mars: a cosmic stepping stone
TRANSCRIPT
-
A Cosmic Stepping Stone
MARS
-
A Cosmic Stepping Stone
Kevin nolAn
MARS Uncovering Humanitys Cosmic Context
Copernicus BooksAn Imprint of Springer Science+Business Media
in Association withPraxis Publishing, Ltd.
-
2008 Praxis Publishing, Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Published in the United States by Copernicus Books,an imprint of Springer Science+Business Media.
Copernicus BooksSpringer Science+Business Media233 Spring StreetNew York, NY 10013www.springer.com
Library of Congress Control Number: 2008929492
The photocollage on the dust jacket, an artists conception, includes a NASA image of the Martian surface combined with an image of a night sky with a small blue dot added, representing Earth.Design by James Sarfati
Manufactured in the United States of America.Printed on acid-free paper.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 978-0-387-34164-4 e-ISBN 978-0-387-49981-9DOI 10.1007 978-0-387-49981-9/
-
! " #
# $ %
& $ '(
% )* +,, + -&
( . (
' + * , (
/ + * 0 , &
- + * #
.1 + &&
.1 (
! +,* '/
-
# ) 2 /(
& +, ,, #
% + %/
( 3 +, '&
' 4 56 -&
/ &
- 7 ) ) &
&
+ 2 &/+ 01 %5 %
-
!"
" #
" $ %
&
''
# (
' &
) * ++
,,
++,,
-
,
(
-
!
- " - .
" - ) * "
)
& * !
! !
/
* ! . # ' & /
# ( !
-
& # !
0 ( !
'
(
'
1
-
(
(
2
(
# & 3 & (
& * 4 & 56 5778 9 :7777 ; ( & ( ! *,
(
-
& 2
!2&( 0 4
-
( 4 = C (
1 C # -
-
&B4 & 4& H'= -0BD 0 B D0/2
-
320 3 2 03 2 3 2 B#/ B # /&=2(2 & = 2 ( 2&D & D0/ 0 /#0& #
0 &?#= # =C2 C 2/0 / 0/B& / B &
-
2
(
&
!
0
1
? !
4
-
#
#
2 2
-
#
#,& #
' 0 ? ! #
? & ? #,
( #
.
=
-
)
(
# (
-
! ! " #$$$
% "
% #$$$$$ !&$
" ' ( ) )$
* + ) "
,
" -"
,
.
/ ! ! 0
" 1
! ! . 1 &/ 2
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_1, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
-
!"# $%% &% '( )*+ ,
"
3 *
4$$$$$
3 * ,
&$$$$$ . 1 4/
2
* 5 46$$$
5
-
-( . (
$/" 0123 !"# $%% &% *4%5% % 5 )*+,
" *
7
2 448
( 3 * ,
-
6 ' 7(87 " *
!* .(# #44 (4 (479 "# $%%4:;
-
*
"
=
5 , ,
( +
! >$$$ 1 ,
4$ 1
? " .? "/
@@" '
(== . 1 )/ 5
2 , . 1 8/
4$
,, 0
. 1 8/
&$$$
@@' 7== . ' 4/ ( A 4
5
5 2 2 ? " +
-
; " &
=222
/
; 0 !"# $%% &% * : ;
)%> +,
??@@
; 0 !"# $%% &% * :
; )%> +,
-
% (
>
; A !"# $%% &% * : ;
)%> +,
B &
) + ;
C 0 BD
( & ; A !"#$%%4:;
-
"
5
%
%
3 *
*
*
% 8$$$$
* ,
*
%
B
3 *
B 0
2 C 0
-
D
* 2 , "
2 " 5 ,
,
-
-
1
&)
2
"
0
2 2
"
1 B 9 .B9/
* +
+ ! !
.
+
/ B
"
+ "
2
-
!
.
/
-
,
!
-
2
+
1
2
" % "
2 E
2 "
-
- - ! - *
7 + &E8$ &E6$ 17 ( 7 , -
,
, " !
,
1 &EE$
" &EE8 3 3 7F 5 B 5 4$$>
. B 5/ , , B 8G& 4$
"
B 8G& B 8G& . ,
@@== , / ? B 8G&
-
7 E (
C ; 1
!"# $%% &% - 5 ) *4&%+
7 ; ,
-
5 - , ,
1
-
%
7 ;
!"# $%% &% - 5 )
*4&%+ 7 ;
,
- ? 0 3* 0 +
-
&EE$ ? " = 2 4$$ 5 . 1 G/
.1 E/ 2 E$
= 0 - ?7 &$>&)6 ?
-
0 0 "
4$$# 0 . , @@ ==
&8
-
!"#
"
2
2
-
! !
"
%
9 - 0
* - 2 - %
5 - ? "
* , 0 3 * - - ,
, *
- *
, B 8G& ! !
!"#
-
; ( > &E(
!"# $%%4:;
-
, 2
@@2== - + ,- "
$%
" " 5 , 2 2= 5 '! ' . '/ &EE> 4$$& !
- ( " 2 2 -
( &EE$ A .A / 5 1
? 2 2= 7 '
4$$E H H
3 * &$$$$$
( ((7 .( ( 7/ H
.
/ ,
1
H 2 2= ' G$
$%
-
-
! 3 1
, - , - 3 3= 0
" 3 2 2 2 3
" -
$%
-
! "# $$%
&
' ! ( ) * + , - * , ,
+ , - ./000 *, ! " 1% * ( #
* $2000 " % * 3 ( !
4 , - 50000 * +
6$000
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_2, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
-
!
1 ! .. .6 7
$00000
89
& ! - ! -
4
.09
-
* " %
* " %
4 , -
3 + * # * * 1 * ' ! + * * *
! 4 * 1
-! * 1
, 1 + * ,& .0
, +, 1 ( , & , * ! + , ,1 ,
-
.0 3 ,
+
, , ) , , - , + . " / , % ,
4 (
- , :000 +
,
4 4 $2000
* 2000- ( " %
+ " % 1 4
-
! ( !
