HEAVENLY BODIES IN

THE LAND OF MEN

An Introduction to Marquesan Archaeoastronomy

Presentation for the Rapa Nui Expedition to Hatiheu, French Polynesia, June 1st-June 23rd, 2015

Funded by

The Pacific Islands Research Institute (PIRI) and private donations

The Marquesas, Archaeoastronomy, and Our Project The Marquesas Islands, named “Te Henua Enata” or “The Land of Men” by their

Polynesian discoverers, are located approximately 1,370 km northeast of Tahiti and 4,800 km west of Mexico. Although they are part of French Polynesia, geographically they are one of the most remote island groups in the world and the most distant from any continental land mass. The archipelago is formed by a string of islands that extends about 370 km from northeast to southeast and is located 8°-11° South latitude and between 138°-141° West longitude. The archipelago is divided into two distinct island groups. The Northern group is comprised by Nuku Hiva, Ua Pou, Ua Huka, and the two uninhabited islands of Ei’ao and Hatutu. Hiva Oa, Tahuata, Fatu Hiva, and uninhabited Fatu Huku and Motane make up the islands of the Southern group. The total land area is about 1,050 km2 with a population of approximately 9,000 inhabitants with a similar number of Marquesans living in Tahiti. Cultural and linguistic evidence indicate that the first settlers of the Marquesas originated from Western Polynesia and may have arrived as early as 600 AD, ultimately expanding and settling other islands in a sphere of cultural influence that included places as far away as Hawaii and Easter island. As populations grew, eventually every Marquesan valley became inhabited. Major valleys with different river systems were often occupied by several clans, divided into settlements led by a tribal chief who lived with his family and noble entourage. Secular festivities, treaties, and other celebrations took place in communal meeting centres called tohua, while all religious activities were carried out on ceremonial sites called me’ae where statues representing tribal deities were erected. These were the kinds of structures that were often aligned to astronomical phenomena on other islands and it is very likely that this was also true in the Marquesas.

The term “archaeoastronomy” was coined in 1973 by Elizabeth Chesley Baity to

designate a fairly new field of study that blended the physical science of astronomy with the social sciences of anthropology, archaeology, and history to explain how ancient cultures interpreted astronomical phenomena. Considered a controversial field at times, only a handful of pioneers have ventured into the subject in Polynesia so far, and the subject remains obscure despite the fact that there is a fair amount of ethnographic information and archaeological evidence regarding the role of astronomical phenomena in Polynesian cosmogony, mythology, and religion, as well as its practical application in everyday life, particularly in navigation, time reckoning, and in the regulation of farming and fishing activities. “Star maps,” “calendric calibration devices,” observatories, and the structures with astronomical alignments, have been found in several islands in Eastern Polynesia, such as Huahine, Mangareva, Raiatea, Raivavae, Rapa Nui, Rurutu, and Tahiti. Surely their number would rise considerably with a more comprehensive study of archaeological sites on these, and other, Polynesian islands. The Marquesas, represent an interesting challenge to archaeoastronomers since the subject has never been thoroughly researched on those islands, yet they are considered a point of dispersal from where other Polynesians with rich traditions in archaeoastronomy, may have originally come from.

The goal of our project is to locate, assess, and corroborate the astronomical

function and ethnographic importance of archaeological sites in Nuku Hiva—one of the largest islands of the Marquesas, and one of the richest in terms of the sheer number of megalithic constructions built there—and then to study the correlations between Marquesan archaeoastronomy and that of other islands within the same cultural sphere.

The point is to gain a better understanding of the Polynesian universe and of the elements that helped shape the local cultural identity, all the while seeking to find what this reveals about the nature of these ancient contacts and human ingenuity. The Cosmos, Gods, and Time in the Marquesas and Polynesia

Some 3,500 years ago in a span of about 500 years, the Lapita, the ancestors of the

Polynesians, used their knowledge of the stars to settle an area 4,300 km wide in what is considered one of the speediest human expansions of the pre-historic world. Their descendants, the Polynesians, eventually settled hundreds of islands crossing millions of square kilometres of water without navigational instruments, guided by nothing more than complex astronomical observations and an understanding of natural signs. These navigators, or wayfinders, as they are known today, were undeniably skilled specialists who passed astronomical information from one generation to the next for over three thousands years. However, the observation of astronomical phenomena was not limited to navigation and served a far more important function carried out by powerful astronomer priests: to establish a cycle of yearly activities, where the heliacal and cosmic rising and setting of specific stars and asterisms determined when certain events took place. Depending on the activities that coincided with the rising and setting of a particular star or asterism, skywatchers announced when festivities, ceremonies, prohibitions, and the seasons started and ended. Astronomer priests or skywatchers studied the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets from special structures built in places with the best vantage point for each astronomic event, and ceremonial constructions were often aligned to astronomic phenomena. The observation of the sky was an important survival tool for Polynesians, while at the same time it reinforced some of their main religious concepts.

If the superb seafaring abilities of Polynesians are any indication, their knowledge of celestial phenomena was vast. In the 1940s, Anthropologist Maud Makemson recorded the names of 772 stars and constellations as well as several astronomical terms while working in different Polynesian islands. Like other Polynesians, Marquesans did not make distinctions between planets and stars, or small star clusters and constellations. The generic Marquesan name for all of these was fetu in the Southern Marquesas, and hetu in the Northern group.1 In Polynesia the Sun was far less important than it was for many other ancient cultures. Even though some Polynesians observed the solstices and equinoxes, it was mostly complementary to studying the motions of the Pleiades and Orion’s belt. The Moon, on the other hand, was particularly important, primarily because Polynesians relied on lunar calendars to measure time and also because of its influence on activities related to planting and fishing.

