the standard normal distribution, beforeconsidering the more general case.
Definition
If a random variable Z has a standard normal distribution,then its probability density function is given by
fZ (z) =1√2π
exp
(−z2
2
).
We writeZ ∼ N(0, 1),
to mean “Z has the standard normal distribution.”
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Valid p.d.f.
We can confirm that this is a valid p.d.f.
Starting with the Gaussian integral, we make the substitutionx = z/
√2, so that dx
dz= 1/
√2:∫ ∞
−∞
1√πe−x
2
dx = 1
and the substitution then gives∫ ∞−∞
1√2π
e−z2
2 dz = 1,
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Valid p.d.f.
We can confirm that this is a valid p.d.f.
Starting with the Gaussian integral, we make the substitutionx = z/
√2, so that dx
dz= 1/
√2:∫ ∞
−∞
1√πe−x
2
dx = 1
and the substitution then gives∫ ∞−∞
1√2π
e−z2
2 dz = 1,
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Valid p.d.f.
We can confirm that this is a valid p.d.f.
Starting with the Gaussian integral, we make the substitutionx = z/
√2, so that dx
dz= 1/
√2:∫ ∞
−∞
1√πe−x
2
dx = 1
and the substitution then gives∫ ∞−∞
1√2π
e−z2
2 dz = 1,
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
C.d.f.
The c.d.f. is
FZ (z) = P(Z ≤ z) =
∫ z
−∞
1√2π
exp
{−t2
2
}dt.
We can’t evaluate this integral analytically, and have to usenumerical methods.
We will see how to calculate FZ (z) using R.
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Standard continuous probability distributions
C.d.f.
The c.d.f. is
FZ (z) = P(Z ≤ z) =
∫ z
−∞
1√2π
exp
{−t2
2
}dt.
We can’t evaluate this integral analytically, and have to usenumerical methods.
We will see how to calculate FZ (z) using R.
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Standard continuous probability distributions
C.d.f.
The c.d.f. is
FZ (z) = P(Z ≤ z) =
∫ z
−∞
1√2π
exp
{−t2
2
}dt.
We can’t evaluate this integral analytically, and have to usenumerical methods.
We will see how to calculate FZ (z) using R.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Notation
The notation Φ is used to represent the cdf, and φ torepresent the pdf:
Φ(z) := P(Z ≤ z) =
∫ z
−∞
1√2π
exp
(−t2
2
)dt
φ(z) :=1√2π
exp
(−z2
2
).
Thend
dzΦ(z) = φ(z).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Notation
The notation Φ is used to represent the cdf, and φ torepresent the pdf:
Φ(z) := P(Z ≤ z) =
∫ z
−∞
1√2π
exp
(−t2
2
)dt
φ(z) :=1√2π
exp
(−z2
2
).
Thend
dzΦ(z) = φ(z).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Notation
The notation Φ is used to represent the cdf, and φ torepresent the pdf:
Φ(z) := P(Z ≤ z) =
∫ z
−∞
1√2π
exp
(−t2
2
)dt
φ(z) :=1√2π
exp
(−z2
2
).
Thend
dzΦ(z) = φ(z).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Notation
The notation Φ is used to represent the cdf, and φ torepresent the pdf:
Φ(z) := P(Z ≤ z) =
∫ z
−∞
1√2π
exp
(−t2
2
)dt
φ(z) :=1√2π
exp
(−z2
2
).
Thend
dzΦ(z) = φ(z).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Φ(z) and Φ(−z)
Theorem
(Relationship between Φ(z) and Φ(−z).)
Φ(−z) = 1− Φ(z).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Quantile function
We denote the quantile function by Φ−1.
If we want z such that P(Z ≤ z) = α, then we write
Φ(z) = α
z = Φ−1(α).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Quantile function
We denote the quantile function by Φ−1.
If we want z such that P(Z ≤ z) = α, then we write
Φ(z) = α
z = Φ−1(α).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Quantile function
We denote the quantile function by Φ−1.