1 * 20 1
4 ( ; +
! '
) * " %
*
" % & -
1 1 *
4
'
-
(
3
4
$9 20- $:- 1 ' ! ( *
, 3 +
!
&
#
4 1
-
#
4 $00- 4
+
' ' , " %
& + !
-
+
+ 4 # .09 1 !
1
- ' '
# 4 - & $=55 &
'
" %
1
-
) 4 4 ! # !
& # 1 > *
4
& 4 # ! "
% #
"?4% "
-
?4
( @@ & ?4
-
4 ! @@ ! & " % +
*!
@@ 1 4+7 "4+7% @@
4+7 ! 3 4+7 ! 4+7
A
& ? &
# ?4
1
7 ! ! 4 ' ' !
-
,
! # 1 28
-
3 '
+ "
%
! "!
# *
+ * 7 * , &
4 *
, 1
, B * ?-
* *
+ ( -
! "!
-
* *', ; , + + * *
3 '; ,' ! 4 ( * 4 * * !
*
4 1
4
4 + + /0 3
4
- !
* +
-
62
3 7 ( :0 #
4 + ' ' +
! *! 4 1 - 1
! 4 !
#
$00 1 66 4 2= & 28 2: !
#
-
3 & * , &
& '1 1 & 3 ' - #
"C% "% & ! ! C ! C C
?
+
-
4
1
&
!
-
C
4 3 , $=80
1 1 $=:0
! ,
4 3 4 A '
'
$% $#!&$ !( )(%
+ $00 1 ? 1 E (
-
1
# B 7 # < 7
" %
1
-
3
# ' ' 1 + #
-
* *
* * 4 &
& ' + 1
& " ! % ) ,&
, # , , * * , ,
4 ,
* +! ,#
-
,( *-! .
3 + ' ' * 1
4 1 4
1 + 1 +
11 +
'
4
* , +
, 3 +
+ * , ) & * ,
"% ( , 4 B
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_3, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
- , 4 B A
-
? - + ) - 4 ? )
3 )
) ) - )
+ + * * ) ) # + > * - ) .00 * ) 4
( -
)
' & ) 200 +
* 7 - 6.000 ) ( ) * * 1
) ( - 7 4 ) B G
) - ) ) G ) $/0$ G
)
,( *-! .
-
) ,
) $/06 G
> , * ) , G , G > @@ ,
+ ,
" ,% G
+ /0
# ? ' #
- ) G A A ; , B *
+
+
-
? 3 - 3 1 & A 3 $/8/ , * ,( (
, .6 3 , ( " % 4 3 - 3 ,
# $/5. $5$= A , "- %
, , , 1 //5 3 , + ) & 3 , ( , .: "3 6 ', .6 % * .6 3 , ,
+ , .6 .: , )
, +
) .
, * & * , , * ), , , * "%
) .
-
$00 ) , * "% , 8/ +
4 .5 .002 , 85000 # 4 * .002 , $:55 ,
) & 3 2/ +
-
3 + ( * , 1
+ , , /0
+ 4 4 , 4 $:20 ) , *
, $:8: + >
D
+ $:55 , 85 ! ) , + A * "# $.% 3
:/ , +
-
"
#
$%&& '
(
) **+*
+*,- "
.
/-!
3 $:55
? * $:5= $$6 1 , + # $::$
.0 '
& 3
"# $2%
* 3 ' "* % 3 3 ,
4
,( *-! .
-
- ) - $%%% -
**+*+*,-01)11)02$%%%**
/-!
*
* + * , *
& , $::0 (' ? # C *4' * & C , " % , 2 ,
+ , $:=6 4 * 7 C , "# $6% 3
& 3 7 , 7 3 $:=. , " % *
2 + + , , = $=5$
) .
-
2#
- 3
)
7 # $:=6 C 7 # 41 $. $: ) * * $:=6" % C >
? D + 1 ,
4 $:=6 C , * "$:=8% 3 , , C , D
,( *-! .
-
) 2 - $456
+ 6 2 !
, 3 3 .000 2 4 ,
"# $8%
C *4 + * $:=8 ,
$:=. $:=6
) .
-
) , C 2/ $000 " 200E/00% ) , 3 @@ ' * @@ 3 >
@@ +
# , 3 ( , @@
7 ) "# $/% & ,
# $:=6 & ,
3 (
,* * ) , +
, , # - # ' ( ' , 3A& $:=:
4 $:=/ C
,( *-! .
-
) 7 -
$%4#
2+
!
; ; , ; ,
C + $:=5 ;1 - , ! $8
* '- C' )
, 4 ) 44 , H , 4 "# $5% ( $=02 , "# $:%
) + $=0= C , ,1 " @@ % + 4 22 , 7 $=0= , C 4 @@
) .
-
8
) 7 -
/ 9: )0-# /
) 7!
)
#
7 -
/ 9: )0-# / )
7! !
,( *-! .
-
, ) - 3 , ; $=/0 $=50
) C $=$/ * C $=0: C $=80 * 4 #
,
)
, + ,
, 4
, 4 ' * * , 80 * C , , $=/0 , @@ & $=80 ,
,
, 4 - '
! ,
)
-
+ #
, ) $:55 ! , * ! , (
, + 80 (
, ,
4 ( * *
E # , ,'
+ * , +
! 1 ,
* , , + $:55
! @@ * " ,% ! 4 * $:=8 * ? C ! * &
,( *-! .
-
* + $:=8 " %
3 * ! )
# 7 C C + ( ? C
, ! C ( 4
,
1
+ 4 C 2/ , 22 *:/ $:55 + & * F $:55
, ) - 4 , + ,
+ * C ,
& 4 $=0=C 4 C .6 4 22 & C 4 I +
)
-
! 1
> ,
1
4 , - + ! ,
4 ) - 4 , $:=. ? &
, - $=/8 4
, ) $:=. + ' , , ( ) /0 50 + , +
,( *-! .
-
$=/0 $=50
& , ! &
,
) - 4 $:=8 $=0=+ @@ @@ ,
)
-
! " ! # $! ! ! ! ! ! # % !# & ' ( ! # ) ! # ! !