1 The language of the Marquesas may be divided into two distinct dialects, belonging to each of the island groups. The “ng” sound of earlier Polynesian languages becomes a “k” in some parts of the Northern Marquesas, while in the Southern group it changes into the more familiar “n.” The same is the case with the “h” sound, which is replaced by an “f” in the Southern group. Nuku Hiva is quite special in the sense that sub-dialects exist within the different valleys of the same island. Anthropologist Roger Green believes that this is probably due to the geographical nature of the Marquesas, where inter-island and inter-valley communication is difficult, in addition to the lengthy period of Marquesan settlement. Interestingly, the Marquesas are one of the few places in Polynesia with two different sets of names for the nights in a lunation depending on the island group. (Green 1966: 6)

Polynesians believed that everything was “alive” and “conscious,” different elements grew, reproduced, and died as a result of a supernatural power called mana. Since the chiefs were the medium by which deified ancestors provided for their descendants by making the plants grow and animals multiply, the entire clan ensured the success of their subsistence activities by making offerings and sacrifices to honour the gods in an agricultural cycle that in other Polynesian islands was called Te Fekai Nga Atua (the gods produce food). The Polynesian diet depended mainly on agricultural products, pigs, chicken, and fish, in that order. Marquesans carried out several rituals related to the planting and harvest of their most important crops, especially breadfruit, coconut, bananas, sugarcane, taro, and kava. Interestingly, the cultural significance of these crops was not all subsistence-related since the chiefs used kava as a very mild narcotic and sedative, emphasizing the importance of ritual practice and status in all these activities. However, breadfruit was an essential Marquesan foodstuff and this was reflected in the many terms that reference it in the local language, particularly those related to time and the seasons.

All Polynesians had an annual cycle of activities that determined what sort of chores

and rituals people carried out during each month of the year. Evidently these responsibilities and events were directly linked to the weather and the availability of seasonal resources, which differed on each island. Since the arrival of migratory birds, turtles, and pelagic fish coincided with the accronic or heliacal rising or setting of certain stars or constellations, astronomer priests used these astronomical events to predict the arrival of migratory species, but also to measure time and establish an annual calendar of activities. Certain stars disappear from the night sky sometimes for several months as their rotation course leads them to rise during the daylight hours when they cannot be seen. The Marquesans, like all Polynesians, used these phenomena to measure time so that specific festivities, ceremonies, and seasons started (or ended) coinciding with when particular stars appeared or disappeared from the night sky. Some of stars and asterisms that we know were important to Marquesans were Aldebaran (He’e Ti), Antares (probably Ehua or Heua), Corvus (Me’e), Formalhaut (Hatu Tahi), the Pleiades (Mataiki), Orion´s Belt (Tuitui Hohoe or Taotohu), Aquila (Pao Toa), and Ursa Major (Anu Kaki Oa). These were some of the stars and/or constellations that served as guides to the months and seasons.

According to Makemson, Antares, a red supergiant star in the western constellation

of Scorpio and the sixteenth brightest in the night-time sky, ranked with the Pleiades as the most important of the calendar stars throughout the whole Pacific area. The heliacal or accronic rising of the Pleiades helped mark the onset of another year in Polynesia, however, since the islands are located in different latitudes, not all Polynesians celebrated the new year on the same date. Polynesians developed a lunar calendar consisting of 13 lunations in which each month began on a full Moon and every night had a different name depending on the effects of the Moon on the tides, marine fauna, and agricultural cycle, thus designating the best time and places for fishing, coastal foraging, and planting for each night of the year, every year. Interestingly, several Polynesian languages share the same names for the months, the nights of the Moon, and several important stars and asterisms, even in islands located on opposite ends of the Polynesian triangle. Mataiki, Matariki, Matari’i, Mataliki, Matali’i, Makali’i are all Polynesian language variations of the same word meaning “chiefly eyes” or “eyes of the chief,” the name for the foremost Polynesian asterism: the Pleiades, which are heliocentric and are not visible year round.

It was also the name of a Pan-Polynesian festival of renewal that began with the accronic rising of the Pleiades; the exact date of this event depends on the year, longitude, and the visibility of the Pleiades above the horizon at the time of its occurrence. The celebrations usually lasted several months, coinciding with the arrival of the bountiful season. In Nuku Hiva the festival was held twice, in the seasons of ehua and mataiki, and these activities were regarded as the most important of the year. During these celebrations, normal labour was suspended and the first fruits of the harvest were offered to the chiefs; merry ceremonies were held to honour the deified ancestors and/or other deities whose generosity supported local subsistence activities.