If we want z such that P(Z ≤ z) = α, then we write
Φ(z) = α
z = Φ−1(α).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Mean and variance
Theorem
(Expectation and variance of a standard normal randomvariable)If Z ∼ N(0, 1), then
E (Z ) = 0
Var(Z ) = 1.
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Mean and variance
Theorem
(Expectation and variance of a standard normal randomvariable)If Z ∼ N(0, 1), then
E (Z ) = 0
Var(Z ) = 1.
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution: the general case
The standard normal distribution is one example of the familyof normal distributions, in which the mean is 0 and thevariance is 1, but, in general, normal random variables canhave any values for the mean and variance
(though variancescannot be negative, of course).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution: the general case
The standard normal distribution is one example of the familyof normal distributions, in which the mean is 0 and thevariance is 1, but, in general, normal random variables canhave any values for the mean and variance (though variancescannot be negative, of course).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution: examples
Normal distributions are used very widely in many situations,for example:
many physical characteristics of humans and otheranimals, for example the distribution of heights of femalesin a particular age group, can be well represented with anormal distribution;
scientists often assume that ‘measurement errors’ arenormally distributed;
normal distributions are commonly used in finance tomodel changes in stock prices (though not alwayssensibly!).
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution: examples
Normal distributions are used very widely in many situations,for example:
many physical characteristics of humans and otheranimals, for example the distribution of heights of femalesin a particular age group, can be well represented with anormal distribution;
scientists often assume that ‘measurement errors’ arenormally distributed;
normal distributions are commonly used in finance tomodel changes in stock prices (though not alwayssensibly!).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 68: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution: examples
Normal distributions are used very widely in many situations,for example:
many physical characteristics of humans and otheranimals, for example the distribution of heights of femalesin a particular age group, can be well represented with anormal distribution;
scientists often assume that ‘measurement errors’ arenormally distributed;
normal distributions are commonly used in finance tomodel changes in stock prices (though not alwayssensibly!).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 69: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution: examples
Normal distributions are used very widely in many situations,for example:
many physical characteristics of humans and otheranimals, for example the distribution of heights of femalesin a particular age group, can be well represented with anormal distribution;
scientists often assume that ‘measurement errors’ arenormally distributed;
normal distributions are commonly used in finance tomodel changes in stock prices (though not alwayssensibly!).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 70: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Definition
Definition
If a random variable X has a normal distribution with meanµ and variance σ2, then its probability density function is givenby
fX (x) =1√
2πσ2exp
{− 1
2σ2(x − µ)2
}
We writeX ∼ N(µ, σ2),
to mean “X has a normal distribution with mean µ andvariance σ2.”
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Definition
Definition
If a random variable X has a normal distribution with meanµ and variance σ2, then its probability density function is givenby
fX (x) =1√
2πσ2exp
{− 1
2σ2(x − µ)2
}We write
X ∼ N(µ, σ2),
to mean “X has a normal distribution with mean µ andvariance σ2.”
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Standard as a special case
Immediately, we can see that by setting µ = 0 and σ2 = 1 in(12), we get the standard normal p.d.f. in (9).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Transformation
Theorem
(Definition of a general normal random variable viatransformation of a standard normal random variable)Let Z ∼ N(0, 1), and define
X = µ + σZ .
Then E (X ) = µ, Var(X ) = σ2 and
X ∼ N(µ, σ2),
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Transformation
Theorem
(Definition of a general normal random variable viatransformation of a standard normal random variable)Let Z ∼ N(0, 1), and define
X = µ + σZ .
Then E (X ) = µ, Var(X ) = σ2 and
X ∼ N(µ, σ2),
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Summary
It’s worth stating again the relationship between a standardnormal random variable Z and a ‘general’ normal randomvariable X .
Given Z ∼ N(0, 1), we can obtain X ∼ N(µ, σ2) bytransforming Z :
X = µ + σZ .