! ! ( # ( " % & !!# ! * # + + % !!# ! ( , % ! # # & ) " # # #! #! # & # !% - # & ! ) # ## . ! ( / ! & #( !
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_4, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
-
) ! ! # ! # % /! ! 0
# %1 22# !111 34 ! ) & ## ## / ! & # ! & # %
& & # !* & ) # 5 ! ! & # ) # & # ) !# # !#6 ! &* )6 # ! !# $! ! ) # & ( ( " "# !# & ! ) " ! $! ! ! ! #" # # ! ! 7!!# !
7!!# & ! # # # # 8# ! ! 49 & ! # !
( ! - # )* # #! # !( # #$! 7!!# # # ! ! !:: !! # # ! # # ; ! $!!# ! # # ! ! # "# #! ! * & ! # ! ! ! $!!# # % ( ! ! ! 7!!# 0! 8# # ! 49 $!!# & # ! #!*! ! * $!!#
-
7!!# ! ! ! # # ! ! 0 $!! ! !! '=" ! ## ! ! '=" !
#! # # # " '=" ! ?! ! ! !'=" # & $! # '=" @ 0 %! # ! # @! ! !! '=" & ( ## ! !! ! # !
! % ( 3 "( @ A / !
! # ! # ! ! %1 # B ## # C # # #! #& # ! ! - # # % - +4
/ ) B= : 4D C ! @1 /1 #! ! # !. ! ! #! 0
-
! #! ! # - + )! : ## & ! E! 8! A! +F = : B # : # C #: # # 22# !## ! : '11 / ## !! ! %*# ! *!
! ! ##0 ## # & # # "# ! !!
! # # $!(: ! & % ( ! & : # ( & ! ! ! # - # % ! - ! ! # & +
! ) % #
! ) ! %1 ! & #! # ! ! ( # ! $!!# ! # ! ( ! ! ! " # ! ! # ( " # #> # ( ! ! > & #( ! # # # # # '=" # &
$! % # ! / # # # '="
-
% $! ! & / #! ! ( !% G # # ! # ! ! ( # # $! ! # #! $!
( #!
! # #( # @
! ! % 1 "1 #& # !( & ! ! # 0 $! % ! 0 ! ! # # + # )" 3 ! ! # - + D # # & # 3 ! # - ( ! "1 &$! # #
! # "# ! # )" 5, H! # , ! ! # # ! # - ! # ! ! ! H! !! $! * ! #* # !# ! # #( $! ) : % # &8( '(
: ! ( & / ! & : ! ! #
-
: - (( $! ! & : # ## # E! % #
# # $!E! # ! ! > # > % # ! ! .! ( ! ! % : 0 ( ! & # B C $! ! # ! %1 ! #(0! : # $! % # ! # $! # ! ! ! : ! $! #
- # ! !! !# $! ! ) ! + )" )
? # ! # ! ! ! # 0 : @ D +9 )
? ! !! %
!(0 8# ! F !# # !* # ( # " ! # $! ! ! & @ ! #
! #* ! # ! % #> # & : ! ! ##! !
-
& " ! 8! # #/ ,( B 1 #I*! ' A,! A,C ! ="" # & * ! & ! ) ! )
? ! ! # ="" # .: # & !( ) ="" # ! % ! % # # A, = ! ! .! # =""( # & ! @ ! 0 # & # & ##@ ! & &
#: ="" & & D # !G BC ## & & ! B3C !. !# # ! ! ( &
! ! . !#
# # ! # !# ## & !$! %* 22" ( ! ) & ! ###11 - ! ! ( # ! ( ! 0! ( ' ! #! # ! # : ! ! ! 0 # & ! : ! ! - #: ! # ! # ! ## !
-
8# : $! ! * 22% !#11 ! 8! ! ! & * #! ! - & G
# # ! % # # ! ! # !! ! # B! C &
# & E ! ! ! @ # # # # #&!! # !
% ! ( ! " ! B C ! ##
B #!C !8 ! ( ! !
! !G # - # ! ( # !
! ! !! % " !! : ( ! # ! ! # ="" ## ! ! $! # E %! & # G
* E / # ! ! ( - ! ! ! ! ! ! #
-
3
* =# /: # # # #! " # ! # ! !
4 B ? C # ,? ! # ! ## ##! #
! 0!
4 B5% #! # ! 5! # #0 #
D
B5 C # ! ! #! ! #! #
#. & ( ! # ! : $! ! # 5 # E # # ! 9 - ## # ! ! ! $! - A ,! .! & ! ! ! ! E! ! D !! ! A! D +8 4 (# # .! 3
0$! # ( % # # D## # ! =""1 # & # # ! ! 1 ! ! # "! .! J # ! # # ! B8! C
-
!
" #$% &!'!()*+,
D # ! ( % ! " 9 ! " & (# # ="" : 1 ! # ! ! # 0! ! # ! ! - # D ! ! & . ## # ="" # ! & & ##! ! & # & # 8! D ! # # !(! # & ## ! & ##! ! > ! ="" ! # E # ! !
E 8 #.
! $! : & # ! ! ( ! ! ! ! E# =""1 !! # # # " E # $!! ! # KA, , ! 5!
!
-
! ( ! #> !
# # # " ! #
! # D # E# 9' ( ="" # A# % ##
! ! =""1 # /# # # ! . 4 #0 & # E! , A ! # #! > .! ( E & # ! ! #0 # 9 & # E(
"
9 # # D " D ! # D ! # ! ( ! %0( # ! 0 1 ! # # ! B8! 3C " # #! ! #B! J %1 #C !
$! ! ! A#,( # ! ! ! $! & ## ! # ! #. 1 ! # : & : & & # ! -# .
! & =& @# ! ! ! B8! 3C " !
" #
-
-
.
/. " #$% &!'!()*+(*" !" ,
# # ! ! $! # # # > / !# # ( # 9 ! !
!! ! # D # : # 9
! #
* BC # * # 0# 0 ! # #! ! & ! ! & * # #!( ! ! ! % # ! #
-
0 &1 2.