In all of Polynesia, the calendar and annual cycle of activities were associated with a

local subsistence system based on a horticultural cycle determined by wet and dry periods and the arrival of seasonal resources. The year was usually divided between periods of rain and drought, a season of plenty and of want. The first settlers of each island had to adapt their calendar to their new reality, thus the calendars were subject to the meteorological and ecological conditions related to the cultivation of species that grow best in each island. All of this was certainly true in the Marquesas, where the terms mataiki and ehua referred to two lunar months, their two greatest breadfruit harvests—the breadfruit being their main staple—and most importantly the Pleiades and probably Antares since ehua has similar cognates in Hawaiian, Maori, Tuamotuan, and Tahitian. According to ethnographic evidence collected by Handy, Nuku Hivans called the heliacal rising of the Pleiades Ia tu Mataiki, Menino te Tai, meaning “when the Pleiades stand up, the sea is calm” and it marked the oncoming breadfruit harvest and the cold weather season, when the sea was calm on the north coasts and rough on the south. Nevertheless, Marquesans were quite unique in the sense that what corresponds to our word for “year” was called mataiki or ehua and, consisting of a period that lasted 13 lunar months total, but there was also a unit of time called puni or tau that consisted of 10 moons, which has no corresponding term in any other language. The Marquesas likely preferred a decimal numerical system and that is why they used puni and tau as units of time, despite the fact that they were fully aware that a complete year consisted of more months. Another rarely used unit of time was a period of 20 months called, mei nui, meaning “large breadfruit,” the same name used for the bountiful months of the year. Mei momo or “small breadfruit,” was the term for the period of drought.

Marquesan months, me’ama or mahina (moon), were named after the important stars

or constellations that appeared during those times, and in local mythology those stars were the children of Atea, the Polynesian god that brought the universe out of darkness and who fathered humankind. It is important to note that because Polynesian months started on the night of the new or full Moon they hardly coincide with their solar counterparts in the Gregorian calendar, not to mention that there are 13 of them. Between 1920 and 1921, ethnologist E. S. Craighill Handy recorded the Marquesan names of the months as well the terms for the days and nights of a complete lunation. Handy compared his findings with data collected by others who had also studied Marquesan calendrics and linguistics. Many of the terms collected by Handy were from Nuku Hiva as he relied heavily on a dictionary written by a French Catholic Bishop, René Ildefonse Dordillon, who lived nearly 40 years in the Northern Marquesas. Handy found little variation in the order of the months, but some differences in the exact names. A reconstructed prototype of the lists collected by Handy, appears in Table 1.

Table 1. The Names of the Months in the Marquesas, and Related Astronomical and Seasonal Events* Marquesan Term Gregorian

Month Meaning Related Stars names and

What They Marked

Iti and Mataiki or Matai’i Makaii

˜May/June

• These were the names for the Pleiades

• Mataiki marked the time of the breadfruit harvest and calm seas.

• The Pleiades appeared just before sunrise around May 20th each year.

• Iti marked that the breadfruit was finished, warm weather, and agitated seas. Iti may be misplaced in this calendar, actually going between the months of Takuua and Ehuo

Tuhua Matakeo, or Tuhua Mea Takeo Tuhua Kuhua Takeo

˜ June

• Tuhua is the name of a constellation.

• Takeo or Akeo is the name for Betelgeuse

• Takeo marked that the breadfruit was finished, warm weather, and high seas.

• Tuhua marked that the breadfruit was finished and warm weather.

Takuua, or Ka Tuna Takuna

˜ July

• Takuua is the name of Sirius. • Ka Tuna is the name of a

constellation

Ehuo

-August

• Ehuo is the name of a star.

• Ehuo marked that the breadfruit was finished and warm weather.

Mahina i Hea, or Nanaua

˜Aug./Sept.

• The name refers to Mahina, the word for the Moon.

Oaou Manu Me Pui

˜Sept./Oct.

• Oaou Manu is the name of a star.

• Celebrations for the return of the god Maui took place in early October.

Puaka and Avea or Uavea

˜Oct./Nov.

• Puaka and Avea are the names of stars.

• Both Puaka and Avea marked that the breadfruit was in season and announced hot weather.

Mei and Ehua

˜Nov./Dec.

• Mei means breadfruit, but was also the name of a star, while

• Ehua may refer to Antares

• Mei indicated that the breadfruit was in season and the weather was hot.

•Ehua indicated the time when the seas were high, the weather was warm, and the breadfruit grew large.

Ve'o and Tatou

˜Dec./Jan.

• Veo is the name of a star.

•Veo indicated that it was time to harvest the breadfruit and that the weather was mild.

Uaoa

˜Jan./Feb.

• Uaoa is the name of a constellation. It does not appear as the name of a month in two out of the four Marquesan calendars collected by Handy.

•Uaoa marked a time of great harvest and that the weather was cold.

•Uaoa comes from the terms ua and oa, meaning “long rain,” and it was called such because it was the rainiest month.

Ua Ha’a Meau, or Uamehu Mehau Mahau?

˜Feb./Mar.

•Mahau is the name of a star. It may be related to the term Metau o Maui, the local name for Scorpius.

•Mekau indicated that it was time to harvest the breadfruit and that the weather was cold.

Pohe and Fatuti’i

˜Mar./Apr.

• Pohe is the name of a star.

•Pohe marked the end of the breadfruit season and cold weather. Pohe may be misplaced here since there is a problem with the order in Handy’s list between the stars marking the Marquesan 4th and 6th months, and the 12th and 13th months.

Nape’a or Uapea Tapeka

˜Apr./May

•Tapeka and Nape’a are the names of a star, perhaps the same star.

• Tapeka marked the time when breadfruit grew again and high seas.