Given X ∼ N(µ, σ2), we can obtain Z ∼ N(0, 1) bytransforming X :
Z =X − µσ
,
and we refer to transforming X to get a standard N(0, 1)random variable as standardising X .
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Summary
It’s worth stating again the relationship between a standardnormal random variable Z and a ‘general’ normal randomvariable X .
Given Z ∼ N(0, 1), we can obtain X ∼ N(µ, σ2) bytransforming Z :
X = µ + σZ .
Given X ∼ N(µ, σ2), we can obtain Z ∼ N(0, 1) bytransforming X :
Z =X − µσ
,
and we refer to transforming X to get a standard N(0, 1)random variable as standardising X .
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Visualising the mean and variance
By plotting the density function, we can see the effect ofchanging the value of µ and σ2 and so interpret theseparameters more easily.
Starting with the mean, the maximum of the p.d.f. is at x = µ.
The variance parameter σ2 determines how ‘spread out’ thep.d.f. is. If we increase σ2, whilst leaving µ unchanged, thepeak of the p.d.f. is in the same place, but we get a flattercurve.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Visualising the mean and variance
By plotting the density function, we can see the effect ofchanging the value of µ and σ2 and so interpret theseparameters more easily.
Starting with the mean, the maximum of the p.d.f. is at x = µ.
The variance parameter σ2 determines how ‘spread out’ thep.d.f. is. If we increase σ2, whilst leaving µ unchanged, thepeak of the p.d.f. is in the same place, but we get a flattercurve.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Visualising the mean and variance
By plotting the density function, we can see the effect ofchanging the value of µ and σ2 and so interpret theseparameters more easily.
Starting with the mean, the maximum of the p.d.f. is at x = µ.
The variance parameter σ2 determines how ‘spread out’ thep.d.f. is. If we increase σ2, whilst leaving µ unchanged, thepeak of the p.d.f. is in the same place, but we get a flattercurve.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution in R
R will calculate the p.d.f., c.d.f. and quantile functions, andwill also generate normal random variables.
Note that in R, we specify the standard deviationrather than the variance.
Calculate the pdf: dnorm(x,mu,sigma)
Calculate the cdf: pnorm(x,mu,sigma)
Invert the c.d.f. to find the α quantile:qnorm(alpha,mu,sigma)
Generate m random observations from a normaldistribution: rnorm(m,mu,sigma)
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution in R
R will calculate the p.d.f., c.d.f. and quantile functions, andwill also generate normal random variables.
Note that in R, we specify the standard deviationrather than the variance.
Calculate the pdf: dnorm(x,mu,sigma)
Calculate the cdf: pnorm(x,mu,sigma)
Invert the c.d.f. to find the α quantile:qnorm(alpha,mu,sigma)
Generate m random observations from a normaldistribution: rnorm(m,mu,sigma)
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution in R
R will calculate the p.d.f., c.d.f. and quantile functions, andwill also generate normal random variables.
Note that in R, we specify the standard deviationrather than the variance.
Calculate the pdf: dnorm(x,mu,sigma)
Calculate the cdf: pnorm(x,mu,sigma)
Invert the c.d.f. to find the α quantile:qnorm(alpha,mu,sigma)
Generate m random observations from a normaldistribution: rnorm(m,mu,sigma)
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 83: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution in R
R will calculate the p.d.f., c.d.f. and quantile functions, andwill also generate normal random variables.
Note that in R, we specify the standard deviationrather than the variance.
Calculate the pdf: dnorm(x,mu,sigma)
Calculate the cdf: pnorm(x,mu,sigma)
Invert the c.d.f. to find the α quantile:qnorm(alpha,mu,sigma)
Generate m random observations from a normaldistribution: rnorm(m,mu,sigma)
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The normal distribution in R
R will calculate the p.d.f., c.d.f. and quantile functions, andwill also generate normal random variables.