2. 3 * $" #* " $%
&!'!()*+,
' ! # D 9 & * =# 9* # ! ! > ! # ! ! % # #
# ( ! # - # # #! ! ! &* ! # ! ! , ! # !# #! =&@# ?# @#! ! * # - ! 8 !## 39 (# !* # ! % @# !
-
2 . 4 / / "
2.
5" #$% &!'!()*+(*" !" ,
" ! 0 ! # # B8! 33C # ( !! # ! ( .! ( B8! 34 3DC # 0G ! # #! #! ( # - 9 # # ( % # # ! # D ( ! * # $! ! ( " # 0( ! *#! D (# ( (
-
4 6
." #$% &!'!()*+(*" !" ,
$ 7 /. 4" 8
/
/. " #$% &!'!()*+(*" !" ,
-
- !#! 0: ( ! E !
# # ! # ! #!
! ## # # ! ! #& & # ! ' ! .! !# ## ! : $! * 0 # #
% E( # !# ! A @ #. ! # # ! #( -
! 0# 9 # 4+ / # ! ! # &! ! ! %0 # " ! ! ! # ! !# ! ! " !& ! 94 ! E( #G #! E 0 # ! ! # " # # (#
#( # ! ! ! E #* # ! ! * ="" # ( .! - !( % ="" !! ! * #* 9+ #
-
E( 3 ! "!! 3 # 9+ ! E( !## 9 # #. ) E( ! # B8! 3+C " ! ! # ! E(1 ! # !
! # # B8! 3C ! ( ! # E( E( 3 B# ! #C A ( B! A! D 9C # ! ! # # E( .! (G ,B , C ! )
8 / 9 2. -
0 " / /. -99
" ' * -
" #$% &!'!()*+,
-
/. 8 /" 8
. . : 1
& +/. . / " '
* 0
" #$% &!'!(;'
-
/. 8 =
" / " 8
" #$% &!'!()*+,
' > /. 8 "
> 1. ." #$% &!'!()*+ ,
93 : 4 # ( E( # " #$! E( 0! # ( +9 # E( $! :: $!# ! # # #(0! # # ! # ( = #0* # * ( # ! ! !( E1 0
# E( . E ! ! ! #! # ## 0 . ! E ! 0 " # ! # - ! ! 0 & %1 ! # E !# & "
$
-
! /9 > 8
; *" '. / 8 $.
*" ' * :
" #$% &!'!()*+,
- # #! ! &' 0 E( !
E #*, ? ? 5 %& # ! !#* ! B8! 3 4 4C ! ! !* ="" A, .!! ! E ( ! ( # % &* (I E( # ! - ! ! # ! E( # *# ! ! # # # ! ! # "
!
-
8 ; *
(
9 " !
/ 1 /
. / ." '
* 4
" #$% &!'!()*+,
! /. 8 ) 40:
- ." #$% &!'!()*+,
$ #
-
# ! ! !
& # 5 %& # !
# ( #! ! ? # ! #
! ! ! 8 ( "!! 9 9 =# /: ! , ? ! ! ! ! !
# 8 5 %& ! 30 # & ! ! !
& # # # ! ! ? !
# ! !> ! ! " ,? !
# # ! "! 0! 5 # - ! ! # ! B # # # # C 5 # !! > !
# & ! ! ! # ! !0&: # # ! /: ! #
! # # # ! / ! 5 ? ! #! ! $! / ! ? ! ! & !
# & : # 5 ' , ? # 3 # ! # - ! # * * ! ! 5 % H! # #! # 5 !
-
! ! # # # ! ! ( # ! ## ! @ ! ! !
E( # # - ( # & !# E( ! 5 A! # ! ! !( =# /: # ! &
# ! & ! ! # E(
! & ( ( # 0 # ( ( # ( # G ( # ! ! ! 9 F E( #
#& & @ ! ! #& : ! ! # %0( ! ( ! ##! # ; . # & # E( E( !! ! # : # .! $! ! $! ! ! # .! # # .! # # ( ! ! , E( ! !#
!! : # - #&> ! E( ! ! : $! 8# ! # . # ( !* & 8# E( #
$
-
! ! # # ! E( #& !00 # ! E( $! ! ! ! # E! % # ! !# ( ! $! ! ! ! ! ! & !! # ?, !
-
!" #$% $ & ' ' ()(
* + , $
, & (
' # % * ' - -./" 01""" + & ' &
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_5, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
-
# -"$ %
2 ' . #2 3!
33% 4 $ 5 6 37%
!"
#$ % &'(&) *
-
% +
+ ,
!! #$ % &'(&) *
+ 8 (
!""" ' ) ) 2 8
$
#9 : % ( +
-
-( + .
% %
+ !/ #$ % &'(&
-( *
(
$ & $
2 ;
, $
'
( ) ) + & #2 30% '
-
+ +
0 1 2
#$ % &'(&) *
4
-
(
(
< ; + ( < 6 0
6 -" + -0"" : ( !1 # +% 0"" ) ) *
9 ' + 9 2 ' 7""" 1 +9 = 4 #2 3>% 5 + )
' : #% & : ( ?
, 9 '
:
* + ' :
-
3
+ + !4
#$ % &'(&) *
-
' # $ %
4
( & -.." ' ,
9 * 9
9
)& 8 9 2 (
'
(
:
'
( + -""
1""" +
: A 9 :
-
$ *
( -"" 8 * 6
: +
$ + '
' +
'
: * & 6 6
6
-
'
$ 9 ' 4
$ * $
& ( +9 B 2 6 +(
& * * $ )
&
+
)
! '
( $ +
"
-
* &
( # %
* 6
,
+
8 8 & (
' : :
6 + 8
-C :& +9
3" !"4 -7"4 & )9
#
-
$ $
' 8
:
$%& ( 8 : ( : $ ' 9 2 &
7" -"" (
>" -
A & '
) ) 9 2 9 & 9&
!7 + -""""" & 6 -3 7! ) 9 00"""$ ( 9 -""""" !""""" ( ' (
D & : :
-
>/1 + >>.