*Handy, 1923: 350-353; Williamson 1933: 174-175

As is evident in Table 1., there are quite a few challenges to overcome when adopting a lunar calendar that has 13 months. A lunar year is approximately 11 days shorter than a solar one; not only that, but the Earth revolves around the Sun each 365,25 days, which explains why a day is added to February every four years in the Gregorian calendar. If not properly calibrated, this can add up to a noticeable discrepancy over observed equinox times and the seasons. Nevertheless, Makemson calculated that Polynesians added or subtracted a month every 3-4 years using the rising of the Pleiades as their guide; thus the Polynesian lunar year never exceeded the solar one by more than 19 days. (Makemson 1941: 94). The Marquesan year began with the rising of the Pleiades, but since Antares (or an unidentified star called Ehua in Marquesan) was also used to calibrate the lunar year with the solar one, there is much variation in the months preceding and following the lunations named after these important stars. In addition, many of the stars and constellations that the Marquesan calendar refers to have not been identified, and Handy mentions several others that helped mark the seasons, but that were omitted from Table 1. since it is not possible to determine where they go on the list without further study; these terms were: Kana, Komui, and Atutahi (for more information see Appendixes I. and II.). Ethnologist Karl Von den Steinen reported that there were months named after Sirius and Orion however, neither of the names that Handy recorded for Orion and Orion’s Belt coincides with any of the names Handy listed for the months. Unfortunately, this information was lost over the past 300 years as a result of the devastating impact of European contact, Christian proselytization, and the introduction of deadly diseases. Inter-island trade networks ceased during that time, isolating the islands from their traditional cultural sphere, the Gregorian calendar was adopted, new religious festivals replaced the old, and traditional astronomical knowledge was reduced to whatever elements were useful to fishing. Nevertheless, we believe that it would be possible to identify these stars and asterisms by studying the principal astronomical events that may be observed within those given times and corroborating their importance in Polynesian calendrics, ultimately providing greater insight on the Marquesan calendar and annual cycle of activities.

Although the Moon was very important to Polynesians, there are not many terms related to the phases of the moon—some islands dividing the cycle into only two distinct periods. This is probably due to the fact that the names and function specific to each night of the moon were identified in such detail, that a more general division may have seemed unnecessary. According to Handy, Marquesans divided a lunation into four phases, and like the stars, the Moon was believed to be the child of the god Atea. The Northern Marquesan names of the phases of the Moon appear in Table 2.

Table 2. The Phases of the Moon in the Marquesas* Moon Phase Marquesan Term Meaning

The New Moon Mahina Hou or Mahina Tu

• New Moon • Rising Moon

The Half Moon or end of the 1st quarter

Mahina Kotapa • Cut-off Moon

The Full Moon, Mahina Pi • Full Moon The Moon in its 3rd quarter Mahina Fiti Po To No • Moon Going to Dense Darkness

*Handy, 1923: 349

As mentioned previously, in contrast to the seemingly simple Marquesan classification of the different Moon phases, they devised quite a complex calendric system with regards to the lunar month, depending on the activities that were best carried out on each date. The generic Marquesan term for day was oatea or a, and night was po however, there were specific names for each of the 29 to 30 days and nights in a lunation. This was not a common practice in all Polynesia, where a day usually had only one name. Handy collected over 60 Marquesan words from different sources in the Northern and Southern Marquesas as each term had several variations on the different islands (see Table 3.).

Table 3. The Nights of the Moon in the Marquesas* # Nights (Po) Po Variations Days (Oatea) 1. O Tunui Tu O Maamamaama 2. O Tuhava Maheama Tutahi O Totohe 3. O Tuhaka Hoata Tuhaa Hoata

Hoata Maheama Vavena

O Pakiikii

4. O Maheama Tuatahi Maheama Tahi Maheama Tuhakapau

O Ua Noa

5. O Maheama Vaveka Maheama Vavena Koekoe Tutahi

O Puke Noa

6. O Maheama Hakapao Maheama Haapao Koekoe Tuvavena

Pukeoo

7. O Koekoe Tuatahi Koekoe Tutahi Koekoe Tahi Koekoe Tuhakapau

O Maunoa

8. O Koekoe Vaveka Koekoe Vavena Hai

O Taunoa

9. O Koekoe Hakapao Koekoe Haapao Una

O Tata Mai

10. O Ai Mahau O Heke Noa 11. O Huna Hua O Pua Mai 12. O Mahau Mehao

Mahao Mehau Tua

O Taha Noa

13. O Ua Hua Otu-Nui

O Haako

14. O Atua Otu Mauii O Patavai 15. O Tunui Honu Nui

Hohotu Nui Hotunui Otu

O Mahinahina

16. O Mahuto Honu Nui Honu Ma Akau Hotu Maue Maue Male Hotu Akau Neva

O Tihenoa

17. O Tuu Metohe O Huamai 18. O Akau Aniva

Hakahau O Taumai

*Handy, 1923: 350-353; Williamson 1933: 348-349

Table 3. The Nights of the Moon in the Marquesas ** (continued) # Nights (Po) Po Variations Days (Oatea) 19. O Motohi Akau