Note that in R, we specify the standard deviationrather than the variance.
Calculate the pdf: dnorm(x,mu,sigma)
Calculate the cdf: pnorm(x,mu,sigma)
Invert the c.d.f. to find the α quantile:qnorm(alpha,mu,sigma)
Generate m random observations from a normaldistribution: rnorm(m,mu,sigma)
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Example
Example
If X ∼ N(3, 4), what is the 25th percentile of the distributionof X?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Paternity suit
Example
(from Ross, 2010).An expert witness in a paternity suit testifies that the length,in days, of human gestation is approximately normallydistributed, with mean 270 days and standard deviation 10days.
The defendant has proved that he was out of the countryduring a period between 290 days before the birth of the childand 240 days before the birth of the child, so if he is thefather, the gestation period must have either exceeded 290days, or been shorter than 240 days.How likely is this?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Paternity suit
Example
(from Ross, 2010).An expert witness in a paternity suit testifies that the length,in days, of human gestation is approximately normallydistributed, with mean 270 days and standard deviation 10days.The defendant has proved that he was out of the countryduring a period between 290 days before the birth of the childand 240 days before the birth of the child, so if he is thefather, the gestation period must have either exceeded 290days, or been shorter than 240 days.
How likely is this?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Paternity suit
Example
(from Ross, 2010).An expert witness in a paternity suit testifies that the length,in days, of human gestation is approximately normallydistributed, with mean 270 days and standard deviation 10days.The defendant has proved that he was out of the countryduring a period between 290 days before the birth of the childand 240 days before the birth of the child, so if he is thefather, the gestation period must have either exceeded 290days, or been shorter than 240 days.How likely is this?
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The two-σ rule
For a standard normal random variable Z ,
P(−1.96 ≤ Z ≤ 1.96) = 0.95.
Since E (Z ) = 0 and Var(Z ) = 1, the probability of Z beingwithin two standard deviations of its mean value isapproximately 0.95 (ie P(−2 ≤ Z ≤ 2) = 0.9545 to 4 d.p.).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The two-σ rule
For a standard normal random variable Z ,
P(−1.96 ≤ Z ≤ 1.96) = 0.95.
Since E (Z ) = 0 and Var(Z ) = 1, the probability of Z beingwithin two standard deviations of its mean value isapproximately 0.95 (ie P(−2 ≤ Z ≤ 2) = 0.9545 to 4 d.p.).
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The two-σ rule: general case
If we now consider any normal random variable X ∼ N(µ, σ2),the probability that it will lie within a distance of two standarddeviations from its mean is approximately 0.95.
This is straightforward to verify:
(on board)
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The two-σ rule: general case
If we now consider any normal random variable X ∼ N(µ, σ2),the probability that it will lie within a distance of two standarddeviations from its mean is approximately 0.95.
This is straightforward to verify:
(on board)
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
The two-σ rule: general case
If we now consider any normal random variable X ∼ N(µ, σ2),the probability that it will lie within a distance of two standarddeviations from its mean is approximately 0.95.
This is straightforward to verify:
(on board)
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
![Page 94: MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics · Dr Jonathan Jordan School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of She eld 2019{20 Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022060521/604fe4a6791def7df66d0727/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
Standard continuous probability distributions
Convention
In Statistics, there is a convention of using 0.05 as a thresholdfor a ‘small’ probability, though the choice of 0.05 is arbitrary.
However, the two-σ rule is an easy to remember fact aboutnormal random variables, and can be a useful yardstick invarious situations.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics
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Standard continuous probability distributions
Convention
In Statistics, there is a convention of using 0.05 as a thresholdfor a ‘small’ probability, though the choice of 0.05 is arbitrary.
However, the two-σ rule is an easy to remember fact aboutnormal random variables, and can be a useful yardstick invarious situations.
Dr Jonathan Jordan MAS113 Introduction to Probability and Statistics