+ 6 : : + 4 EE99 6 3. + 3"" ) . * 9 ) ) ' 2
9 $ A
$ + 0" B ' $$ ( '
: & + )
+ ( A
+ 9 '
-
$ ' (
' * -./" :$ 9 : # % +9 9 ,
& * + : $ $
) ' :
* $
9 ( '
+F
' -.." & & ; + ' ( # & '% '
-
* + 6
'
( &
'
( ' ' ' 6 B
-
( ( + ( 6 ( 8
& ( 8
+ ) )( :
& : (G8/7""- # -./7 ( 8% 9
->
& + -3""" H
* -..> 6 ;I ;D()( A I + =
-
(567""!
8
+
#$
% &'
*
(567""! +
9
#$ % &
' *
'
)4 $-.." 6 B
-
! ! !" # $%& " " " " & " && ' "
& & " & & " " ' " "& " & "
$" & " " (" & " &&" $ " & " " $ $ " &
& & " $ & " & " &" && " & & " & ' ! % && "
' &" &
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_6, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
-
" % & &
"& & & & " $ ) & " " & &" **%$##
& + & " " & " ! $ &
" " $ & " ,& " $ " & " " -" $ $ " & & # - # " " " & " " & & & & " ' && " %
"
" & ' &" . !& & & & $%& &&" $ " " & & "
/ % & $ " & & " & & ' " &&
01 " " 23 43 " %$ & & " & &
&& & " .
& $ " "
-
" " " && " " &"
" " $ & " & " & # &
& ( & & &&" & &&" & 5 ." " $ " 5 &" " & 5 " %
"
& && & ! !" ! & &5 " 6 " 7 " & 5 " && " $ 5
& " & "
1 &" ! !" " ! !"
8 & " " & $ %
1 & " $ &" " $ " " 9$ & & & 6" " & 7
! " " " " " " &"
-
5 '
&5" : 5 "
" ' " " " $ $%& ! !" '
,& "" "
" 1 $ 5
! !" " ) " " ; : & & " & : " & & 5 & && ! & " & && && % & & . "5 " ! !" &" && % ! !" ; ( & " : ; 5 5 & & **"%## & ;
! !" " "%$ &" & " &" "
! !" " " & & " " ( !#
& ' 5 & &
& 2
-
&" " ! !" - ' " ! !" && " ; ) & & 4>?( & " : )& % ! & " & " " &"
" 5 ' " " " " ! !" && ! !" & ! !" " $ " "
" " " " " !
!" " & $ " &"
& & " &" " & : 5 " " " : 5 . " " " @& & : 5 A !# &&" $ "& & & " " " &" " : 5 " % " " $ " & "(" :
" " 5 ' :$ " 6 & &"7 & & " 5 " "
-
" & "
& & 5 &" 5 :$ 5# " " " % $ " & & ' & 0 2BB< 5A ; 433C && " " $
% " & " & " 5# " &&& " &
$ : " " " !" " " &" & " &&
5 " & & " && ' 5 :$ & & " %%" " & " &" " 5 & %%" & & &" &&" " &" "
5 %$ &+ ** %$ " $" & D## 5 & " & & & &"
"
" ) & &" 5# & " & " & " " & & " &
"
" &
-
"
& " & " 5 !)( 65 7 &" " 5 " " " & " 5
& " 5 & & " 5 &" " D . D 5
" 5D " & 5 " &" ! "
" $ &" & " + 5 " & &" ("
" 5 & & & 5 &
( 5 &&" " D 5 " & & "D " &" " & 5 ' " " 5 ; & " & ) " & 5 & " 5 && " $ 5 " " & % " &1 " ! !" &
&& " " 5
-
& " " " " " & & &&" $ " && & & " 5# " " + & "+ & &"+ &
" ' " &
" &
& ' " # " & 5 " "
"
5 " && & & ' & & " " ) & "
& & % ! & & ! " & ! !"
& &" " &
& & " & && & $ &" ! " 5 & &
& 9
& " " & " "' 5 &" " 0& & &" &"& ; 5 "
-
& ) " &" & " " % " & " 5 " " **$## & $
&& $ &" $ " " ) $ & & $ " $ $" 5 $ $ && " & 5 && %%" &
" " &" " !
"
& & 5 " $ $ & " " 5
:$
" & && & 5
" " " " & " "& & "&"
5 & " :$ 8 "& " &
" && & ; " $
" % & &" :$ 5 $ &' " (
& 5 ; & & " & &
-
A 0 " " " " $
" & " & " & &!" 5 &
" " & " & 5 :$ & " " " & &" & & 5 & &% & & $ & $ &
&5 & & ! !"
" % 5 & %%" " &" &" 5 & " & %& " & & # & 5 & + " 5 & " & + & 5 "
& " %& A 0 5 &&
& ( " " " & 5 &" " & " & " 1 "5 && " " &" &&& 5 & " &
-
5
& "5 & "
$ $ & " 5 & " 5 " " && " & 5 & ." $ & & 5 & ." &% & 55 $ & "
" "
-
&" & $ # " &"
& " & 5&" " " " 5 &" $ ; 5 & " ! !" " &" && &
' " & & " ! &&" && &
- 2BB< 5 0 "" % & & 5 & 5 &- E& / ." !& ' &" &" 9 ( ! : ! 5
" )'!'