Metohi Koekoe Tahi

O Mamae

20. O Tohiau Akau Koekoe Vavena

O Kakenoa

21. O Taukume Koekoe Tutahi Koekoe Tahi Koekoe Pau

O Tavatava

22. O Kumea Koekoe Vavena Vehe

O Keekee

23. O Eea Koekoe Haapao Koekoe Haapoo Tane

O Ona Noa

24. O Takaoa Tutahi Tuhiva Tanaoa Tahi Hee Hee Ia Takao Akau

O Pukepuke

25. O Takaoa Vaveka Atiati Takao Atiati Tanaoa Tahi Taukume

O Puke Noa

26. O Takaoa Hakapao Vaka Tanaoa Vavena Ku Mea

O Tahataha

27. O Vehi Tane Tanaoa Haapao Tana Hau Vaka

O Hatihati

28. O Tane Moui Tana Hau Vehi

O Maunoa

29. O Mouikeo Ononui Nunui

O Tau Noa

30. O Oko Mate Nu Mata O Moe Noa *Handy, 1923: 350-353; Williamson 1933: 348-349; Williams 1928: 356

Marquesans were well aware of the effects of the Moon on the tides, marine fauna, and planting, and this was reflected in the names of the days and nights, which often referenced the activities that were best performed at each time of the lunation. The six nights with names containing the word koekoe which appear shortly before and after the Full Moon, were considered the best for fishing, and cognates of this term appear in several Polynesian calendars, sharing the exact same meaning. Although the exact meaning of many of the terms that appear in Table 3 is uncertain, we believe it may be possible to determine the significance of at least a few of the terms by comparing the names with those that appear in the Hawaiian, Maori, Mangarevan, Rapanui, Rarotongan, and Tahitian calendars. The fact that several of the terms repeat themselves, sometimes consecutively, in all seven calendars not only indicates a common origin, but when they are placed in different parts of the moon cycle, they suggest a local adaptation to the unique natural conditions and resources available on each island, thus shifting the activities that could be performed on a specific date. Interestingly, the 16th Marquesan night, corresponding to the night of the Full Moon, had more variants than any other term on the list. One of Handy’s informants from Hiva Oa explained that the terms hotu maue and hotu akau all present in the Southern Marquesan name for the Full Moon, meant

“agitated” and “stretched” male sexual organ (akau, maue, and male), and that when the Moon was at its brightest fertility abounded in humans and nature. Indeed, for the Marquesans, the best time for planting was during Full Moon (Mahina Pi) or when the tides were high (ia pi te tai), and it was believed that anything planted during that time would grow strong and bear large and plentiful fruit. The Marquesan classification of the divisions in a day was equally complex. Marquesans had over 30 terms to designate each part of a day, depending on the position of the Sun, the available sunlight, and again, the activities that were best carried out at that specific time. In the Marquesas there are just about as many terms for the daylight hours as nighttime ones, which is not the case in all Polynesian languages. A list of the Marquesan terms for the times in a day appears in Table 4.

Table 4. The Times of a Day in the Marquesas* Marquesan Term Translation or English Equivalent

• Kehukehu, also • A Mau Oioi • A Mau Popoui • U Popoui Kehukehu • U Kehukehu

The sun’s rays first appear.

• A Pakii te Oumati, also • U Maama

Dawn

• I te Popoui Kehukehu Sunrise. • Tu Nui, also • Ua Eke te Oumati • U Popoui • Oatea Popoui

Morning. Tu Nui refers to when the Sun was a quarter-way up, about 8-9 in the morning. (The term probably comprises other names on this list).

• I te Popoui, also • I te Tika • I te Popoui Tika

Early morning.

• I te Popoui Tikatika, also • I te Oioi Tikatika

Morning.

• I te Oatea Late morning, before noon. (Other sources say Oa Tea Nui refers to 7-8 am)

• Tutu Kotoa i Vaveka Nui Ahau te Oumati also • Tutu • Kotoa • Tutu Toitoi • Tu Toitoi • Tu Toitoi i Vaveka Nui Ahou te A

Around noon.

• Atea Nui, also • Te Oatea Nui • Oatea Ikuiku

Noon. . (Other sources say it refers to 7-8 am)

• Evaeva Tea, also • Mea Tata Te Kapua • I te Oatea Ahiahi

Early afternoon, when the Sun was just above the mountain peaks. May comprise the next few terms on this list.

• Ua Haka te Oumati, also • Ua Haka te Kopu A

About 2 pm.

• Ua Eva te a, also • A Tukutuku

About 3 pm

*Handy, 1923: 349; Dordillon 1932: 252-53

Marquesan Term Translation or English Equivalent • Ahiahi Afternoon/Evening. From about 4 pm until the end of twilight at

about 6 pm; when fires, ahi, were lighted. Ahiahi comprises the next few terms on this list.

• Ua Eva te Oumati, also • Ua Tea Ahiahi, • Oatea Ahiahi

The Sun descends, about 4 pm.

• Ua Kao te Oumati, also • Ua Kao te Kopu A

Sunset. About 6 pm.

• I te Ahiahi Po, also • Maehuehu • Makehukehu • Takotako • I te Puhi Ika Ama • I te Po Erere

Dusk, before real night set in, about 6:30-7:00 pm.

• Mamata Veinehae, also • Matamata Veinehae • Ua Po • Ua Puhi te Ama • Tauiui

About 7 pm. The two first terms refer to the eyes of an ogress.

• I te Tumoe Nui About 8 pm. • E Tahi Hatua Moe, also • Hatua Moe Ahiahi a Tahi

First part of the night. (The term may comprise other names on this list).

• E Ua Hatua Moe • Hatua Moe Ahiahi a Ua

Second Part of the night. (The term may comprise other names on this list).).

• E Tou Hatua Moe Third part of the night. (The term may comprise other names on this list).

• Hatua Moe Ahiahi a Ha Fourth part of the night. (The term may comprise other names on this list).

• Po oa mua oa mui, also • I te Tumoe I Vaveka • I te Hatu Moe Nui • Po • Po Nui

Midnight or in the middle of the night. The terms with Po, refer to a dark moonless night.

• I te Mau te i Ao About 2 am. • I te Taki o te Moa, also • U• a Taki Te Moa Tapu

When the roosters crew for the first time at night. (The term may comprise other names on this list). About 3 am.

• I te Moa Taki e Ua When the roosters crew for the second time at night. (The term may comprise other names on this list).

• Mau Oioi, also • I te Moa Taki e Tou

When the roosters crew for the third time at night. (The term may comprise other names on this list).

• I te Moa Taki e Ha When the roosters crew for the fourth time at night. (The term may comprise other names on this list).

• I te Mau te i Ao About 4 am. • Ua Hai te Ota o te Oioi Tika, also • Oioi Tika Maehuehu

About 5 am.

• Oioi Tika, also • Ite Popoui Tika

About 6 am.

• Tata Hoata Te Ma'ania, also • I te Mau Popoui • E Kiato Moa • Moa Tapu

Just before dawn. A little after the last rooster crew.

*Handy, 1923: 349; Dordillon 1932: 252-53

The fact that Marquesans had different names for the days and the nights in a lunar month, in addition to their devoting so many different names to the nighttime hours suggests that Marquesans may have taken advantage of the evening hours more than

most Polynesians, perhaps in activities related to fishing or—the same as on other islands on Full Moon nights—in feasts to enhance fertility in people and nature. However, it is important to note that the Marquesan term for the time after dusk—when night falls—translates as “The Eyes of the Vainehae,” an ogress, which is more in accord with the views of most other Polynesians, who regarded the night as something fearsome and dangerous, while daytime was associated with life and wellbeing. Evidently, the subject merits further study.

Although there are still many matters that remain unclear, it is easy to conclude that

the correct observation of stars and asterisms was essential for the ancient Marquesans, and it was crucial to know how to correct the inherent seasonal and chronological shortcomings of a lunar calendar. In all Polynesia, these tasks were carried out by trained astronomer priests, who were responsible for observing the movements of the stars and Moon, and accordingly adjusting the local lunar calendar. Ethnographic information from other islands indicate that there were several different kinds of astronomer priests—or skywatchers, as they are termed today—each with a specific skill and or duty, and that they were trained from infancy in specialized schools that were reserved for the elite. Some of them studied the tides and other meteorological phenomena, providing weather forecasts and predicting seasonal variations that benefited farmers and fisherman, and many of them used their skills to make predictions, often delving into the realm of divination, as the relationship between celestial bodies was believed to announce future events. The same as other Polynesians, Marquesans probably called these astronomer priests by a term that included the words tohuna or tuhuka, the name reserved for master craftsmen, and skilled or professional experts.

Skywatchers studied the night sky from the best point of observation for the specific

phenomena they were looking for, and it must have taken much trial and error to find the best location on each island. “Star maps,” “calendric calibration devices,” and observatories have been found in several Polynesian islands while ceremonial structures such as the Marquesan tohua and me’ae (marae) have been proven to be astronomically or topographically aligned on the islands of Huahine (11 marae), Raiatea (8 marae), Raivavae (9 marae), Rapa Nui (20+ ahu), and Rurutu (6 marae). There may very well be many more such sites in Polynesia, but without further study their actual number cannot be determined. The idea of orienting architecture towards the position where specific stars rise or set, or a true north/south, or east/west position, is not a novel concept in the interpretation of Polynesian archaeological sites. There evidently was no Sun cult in Polynesia—or at least no rites or festivities were celebrated in its honour, and sites that were previously thought to be oriented to the equinoxes or solstices were probably aligned to the Pleiades or Orion’s Belt, which follow a course very similar to that of the Sun on those dates.

The ancient Marquesans believed that everything in the universe was alive and

conscious and that rocks multiplied and grew the same as people and plants. Stone was considered the best media to represent supernatural beings such as gods and deified ancestral spirits, and was often considered to be the dwelling places of supernatural entities. The accumulated rock art inventory from the Marquesas exhibit a sophisticated and rich carving tradition; petroglyphs, are by far the most common form of aboriginal rock art in the Marquesas, and they have been recorded on all the islands that have been archaeologically surveyed. Rock art associated to astronomical phenomena and the

events they announce are common in Rapa Nui, one of the islands where the subject has been studied in greater detail. Since Marquesan and Rapanui petroglyphs share a surprising number of common motifs it would be interesting to see if the Marquesans shared the Rapanui’s passion for skywatching, exhibiting this in their rock art.