! !" " 5; 5 & &
" & A F@ / ( 5E" , 5E" 5$ 5 E 0( !' / )$ ( 0 & &&
"
" 5 &" " &
& " 5 " & & & % & &
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_7, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
-
&" ! $ )'!' 6"7 & !' $ " & & " " " & ' & & " " " & " & " & " " 5# & &" 5 && & & & 0 & & & & & " $ & " && & " & &
&" & & " & &&& !' )'!' " & %
& & " "& & &
" 5 0 5/ !" ;"" & !& ;&&" 5 A% ; " &" & 5 " " & A 0 " & " 8 " $
" && & %%%%%" " ,& " & & & & "& 5 $ $ % & "" " " &
; & " "
6 7 "& &" $
-
" " ' $ & . !& G55 " 5& " & 5 " & $ " & $ &" " & & " " 5 & &
& " 4C & & & &&& & & ) '& & & & & & 6 7 & ' & % &" " " & & 5 &
! "
& & 5 $ " & ; 6" &7 " 5 && ; && " " & " &" " ( " " 5 1 &" && &
& " & &" $%& & &" " $%& " &"
! "
-
5 & " 5# " &
& " " &" "
$%& " " & & % ! " 5# &" "
& " " $ & &" & " &" " & H & " "
" "
1 " " " " & & &" &" " " " " & 1"
5 " " & &
" # " $%
; & 5 " & & & -" &$ " & - & &" 1" &" 1 &
$ 2 6 7 ! " &" & ! 5# " " &
-
5# " & &
" " & & &
& / && &
" &" & 5 " " " 5+ " " 5 $ &" ; " " & & "" " &; "
& &&
% " 5 " & & A% 6 "&
&7 & & 5 & $
&"
" % 1" $%& " & " & " & " .
& & &
$ $ $%& " &" " & 5
" & & & $%& " " 5 & " " H
& " " 5 ' $" " &" H " & " & & &" " " "
" # " $%
-
&%& " " & $ &" $%&
5 & & &" %" & " $ 6 & &"7 $ " $ $ & " & " & ' 5#
& " " "
" & "
" " " 6 " & 7
" $ $" " 5 & H & "
"& &" & & " " ' & " " " " &
& %%"% " " " " "
! & % & & %% & & " ; " "
(% 5 & " & H " & & " " " "& " " & :$ " & " 5 & $ "
& & & " $ & "
-
; " $ 5 "
6 7 ! & " " $
" 5 &1" "
5
& ! & & " :$ $ & "%& &
" & " &" "& & & &
% "
&'() # " $%
& & & & " "& & :$ & & % & " 5 & A " & " " " )'!' !' % & 5 " &0 2 "
& & " &" " &"" " & && !# ! & & 1 & & " & % & ' & & " " 5 / !" " 2BB= 5 ;"" 4332 5 & 433I
& % 0 2 5 + " 5 " & " & "& " " &
&'() # " $%
-
$ " "
& 5 " & !" 0 2
& 5 A ; 65A;7
5 5433C & %& 5 " && & & " & 9" 0 2
& " & " &" " & " " 5 0 4
$ $ & & % " & % " " 2 $ " & & ; & & " 5 0 2BB< !& ;&&" 5 & A 5 @" 433I 0 &" & 5 ' 433= !& ;&&" & " B3 " & %"
5# & & & 5#&
& 0 >
& $ & & " & " "& & & & "%& " & $ 5 0 6433=7 0 > " & & )'!'# 5 ! 9" !'# 5
& 4323 432> &"
-
0 2 4 > " 5 " $ &
5 60 I ?%& &7 & &&" ! % " & 0 ? & && 5
" &
" && !&" &" " 5 && & & && 1 & 5 + )'!' !' & >3 I3 "
& " & 5 " " " &" &" ! & & " 5 "
&'() # " $%
-
*) ) " +" # '
. & 5 " & 5 $ ' ' ' ') ! ' & / " 5 & " & & & &&& & & A 0 & " " & " ' & & &&
& &" " ;" &&" & " & " & % " 5# $ &" "& " "
,!- )
; & & & " & 6 & 7 "
& $ & $ & & & " "" &
%" ! & &
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_8, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
-
" &" & &" 1" &" 5# " " " " & " &
&
& 5 6 $ 7 " & & &
& & % "
& " 2 5 & && & & $ 5# & & $%& $ & % &
; & "4 " & &
& 5# " 1 % % && & & " ,
& %" & ;
" & $
"
" & &+ " & $%& & & " ; &&" % % & & &
2 " & & # &+ &
4 5&& %
*) ) " +" # '
-
" & & 5 & . $ & " 1 6 & %7 & 5# " & &" " & & & &" "
* . /#
" $ $
" & " & " ' " " " & " &" " 0 " & & & &% " & " 5 " &" 5 " "
" && % "& " &
& & $ 5 " & & & 5# " $ " "
& " & 5# $ " " "
" : 5 " " & " !" 5 "
5 6.5!7 "& &
* . /#
-
& " " & " " " ' " 5# "
&" " &
" " " &" " " & & " 5# " " "
" & && " & & 5 " ) >
5 " & "
& "
& & 5 & 5# " & & : ! " & &
" $ ; : & & & & & " ?33 " ' 5 " 5# & " 5#
" " " " $ & " 5# " " 627 & & 647 " 6>7 5# " " 6I7 6?7 $
" & " "
5# " & " 627 647
>' & && & && & " " " ) !& ! "
*) ) " +" # '
-
6>7 " " 6I7 " 5# & " " (& 5# &"
& " " ' " 5# & ) & $ " " "
& &
" "& & 1" & & 5# " &" & " & & &&"
& " " " " " " &" && - " & & " 5# " " -" &
$ % & " &" " 5# "
&& ' " & " & " " & & & & & & " & & & " 5# " & & & & & 5" 5# & -" " " " & "
* . /#
-
5 " & & & " & 1 5
& & " 5# $ $ " & 6 5
7 " & 6 7 " ! " & 5# & + & " " " 5 " & " $ - " & 5 # " & & #" &" &
0
" " & 5# & , ! !" & 5 & " & 5 $" " ! !" "& ! & & " & " >B
" ! !"
&& & " $" & " " " & & & &
& & " && & $ >3333 $ &
" " & $ 5 & & " ' # & &
*) ) " +" # '
-
$" & &
$ " &"
" & &" - " & " & && ' " & "& && # " & &" & " & " " " & & " 5
" " && !" # " && 5 & " & & & ' " " 5 :$ & & 4333 $ B $ & & & & " &" &. &
" " " & & &+ "5 " " & %"% " & & " &" & 5& & & & ! !"
& 5# & " " " 5# & " & &
& " &&
0
-
" &' & $" & " "
& " $ $ & & " " & & & & " &; & " &
. 5 & && " & - &" " $" & " &
" " & . " & " " "
" " && " " " ! " " 6 7 "" " && & " &"
&" 5 "
1 & %
"
$" " % & " "
' "
" -"&& "
& ).& ' & " ' &&& & & 5 & " & && " " 5
*) ) " +" # '
-
*) ) " +" 1 ) )
9 " & !" 5 " " " $ 5
$ & + & 5" ! !" 5 "
" $ $ " " ) " $ 5 & " "
# & " & "
& &
& + & &
& ; 5 " & & & & 5 & & &D' " (& ? &" 5 "
& & &
& & &
" "& & ! >3J
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_9, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
-
& &
! 5# & #
& 6 &7 & &" & & . 5 & ' &" & " " " &
" & ' &" & &" & " && "& & 5# " $ "& " & 5#
& 1 & " "& &" "
& ! & " & 1" & & " & & & (
" $ &" " & & & 5# & "
& &" $ && &
*# 2# 0 )
; " &
5
*) ) " +" 1 ) )
-
& & " & & $ " " & & &" 5# & " # &
& 2333 5# && " C 2J & &&" B?J " & & " $" C 2 & % & $ &
& & " $ C 5 & "
& & "
%& " & 5# " &
"D 1 "
" 5 &" &' &$ " " & &1 & & $ 5
& &" & & "
& & & ' &" & " $ " $ 5#& $" &
& & && + &
" " & & & " ; " & & ' " $" "
2 & & & &
*# 2# 0 )
-
, " & 3332 2J " & " 5 & ( & " & 6 %247 & & %2I & " $6 7 & & & & " & & 5# & & & & !)( " & & && 5#& " &" " " 5
BBJ & 1 && & $ &
" &5 & " && & " & " & & ! " & " " " & " !)(
& & $ & "& & & & " & 6 &" $ '7 " & & & " 5# & 1
% &&& & & & " 1 % " & "1 " " " " & " & " & " &
*) ) " +" 1 ) )
-
1" & && -" " & " & & $ 5 " & " & & ' " " " & " $ &
1
' & $ " " " " & & 1 (
" " " " &" " 1 " $ && ' & 6& " "7 " $ " &" "
$ " &" && 1 & & & ' & & && & & "0" $ && &
&" & & & "
1 & & " & & " " &
1
-
& & 1 & 23 & $ " & ' " " "" &6 " &K7 "
& " &" " ' & . & " " & & &&" 1 &
$ + 5 "& ; &"
& 5 & & & " &" & 5#
" " " 5 " H
" " & & &" " $ $ " " &" "+
& " $ &"
"
D & " &
" & & " & " " " & ' " % " " &" " & 1" 5
*) ) " +" 1 ) )
-
" " % " & & & & & ' &" " &
%& & && && /" " % & & & & & & " A " & $ " " 5 " " ' " " 2
" " " & & " 5; " " "
& & . " & " & ) " &
"& " &%& $ " " " & " & ; & % 6 $7 " $ && $ &&
% && $ 5 $ &" (" " " $ & & - " && 67 6 7 & &&
1
-
& & "& $ 5 & && " ' & )'!'# 5 / !" ;"" ;&&" & " $
&& % 4332 433> & & 5 0 " 5 & " $ 5 ,
& & & $" & ; " 5 " . "& & & $ "
'
& % " " & "
& & 5 " "
% "
*) ) " +" 1 ) )
-
*) ) " +"
" 5 ( $ & 5 &" ! &" "
$ & & & &" & & " $ " &" % &",)' A)' " " " & " & &" $ $ & " " % " 5 1
$ & "& &
" " " & & " " & & " " 5 " " 5 " . $ " 5 " 5 & " &&&
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_10, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
-
*) ) " 3 )#
& 5 &" 6& " " 7 5 & " & " 5 & " " ; " & " & & " - 5
& " " & " " & && & 5 &"& & &" & & 5 &&&" & & " 5 "
$ & $%& " " " " " && ;" $ &
& " &
& &" " " % %
& " " " & "; 5
!)( &" 5- & "
5 " & " $ &
& &$ " H
" & & & & &
*) ) " +"
-
& & & & '" " & " & "
L
$ &" & ' & " 6 L$ 7 & & & & & 5 $ 5 &"" & " $ ; & &" & " 6 "& $7
"
" " " & 6 7 & " &
$ & " 5 &" ; & & & " " " & ." $ & $ &" & " & " & & $ & " "
&&" " $ & ; " " " ! " &" " & &" " "" " " && $" " & 6 7 " L$ " " $ " " " 6 $ 7 &
" " &
*) ) " 3 )#
-
" " &" & &" " " & ' " " /" $ &5 " $ " & / 67" &" L && & & & "" & " % 1 & % " " & &" " "; &
&"" " &
& & " "& & "
& " " & " " & "
" " & " " 5 & %
" & "& 1 &" " " "& " & " &" " & "
" " " " & " 5 " & & & " . " & "
5
&
*) ) " +"
-
*) ) " $% +"
1 % " & " % % & &% " ;" " & 1 $ 5 5# " &9 $
5 ( % & " & " & ! " 5"
" && ' 0& && $" & " ( ' % " 1 ." ($ & " . & 0&
&
& && $ "
$" & & "& $
& ' 5 &" ; " &
&" :$ " && &&"" " &" " " ! $ $ 5 $ & & & & " & 5# & $%& &" " " & + " & & &
*) ) " $% +"
-
$ $ " $ 5
& $ & " &" "& &" & 5&" " $ & 1 & &% 5 $ &" " $ ; 4?J %
$ 23J ?3J &" 5 $
& " ; & " ;5 $ & " " & "& & " ( " $
& & & && & ' !)( $ & $ %& "
" ' &" % & & %24 " & " " & ' &
" " & " & ,& " %
& & " ' $ && " & & " " % & ! &
$ & & &
*) ) " +"
-
+ & & & " $ $ " % % & " & & & 1" $ & & & %& !" " & && & 5 &
& " $ "
" & " $ && & % & & $ & & $ & & $ "
" " & " " & " & 5 &" & &
*) ) " $% +"
"
5 & & " " "
& & && 5
" & && ; 5 & && "' &"
*) ) " $% +"
-
" 5 & & &
& " & " 5 " 5 & & & &
" 5 $ 6 & $7" " " & " " :$ " & " & '&
& 5 ' :$ " $ 5 " ! :$ & " " &) " &
% "
& ' & & & && " " & 5 & )
" 5 & & " " "& 1 $
" "%&! $ &" &" & " " 1" $ " %
& " && ( "
"
& &&"
0 " " "
*) ) " +"
-
% " " &" " %&" %& ! " 5 " & " " "
" ' & & &"
" &" " ("&& 6 $ " '7 5 5 && " " & & . " 5 $" & 5 " " $ " " $ &
& " ; " 433 " " & " 5 " &
; % & & "
5 & " 5 & ' " &
" && % " & " $ ;"& 5 " " & H " % & " & & " & &
" & " & " & " ,& " &
*) ) " $% +"
-
' " &%" 5- :$ 0 " 5 & " " ' " & ! & $ :$ "&& " && 6" , / 9 , A 97 "" " & " 5 & 2
5 &
, 5 0 && " 0 & 2
& " & && ! & &
& & & 5 " " " " " " & & $%% $ " &
" " & ' & " " . @ ** " #'& $ & &&
$ & & % " 1 &" %
" & & & & "%&
% &
"%& &!"
" &
" & " " 1 &
&" % .%
*) ) " +"
-
& " & % ; " && &" "%&
" & & & " ; & " &
"%& & " & " %& "
" &" " $ & 5 % " " & & ! "
" " "& &" & " & "
& & & $ $ & % & " && & % & " &+ && " % "&+ & " "%& & ! & " & & 5 & &
& & & & &$" " & " %&
*) ) " $% +"
-
3 #
&" & 5 & & I3 " I3 & ' & $ 5 :$ $ $ 5 ( ; - 4 1 & $ & " 5 && & ,& & & 5 $ & & & "
5 & 5#
& " & & - " 5 " &
" %" & & & " " & - " " & $ " " " " &"% " %&
& " & & &" & & &&&
" " ' & & $" &" " ! " "
K. Nolan, Mars, A Cosmic Stepping Stone, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-49981-9_11, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. 2008
-
& && & " & 1 & & & &&&" %& " & &" & 1 & &
&& &&"
&'() # "
) 43
50 2 & & % & "+ % " " " && " &" & &" " &" " " A " & "
" & & "
&" " & " & & && " & ) & $ ' & & "&" " ;
% & / " &
$
&" " $ " "& " " & & & & $ " 5# " / & "
3 #
-
& " & & " " &
; & &&
' " "& 9 %" $ & &
& & -" & & ! & & " & " 5 / !" & & 1 C33 & " 5 / !" & & & & 233 2 & & & %
" " " & && &" $ 5 " " & " & &+ & "' " &"
" & %" & " $%& & " $ &" " % & / " " & && " 5 &" & $& & " " & & 5" & $ & &
" " &
& 5# "
" " &
&'() # "
-
" & " ' " && & " " " " & " 1" " 5# " " & & " &; " &&
67 &- % " " & & & " $ &
& $ & & " % " & & " & " & " " " " % & " " " 5#
& **## " &
'
43 %" & &" " $" $ % " 6 " 7 % " & & " &" & 1
& %" & " & & " >33 $ >33 $
3 #
-
& ' " 5
& &
& . 5 & & & ? $ 8 "
& & ' "
& & & " & 5# " &
& && & & & &' &&
& !# && & " $ " & " " 5 & &" & 5# & & "; " &
" " -" & & & " %& 1" &
& & ,&& %& 5#
&
) 5! %& " & " & " ' " &
" " & &" " "
"
&'() # "
-
%" &% - " " &&" 5 & " & 6&7 " !" %" &&" & & $ & && %& '
" & & " & & & & 5# (
" " &
A
% 5 , " &
& " , ' & 1 && &" & " && 5'" " %&
. &" && & &&
" & 6 &" K7 &" " $" & &
$ " &" " " " " $" && ' " & && & 5 & $
) + 50 4 & & &
3 #
-
6"7 & '
" $ & &" & 0 4 $ " "
" & )'!' &" && $ & " 5# " & &
" " " & " &% " & &
& "
!" &"" &" " "
&"
" & % !" & & "$ & &" ' :$ % 5 0 9 & " & & & !" " & "A " 6 "7 & " & & %"& " " " $ & " "' 0 4
& % " 1 " " &$ & $ $ & " " 5 " " " " $ ; & & 9 && & & &" & & " " &"
&'() # "
-
&
& % $ & " ; & & &
" "& & $ $ " " & & & " " & " " "
$%& & & &% ' 6'0G!7 " & & & & %" & & $% & %" ' '0G! & & " " ' '0G!
" & & "& " ' " & & $%& & "
& & %" &" " "&" " " & "
& "
- % " & & ! "
& & & & " & 1 % $ & & "" " "& " & " $
3 #
-
& " & % " & & " 5;
" '0G!
%" & !& " &" " $ & % 0 4 & " &
' " & & 5# $ & " %& & " & & " " 1 & & " & !
" & " "
& 1
& " & " & &
" " -" $ & & " $%& & &" & " 1 " & " & &" 5" &
$
& " && &" +& & & " + && ' & & & & & " & && 5 & &
&'() # "
-
) 53 , 5' & 5 " $ " 5 " " $ 5 " " &$ &" $ & 5 " " & " & & &
"
5 "
" ;" " & &&& $ && $ " 5 " " & " ;" & & & % " & & $ $ & " " $ & & $" $ & " ; & " 5
$ " $ &" " & 5
& & 5
& & " & "
" " "
$
& " &&" 1 & " " % & & ' 0 4 %" '0G &
3 #
-
", %&&" & % " & " " & & 6
7 &" & &
" " " & "
" " $ "& & & & && " $ $ ' " " & &
" " ' & % & " $ & "& & , &
& && 1 " & % &%& & &% " & %
' & & & & "&
5 6 " & $ 7
" & " H&H%& & & & (&" & & " & A" $ & & " 5 $ "& ' &"