The majority of Marquesan petroglyphs are located in places directly associated

with ceremonial structures, or located around major waterways in the most fertile part of a valley however, some are hidden high up in the mountains or in very isolated areas, away from the main settlements. In fact, rock art researchers have found that Marquesan petroglyphs are not restricted to specific sites and may be found in several different locations, in both the public and private domains, indicating a both secular and sacred function. Like the Rapanui, it is possible that Marquesans carved petroglyphs in areas where astronomical phenomena were observed, depicting the promising rewards they expected to receive during a specific time of the year. On Rapa Nui, this included carvings of fishhooks, turtles, tuna, shark, and other marine creatures that welcomed the opening of the deep-sea fishing season. Figures representing whales, tuna, dolphin, shark, rays, turtles, and large pelagic fish, are not uncommon in Marquesan rock art, but whether they are related to skywatching or not remains to be seen, as the carvings need to be studied within a greater context. According to an informant of archaeologist Robert Suggs, turtle motifs announced rain in the Marquesas however, taking into account the meaning of turtle petroglyphs on Rapa Nui, it is possible to consider that what the informant actually meant was that the designs were carved to welcome the oncoming bountiful wet season. Hatiheu and its neighbouring valleys in Nuku Hiva are home to one of the largest concentration of petroglyphs in the Marquesas; interestingly, an overwhelming majority of rock art panels in Hatiheu, face north (tiu) or towards the ocean, yet the significance of this, and whether it is intentional or arbitrary, is unknown. Evidently, no conclusions can be made without further study, other than that since Polynesian petroglyphs had a symbolic as well as a functional significance, Marquesan pictographs were not idle markings, nor were they made for purely aesthetic reasons.

Conclusions

The skill and knowledge involved in Polynesian archaeoastronomy was not learnt

from one day to the next, indeed it involved centuries of information and experience passed from one generation to the next, until a specialized elite was able to establish seasonal patterns, keep track of time, and develop an agricultural cycle. It is easy to surmise that the heavens were the inspiration for cultural principles that were so significant that Polynesians saw in them the work of the gods. Nevertheless, Polynesian skywatching developed for very practical reasons, for agriculture and navigation (i.e. subsistence, immigration and trade), and was intrinsically related to almost every aspect of everyday affairs. Spearheaded by something as important as survival, population dispersal, and economic growth, people found a way to understand and use astronomical events for their own benefit, yet many concepts remained the same, year after year, century after century, from island to island. Examining the differences and similarities between Marquesan archaeoastronomy and that of other islands would undoubtedly offer great insight as to the nature of Polynesian inter-island migrations and contacts, as well as the unique evolution and cultural identity of these island-societies.

Between 1984 and 1999, the Department of Archaeology of French Polynesia sent several scientific teams led by Edmundo Edwards to conduct an archaeological survey of the different valleys in the Marquesas. These scientists recorded close to 7,000 petroglyphs and nearly 1,000 archaeological features, such as house sites, temples, shrines, dancing platforms, ceremonial centres, burial and refuge caves, agricultural terraces, and quarries, on the islands of Nuku Hiva, Ua Pou, Ua Huka, Hiva Oa, Fatu Hiva, and Tahuata. However, there are many valleys that were densely occupied in the past that have never been surveyed, and not more than 30 structures have been excavated on all of the Marquesas. Studies have shown that Eastern Polynesians often oriented their sacred architecture to topographic and astronomical phenomena, often carving rock art in the vicinity of places where astronomical events were observed, yet the subject has never been investigated at length in the Marquesas. In addition, there is also little information regarding ancient inter-island trade networks in the archipelago. None of these subjects have been adequately considered in the interpretation of archaeological data, nor have inter-disciplinary comparisons been systematized to clarify the nature and conditions of inter-island communication. Nevertheless, there are probably few areas in the world where the potential for studying the growth and development of complex stratified social and political systems is as great as among the islands of Polynesia. The analytical advantages of Polynesia are due to the often-cited “laboratory like” conditions of remote, isolated islands. A detailed study of the local calendric system, tohua and me’ae orientations, and rock art motifs would greatly contribute to our understanding of how Polynesians lived up until the time of European contact, in addition to fostering proper care and maintenance of valuable yet remote archaeological sites. The Marquesan calendric system is evidently tied to that of other Polynesians, but it is also unquestionably uniquely Marquesan; that, and the overwhelming importance of the concepts of Cosmos and Time, place archaeoastronomy at the top of the list of valuable research topics in Polynesia today.

The common ancestry of Polynesians is evident in the many terms and practices

shared by people settled on islands sometimes thousands of kilometres away from each other, yet the richness of this seafaring culture is manifest in the diversity found in settlements that are sometimes only a few valleys apart. Much can be learned by placing Marquesan calendrics, within the context of greater Polynesia; while at the same time, the more we learn about Marquesan archaeoastronomy, the more we will be able to understand the Polynesian view of the cosmos and the place humans occupied in the Polynesian universe. There is ample proof that Polynesians were exceptional navigators and that the wealth of information wayfinders commanded was an important factor in their success. With limited physical proof, mostly restricted to certain structures with an astronomical orientation, the expertise of Polynesian skywatchers is harder to grasp even though it almost certainly preceded Polynesian navigation and probably involved a much more extensive bank of knowledge regarding observation of the night sky. Hopefully the recent interest in Polynesian navigation will spark notice of other Polynesian achievements and expose one of the more extraordinary abilities of the ancient Polynesians.

Appendix I.

Appendix I. Names of the Stars or Constellations That Served as Guides to the Seasons* # Marquesan Term Season 1. Kana Breadfruit is in season; it is hot. 2. Puaka Breadfruit is in season; it is hot. 3. Avea Breadfruit is in season; it is hot. 4. Mei Breadfruit is in season; it is hot. 5. Ehua Breadfruit grows large; it is warm; the sea runs high. 6. Veo Breadfruit is harvested; it is mild. 7. Uaoa There is much harvesting; it is cold. 8. Mekau Breadfruit is harvested; it is cold. 9. Pohe Breadfruit is finished (June); it is cold. 10. Komui Second growth of breadfruit; it is cold. 11. Atutahi Breadfruit grows large; it is cool. 12. Ehuo Breadfruit is finished; it is warm. 13. Iti Breadfruit is finished; it is warm ; the sea runs high. 14. Takeo Breadfruit is finished; it is' warm; the sea runs high. 15. Tuhua Breadfruit is finished; it is warm. 16. Tapeka Breadfruit grows again; the sea runs high. 17. Mataiki Third breadfruit harvest; the sea is calm. *Handy, 1923: 350-353

Appendix II.

Appendix II. Names of Marquesan Heavenly Bodies*

# Marquesan Term Heavenly Body Observations 1. Ao'amanu 2. Atinaha 3. Atutahi 4. Ave'a, Aveka 5. Ehua • Antares? 6. Ehuo 7. Ha Vae a 8. Haamekau 9. Hai • Antares? 10. Hatu Tahi • Fomalhaut 11. Hee Ti • Aldebaran 12. Heipua 13. Hetu Nui also:

Hetu Ahiahi or Fetu Mahona Puipui i te Ahiahi Hetu Ao Fetu Oatea

• Venus • The Evening Star • The Morning Star • The Morning Star

•Meaning: Large Star •Meaning: Evening Star • Meaning: Star of the Light •Meaning: Day Star

14. Hu Aua 15. Hua • Jupiter 16. Iti 17. Kana • A constellation 18. Maena Eke Aia 19. Mahaka 20. Mahake Tutue Honu 21. Mahau 22. Manapu Upu'ute 23. Manu Kaki Oa • Ursa Major 24. Matahetu 25. Mataiki • the Pleiades 26. Matauaua 27. Me'e • Corvus 28. Moana Tu Tu a Ono 29. Nape'a 30. Na Pai Ka • Aries 31. Na Poka • A constellation 32. Na Tui Hohoe 33. Pao Toa • Aquila 34. Pohe 35. Pohii • A constellation 36. Pu'ukaha 37. Puaka 38. Pukeo'o 39. Tahiipua 40. Takeo 41. Takuua 42. Tape'a 43. Tauna'a 44. Te-huii 45. Te tuii *Handy, 1923: 350-353; Williamson 1933: 92, 134

Appendix II. Names of Marquesan Heavenly Bodies** (continued) # Marquesan Term Heavenly Body Observations

46. Te Umu • A constellation • Meaning: The Earth-oven

47. Titi Hohoe 48. Tuhua 49. Tuitui Hohoe or Toaotohu • Orion’s Belt • Meaning of Tuitui Hohoe:

A Chief’s Paddle • Taotohu has cognates elsewhere in Polynesia

50. Tuna 51. Tuuatea 52. Ua'oa 53. Uanui 54. Vao Fetu • The Milky Way •Meaning: Band of Stars 55. Ve'o

**Handy, 1923: 350-353; Williamson 1933: 92, 134

Bibliography and Further Reading

Dordillon, René Ildefonse,1932, Dictionnaire de la Langue des Iles Marquises, Français-Marquisien, Institut d'Ethnologie, Paris Edwards, Edmundo, 1985, “Prospection archéologique du me’ae Pehe kua, Puamau, Hiva Oa,” Département Archéologie, C.P.S.H. Tahiti Edwards, Edmundo, n.d., “Prospection archéologique de la vallée d’Eiaone, Hiva Oa,” Département Archéologie, Département Archéologie, C.P.S.H. Tahiti Edwards, Edmundo, n.d., ”Prospection archéologique du la Vallée de Fa’aroa, Raiatea,” Département Archéologie, Département Archéologie, C.P.S.H. Tahiti Edwards, Edmundo, and Sidsel Millerström, 1993, “The rock art of the Marquesas Islands,” Département d’Archeologie du CPSH, unpublished manuscript Green, Roger C., 1966, “Linguistic subgrouping within Polynesia: the implications for prehistoric settlement,” The Journal of the Polynesian Society, Volume 75, No. 1, pp 6-38 Handy, E. S. Craighill, 1923, The Native Culture in the Marquesas, Bayard Dominick Expedition, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Press, Bulletin 9, No. 9, Honolulu

Linton, Ralph,1923, The material culture of the Marquesas Islands,” Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin, #5 Millerstrom, Sidsel, 1988, “Rock art in the Marquesas Islands,” Rapa Nui Journal, 2(3) Millerstrom, Sidsel, 1989, “Experimental archaeology in rock art,” Rapa Nui Journal 3(2) Millerstrom, Sidsel, 1990, “Rock art of Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia: A case study of Hatiheu Valley, Nuku Hiva,” M.A. Thesis, University of San Francisco Rolett, Barry V., 1986, “Turtles, priests, and the afterworld: A study in the iconography interpretation of Polynesian petroglyphs,” in Island Societies: Archaeological Approaches to Evolution and Transformation, ed. P.V. Kirch, Cambridge University Press Suggs, Robert C., 1961, “The archaeology of Nuku Hiva,” Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia. American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers, 49(1). Williams, H. W., “The nights of the Moon,” Journal of the Polynesoan Voyaging Society, Volume 37, No. 147, pp 338-356 Williamson, Robert W, 1933, Religious and Cosmic Beliefs of Central Polynesia, Vol. I, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge