Margaret Denslow Kissam

THE CHARACTERlZATION OF MERLIN IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of

Master of Arts

Department of English

McGill University

August l, 1967

:: (ê) Margaret Dens10w Kissam 1968

Margaret Denslow Kissam

THE CHARACTERlZATION OF MERLIN IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of

Master of Arts

Department of English

MeGill University

August l, 1967

Merlin is an dien character who helps Arthur and the

fellowship of the Round Table towards a great achievement, in which

he will never partake, when they would not have seen the possibility

or succeeded in the undertaking without his direction. A study of

the development of the legend of Merlin from the ~ ~ of

Carmarthen and certain chronicles through the Arthurian romances

shows that Merlin is a significant archetypal figure who is able to

survive and benefit from the conceptual transitions through which

he passes in the Middle Ages.

CONTENTS

Table of Contents i

1. Before the Romances 1

2. Robert de Boron 15

3. The Vulgate Continuations 21

4. The Huth Continuation 36

5. Sir Thomas Ma10ry 48

6. Conclusion 54

Bibliography 59

CHAPTER ONE

Before the Romances

In this study l should like to examine the development of

Merlin as he is known in Medieval literature, his character as distinct

from the prophecies attributed to him. l shall not attempt to speculate .

on who Merlin really was, but on what he became through tradition,

imagination, and rhetoric. Merlin has been warrior, madman, prophet,

Antichrist, shape-changer, counsellor, enchanter, and foolish lover.

It was he who made possible a noble reign and a sacred quest, attempts

to fulfil man's highest ideals. By examining him in these different

lights, l hope to show how Merlin was developed into his rnost noted

form, in Malory, and to suggest why. To this end, l am going to

review the accounts of Merlin which existed before the character found

its way into the Medieval romances, and then go on to consider at

greater length his r6le in the French and English versions of the

early history of King Arthur, and in Malory's ~ Morte Darthur.

To begin with, it will be useful to give an outline of the

story of Merlin as it appears in the Huth Merlin,l which will serve as

a point of reference. After the death of Christ the devils decide

that in order to reconquer mankind they must create a man endowed with

their powers. Merlin is duly engendered by an incubus on a virgin,

lGaston Paris and Jacob Ulrich, editors, Merlin, edi ted from the Huth manuscript, Paris 1886. Two volumes.

2

but he is saved from evil by Blaise, the girl's confessor, who baptizes·

him immediately after birth. Because he is the son of a devil, he

knows aIl that is past, and to reward his mother for her repentance,

God bestows on him knowledge of the future. At this time, there is a

king in England named Constant, who has three sons, Moine, Pendragon,

anù Uther. Moine succeeds his father, but is a weak ruler, and his

senechal Vortigern (Vertigier)2 usurps the throne. Vortigern makes

an alliance with the Saisnes, a pagan enemy, that includes marrying

the daughter of their leader Hengist (Hangus), and allowing them to

come to England. Understandably, Vortigern tries to build a strong

tower, but the walls will not stand. His advisors read in the stars

that a fatherless boy will be responsible for their ruin, so they tell

Vortigern that his problem will be solved if he has such a boy killed

without seeing him, and his blood sprinkled on the foundations. Merlin

is able to convince the men sent to kill him that he can help the king,

so they take him back to cou~t. On the way, he impresses the guards

by laughing at a man bargaining for a pair of shoes, because he knows

he will not live to wear them. This prophecy is confirmed. Merlin

explains to Vortigern that under the tower site is a body of water,

and under it are two dragons, one red, one white. When the stones of

the foundation are laid, they disturb the dragons, and when the dragons

stir, the foundation collapses. Merlin predicts that once the dragons

are brought to light they will fight, and the white dragon will kill

the red one, which he afterwards interprets to Mean that Vortigern

2To lessen the confusion of the multiple spellings of each name, the Most prevalent English spelling of the name is used throughout. Alternatives are given in parentheses.

3

will be destroyed by the sons of Constant. This also comes true.

Alter visiting Blaise in Northumberland, Me~lin helps Pen dragon and

Uther to rid the country of the Saisnes. The Saisnes return, and

Pendragon is killed. Merlin imports huge stones (Stonehenge) from

Ireland for his sepulchre. Uther becomes king under the name Uther

Pendragon. Merlin rev~Rls to him the great secret of the two sacred

tables of Christ and Joseph off Ârimathea, and is charged with making

a third, at which there is an empty seat for the Grail knight. Merlin

brings about the conception of Arthur by changing Uther to look like

the Duke of Tintagel, so that he can visit the duke's wife, Igraine

(Ygerne), with whom he is very much in love. Once the duke has been

killed in e raid, Uther is able tG marry Igraine. When Arthur (Artus)

is bOirn, Merlin ghes him to Ector (Auctor) to bring up with his own

son Kay (Keu). On Uther's death, Merlin tells the nobles that they

should wait until Christmas, when God will reveal the rightful heir

to the throne. The sword-in-the-stone episode puts Arthur on the

throne by Pentecost, and aU rejoice when Merlin later reveals Arthur's

parentage. Merlin arranges for Arthur to get his sword and scabbard

from a magic lake. From then on, Merlin serves chiefly as a counsellor,

both in his natural and assumed forms, helping Arthur and his knights

with their first wars and adventures until Arthur is able to manage

without him. During this time,Merlin witnesses Arthur's marriage to

Gwenivere (Gonnore) and the establishment of the Round Table at

Arthur's court. At last Merlin is ensnared by Niviene (Viviane, Nimiane,

Nimue) and disappears, as she uses the enchantments he has taught her

to shut him in a tomb in the forest. This is the basic plot of the

two fully developed versions of the tale.

4

There has been a good de al of speculation about Merlin as a

descendant from pre-Christian tradition. Mucb ofthis speculation

has been of an imaginary or wishful stamp. Nevertheless, there are

attributes and circumstances involved of a distinctly archetypal nature,

testified to by the many analogues to episodes in the story from the

Orient, continental Europe, Scotland, and Ireland. The beginning of

the version in the Ruth manuscript is derived from the legend of the

Antichrist. The Vortigern episode reflects a very old worldwide

tradition in which a king, attempting but failing to construct an

important building, is aided by a supernatural being who discovers the

source of the trouble in floods or dragons beneath the foundations.

The supernatural being's foreknowledge is vindicated by future events. 3

The laughter motif is also widespread. 4 Merlin's control of nature,

as seen in his shape-shifting, supernatural knowledge, and prophetie

ability have filtered down from analogues in Scotland (Lailoken),

Ireland (Suibhne Ge il t), and Wales (Myrddin). S The r81e of an old

man or magician with both good and evil potential helping a young man

to start a meaningful career is, according to Jung, an archetype for

the spirit that induces self-reflection and moral force, and gives

the necessary talisman for later success. 6 The Welsh tradition is

~1. Gaster, "The Lege.nd of Merlin", ~ ~ XVI (1905), page 424.

4For a discussion of the laughter motif, see A.H. Krappe, "Le Rire du Prophète", in Studies ~ English Philology ~ ~ ot:, E. Klaeber, edited by K. Malone and M.B. Ruud (Minneapolis, 1929), pages 340 - 361.

SFor a resumé of these analogues, see John J. Parry, "Celtic Tradi tion in the Vi ta Merlini", Philological Quarterly IV (192S), 193 - 207.

6 C.G. Jung, ~ ArchetYpes ~~ Collective Unconscious (New York, 1959), page 220.

5

responsible for Merlin's association with the north and for the theme

of Merlin as a rejected lover. These ancient roots help to explain

the aura of mystery that surrounds Merlin everywhere.

In medieval literary history, before he is taken up by the

romancers, Merlin appears in Welsh poetry and in various chronicles,

at first separately as two distinct characters, and later on with

some of the attributes of both these early figures. The earlier

character is found in the chronicles in connection with Vox-tigern,

who was active around 450 A.D. The second figure is the Myrddin of

Welsh tradition. He is supposed to have fought with the North Welsh

against a pagan faction in the Battle of Ardderyd in 573, and fifty

years later he speaks of wandering mad in the woods. It must be

emphasized, as usual, that the distinction between history and legend

was not an important one in the Middle Ages, and that, in consequence,

the information surrounding t,hese dates is chiefly important in sofar

as it backs up the analogues, which suggest that Merlin was not the

creation of a single man.

In the Welsh tradition two poems survive in the ~ ~

of Carmarthen, parts of which seem to date from a much earlier period

7 than the manuscript itself, written down about 1200. In his essay

"The Welsh Myrddin poems", A.O.H. Jarman conjectures the date of the

composition to be between 850 and 1050 A.D., a time when mucb. Welsh

legend is believed to have been put into verse. 8 The first of the

7W•F• Skene, editor, Four Ancient Books of Wales (Edinburgh, 1868), volume l, pages 208~ See Ske~discussion of this in which he denies that references in a poem to later events preclude the poem's having originated at an earlier time.

8In Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages, edited by Roger Sherman Loomis (Oxford, 1960) ,:page 21.

6

poems9 is a dialogue between Myrddin and Taliessin, a renowned bard.

Myrddin claims to be the author of the prophecies in the dialogue,

which describe the Battle of Ardderyd, the ~efeat of the pagan party

and their flight into the Wood of Celyddon. The poem ends, "Since l,

10 Myrddin, am next after Taliessin,j Let my prediction become common."

11 The second poem shows more of Merlin than just his ability

as a prophet. It is set in the Wood of Celyddon fifty years after the

Battle of Ardderyd. Merlin addresses himself to a beautiful apple

tree there, and predicts that the Cymri will be succ~e~ful against the

Irish &nd the Saxons. He laments the time of his youth when he used

to eat at the base of the same apple tree with a fair maiden. He had

been a warrior in the Battle of Ardderyd. Because in that battle he

was responsible for the death of the son of his prince, he has been

living ever since a madman in the woods. Merlin is shown to be very

close to nature, not only to its beauty, but also its harshness in

contrast to the warmth of human society. In these two poems are many

elements which continue to be assoeiated with Merlin as be develops.

The nostalgie old man or one out of his wits who laments

12 past happiness is common in Welsh, Irish, and Anglo-Saxon poetry.

The madman who gains prophetie ability with his 1055 of reason is

also well known. This figure is especially popular as the Wild l1an

9 Skene, l, pages 368 - 370 (English), II, pages 3 - 5 (Welsh).

10 Skene, l, page 370.

11 Skene, l, pages 370 - 373 (English), II, pages 18 - 21 (Welsh).

l2Kenneth Jackson, Studies in Early Cel tic Nature Poetry ~ambridge, 1935), page Ill. --

7

of the Woods, a character with certain traits which are influential

to the development of Merlin in the Middle Ages. Richard Bernheimer

eeays of the wild man,

He belongs to the pre-Christian world and thus to that large group of figments of native religion to which the church learned to f~tend a limited toleration after having failed to exterminate them.

\fuatever aura of awe may have surrounded him in pagan times, or among peoples and in areas still devoted to pagan cuIts and beliefs, was very largely dissipated once his uncouth figure began to appear in dro1leries and pageants and to be subjected to allegorical inter­pretation.

Yet the wild man did not lose his mythological persona1ity when he was deprived of the respect and allegiance which may have bound his former votaries to him. His habïts and idiosyncrasies and even his hairy appearance, while they may have seemed laughable to a skeptical public, remained those of a pagan demon. So did his other supernatural ~ndowmf~ts, notably his exorbitant strength and his power over animaIs.

Because Myrddin belongs to this tradition, the Welsh poems present him

as a charaeter with supernatura1 ability. He is established there as

a prophet who has a deep understanding of nature and who is to sorne

extent severed from the world of men.

In the chronieles, Merlin, or Ambrosius, as he is first

ealled, is quite different, though again possessing prophetie and

supernatura1 powers. In the Historia Britonum of Nennius (circa 796)

there is a boy whose father is not a morta1 man, who discovers dragons

beneath Vortigern's tower site, and interprets their fight. The boy

is confused with Ambrosius Aurie1anus, a contemporary of Vortigern

and King of the Damonii, a man whose father was a Roman, and who

successfu1ly fought the Saxons. When Vortigern questions the father-

1ess boy about his parentage, he B!':.swers, liA Roman consul was my

13Richard Bernheimer, ~ ~ in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1963), page 21.

14B h' ern eimer, page 4d2.

8

15 father." This confusion is eliminated in Geoffrey of Monmouth' s

~z Brenhinedd (circa 1136), where the story is taken up and

developed.

In ~Z Brenhinedd Geoffrey takes some essential steps

towards the Merlin who is to appear in the romances. As far as we

know, it is the first time that Ambrosius is associated with Merlin,

and the first time that Merlin is associated with Arthur. The

association with Arthur comes as no surprise, however, since so many

important literary characters were eventually made part of that

supremely popular cycle. The connection of the Ambrosius story with

the name of the Welsh prophet gives the character a depth he had not

yet possessed, and the connection with Arthur gives him a glimmer of

purpose that will be expanded in the romances.

In Geoffrey' s ~, 11erlin first appears in the Vortigern

episode, which is more successful than the same material in Nennius.

Many unnecessary details have been removed. The dialogue is more

simple and direct, and the psychology of cause and effect more sure,

as in the reactions of the counsellors who calI for Merlin's blood.

Merlin is said to be the son of a nun and a devil. He solves the

problem of the tower, and in explanation delivers a prophecy to

Vortigern couched in animal and astrological imagery. He refuses

to prophesy, however, except when there is need. Later, when King

Ambrose wants an impressive monument for the Battle of Salisbury, the

Archbishop of Carleon recommends Merlin, and the king has men search

for him throughout the country until he is found. Merlin brings the

15Nennius, History of ~ Britains, in Six Old British Chronicles, edited and translated by J.A. Giles (London, 1848), page 403.

9

great stones from Ireland for the monument " ••• without exerting any

effort in the world except his own deep skill.,,16 The association of

Merlin with Stonehenge, whether or not it is Geoffrey's invention, is

linked to the pre-Christian tradition from which the character has

17 descended. Not long afterwards, Ambrose is poisoned, and a sign

appeers,

••• a star of marvellous size with a single tail on it, and on the end of that tai1 there was a baIl of fire in the likeness of a dragon. And from the mouth of that dragon two beams extended, and one of them was s~~n to axtend over the furthest part of France, and the otfër beam was seen over Ireland and dividing into sevan small beams.

The star and the dragon, Merlin exp1ains, mean that Ambrose is dead

and Uther, hi~l successor, will conquer his enemies and poss,!!g~ the

whole island. The beam over France signifies a son who will conquer

much of the world, and the other a daughter whose sons and grandsons

will possess the island of Bri tain in succession. Merlin remains wi th

Uther Pen dragon long enough toarrange for him to meet Igraine. After

that, Merlin disappears from the story. He is mentioned several times

again, however, in reference to his prophecies as they turn out to be

correct.

Geoffrey's ~ Merlini (circa 1148) contributes to the

growing complexi ty of Merlin' s character. 'fhe tale is very like the

version in the Black ~ of Carmarthen, though it is likely that both

versions got the tale independently from the mass of oral tradition.

In the case of Geoffrey's work, Latin sources are often more probable

than Welsh. Merlin is a prophet and a prince of the South Welsh who

16 Geoffrey of Monmouth, ~ Z Brenhinedd, edited and translated by John J. Parry (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1937), page 146.

l7H•J • Massingham, "The Finding of Merlin", New Criterion. IV (1926), page 331.

lP. --Geoffrey, ~, page 148.

10

fights with the kings of the North We1sh and the Cumbrians against the

Scots. Afterwards he retreats to the Ca1edonian forest, Mad with

grief for his three brothers slain in batt1e. He returns to the court

of Rodarchus (Rhydderch), King of Cumberland, however, convinced by a

minstre1 of the sorrows of his wife and sister. He becomes me1ancho1y

there, but is liberated by an incident which affords some amusement to

the court. One day, on seeing the king remove a 1eaf from the queen's

hair, Merlin bursts out 1aughing, but will only exp1ain why if the

king gives him leave to return to the forest. He then exp1ains that

the queen had just returned from a meeting vith her lover in an arbour

where she had gotten the leaf eaught in her hair, and that the king

had ~omplaisant1y removed the evidence of her dis10yalty. The queen

tries to disprove his ability as a prophet by asking what the death

will be of the same boy disguised as three different people. Merlin

prophesies three seemingly different deaths, but the boy soon dies in

an accident that includes aIl three. Merlin leaves court, setting his

wife at liberty to choose another husband, but warning her that she

must not let him see the man, or the new husband will die. He remains

in the forest with only the company of the wi1d beasts, unti1 he sees

by the forked appearance of the planet Venus that his wife is planning

to remarry. He takes to her, as a wedding gift, a herd of stags,

fa110w deer, and goats, but when he arrives the new suitor 1aughs at

him, and Merlin kills him with a stag horn. He is captured by the

wedding party and returned to the court of Rodarchus. At this time,

Merlin is again observed to laugh, and again procures his freedom by

explaining that a man he saw begging for alms was sitting direct1y

above a buried treasure, and that a man who had purchased a pair of

11

shoes would never live to wear them. His sister builds him a house in

the woods, and an observatory with sixt Y windows, sixt y doors, and

aixty secretaries. She visita him there, and he utters propheeiea.

Later he meets Taliessin, and they diseuss both natural and politieal

history at some length. Merlin then drinks from a fountain and is

cured of his madness. Merlin, his sister, Ta1iessin, and another

madman eured by the fountain decide to live together, and dedieate

the rest of their lives to God. This Merlin is identified with the

Merlin in Geoffrey's ~, because he says at one point that he is

the same man who explained the fight of the dragons to Vortigern. l9

Nevertheless, the tone is quite different from that of the chronicle.

The treatment here is light, in keeping with the attitude

20 towards insanity in the Middle Ages, especially in connection with

the Wild Man of the Woods. Merlin is outside the realm of normal life,

separated from ordinary men by his gifts and his shortcomings. Bits

of this story turn up in the Huth Merlin, but it exerts its strongest

influence on the Vulgate version, in which whole sections correspond

very closely to the story as it is set out here.

The Norman metrical chronicle Le ~ de Brut (circa 1155)

by Wace is conjectured to have been based on an earlier paraphrase of

21 Geoffrey's Brut. The Vortigern episode, the Stonehenge episode, the

interpretation of the dragon sign for Uther, his meeting with Igraine,

and Merlin's prophecies are included in this version of the Arthurian

19 See Geoffrey of Monmouth, 1!1! Merlini, summary by George Ellis

(London, 1830), lines 682 - 684.

20 John Strong Perry Tatlock, "Geoffrey of Monmouth's .Y!.i! Mertini",

Speculum XVIII (1943), page 278.

21 Egbert Sydnor Ownbey, "Merlin and Arthur", Birmingham Southern College Bulletin XXVI, l (1933), page 6.

12

material. Merlin is made somewhat more mysterious in the Stonehenge

expedition by the addition that he utters something inaudible in order

to make tho stones portable. Merlin does not fade out after Arthur's

birth, as in Geoffrey, but is present during his reign. Wace's most

influential contribution is that of the Round Table. In Wace, the

Round Table is instituted by Arthur to avoid disputes over protocol.

Whether or not the Round Table comes from Welsh tradition as Wace

claims,22 L.H. Loomis points out that from the first century to the

middle of the twelfth, it was commonly believed that Christ held his

last supper at a round table. This CM be seen in represen'tations of

it in works of art. (Later artists seem to have found the rectangular

table easier to handle.)23 This helps to explain why Robert de Boron

associated Uther's Round Table with that of the Last Supper, and why

the idea took hold with such force in the medieval imagination.

In Layamon's ~ there is a fuller account of the Arthurian

material, with more dialogue and names. Merlin has become thoroughly

supernatural. In the Stonehenge episode Merlin not only speaks sorne

unheard incantation, but he goes about the stones three times as well,

in and out. Merlin disappears when Uther becomes king, and in memory

of his interpretation of the sign of the dragon, Uther adopts a dragon

standard and the name Uther pendragon. Merlin returnB to help Uther

to see 19raine. He refuses a reward for this, however, saying,

22"Fist Artus la Roonde Tablel Dont Breton dient mainte fable:" Wace, Le Roman de Brut, edited by Le Roux de Lincy (Paris, 1836), volume-rI, page~5, lines 9998 - 9999.

23Laura Hibbard Loomb, "Arthur's Round Table", PMLA XLI (1926), page 776.

13

for nulle ich a3aen na lond 7

neouber for ich am on rade 7

richest aIre monnen & 3if ich wilne aehte 7 24 pen wurfede ich on crafte.

This is another example of how his gifts separate Merlin from other

men and their perspective. After that he is quoted once more at the

end to say that Arthur is not dead but gone to the Isle of Avalon

while his wounds heal, and that he will soon return. It is not likely

that the French romancers knew Layamon' s work, .. but his cha~acterization

suggests that the story of Merlin was taking on ever more magical

shadings in popular tales.

If the qualities attributed to Merlin in these two merging

traditions are combined, one gets a dim idea of how Merlin was

characterized around 1200 when the story first appeared in a written

romance. By the end of the twelfth century it had been established

in the chronicles that Merlin was fathered by an incubus, and though

saved from evil by a pious mother and a prompt baptism t he retained

the knowledge of his father. In the Vortigern sequence, the various

laughter episodes, the transportation of Stonehenge, the interpretation

of the dragon sign for Uther t and his prophecies, Merlin's supernatural

knowledge is put to use. His prophecies are given in animal and

astrological terms. He is instrumental in arranging for the birth of

25 Arthur. Later, Merlin stays on into Arthur's lifetime, either aiding

him during his reign, or appearing at the end of it to say that

24Layamon, Layamon's ~ 2L Chronicle ~ Britain, edited and translated by Sir Frederick Madden (London, 1847), volume II, page 370.

2~et us reject right away the speculation that the mystery surrounding Arthur's birth and youth indicates that Merlin himself was secretly Arthur' s father. See Scott :E'. Surtees, "Merlin and Arthur", essa.y privately printed for the Early English Texts Society (Hertford, 1871), page 14.

14

Arthur will live on. The Round Table has also appeared in one of the

chronicles, but not yet in connection with Merlin.

During the early developruent of the history of Merlin and

Arthur, authors grafted the Welsh tradition O&to the chronicle material.

In the Welsh legend Merlin is originally a warrior associated with the

North Welsh. Maddened with grief, he becomes an outcast in the woods.

With loss of reason comes the gift of propheoy. Though he regrets

past happiness, he has a deep understanding of nature and a piety

which help him to take the 108s of his wife (though not the insults

of her new suitor) with fortitude. In his r3le as Wild Man of the

Woods, there is a comic potential which gradually increases in strength,

especially in the shape-shifting episodes in the romances.

Both traditions show Merlin on the side of virtue against

evil. In the chronicles he is highly critical of Vortigern the usurper

and of his false counsellors. He supports the real line of kings and

advises them in their fight against the pagan enemy. In the Welsh

version, too, he fights with the North Welsh against a pagan foe, and

in Geoffrey's interpretation of this material, once recovered from his

subsequent madness, he lives a contemplative life with his sister and

Taliessin. Merlin's supernatural gifts, his virtuous standards, and

his relationship with Arthur are at this point established but not

directed towards any artistic purpose. The combination, however,

makes Merlin the obvious choice to be used in the Arthurian cycle as

the character who made the Quest possible.

CHAPTER TWO

Robert de Boron

In the romances Merlin becomes an indispensable part of the

Arthurian legend. The first written romance known to deal with Merlin

and Arthur is Merlin, written about 1200 by Robert de Boron. Robert

has a remarkable sense of structure, which is perhaps what makes the

tale a romance instead of a chronicle. Whereas in previous works

Merlin has been li ttle more than an incidental charade!' in a lengthy

series of quasi-historical events, Robert makes calculated use of the

character as a supernatural figure who alone"is endowed wi th the

ability to launch and give meaning to Arthur's reign.

Because this Merlin is such an extensive adaptation of the

material in Wace, the amount Robert himself contributed is still

disputed. It is generally agreed, however, that he was the "chief

architect" of the work. l Only 504 lines of the manuscript are extant.

However, the early parts of the Vulgate Merlin and the Huth ~ ~

Merlin, dealing ri th events up to and through Arthur' s coronation,

seem to have been taken directly from a version of Rabert's work. The

initial parts of these two manuscripts resemble each other and the

extant fragment of Robert's work more than they resemble their

respective continuations. By looking at them, it is possible to make

sorne generalizations about the nature of Ro bert' s de'V'elopment of Merlin

as a character.

IAlexandre Micha, "The Vulgate Merlin", in Arthurian Literature in ~ Middle Ages, edited by Roger Sherman Loomis (Oxford, 1960), page 320.

16

It is likely that almost aIl of Robert's sources, whether

originally in manuscript form or no~came to him orally. This would

explain certain discrepancies from the material he ia believed to have

2 used. Some elements, such as the laughter motif and the triple death

prediction, which appear here for the first time in connection with

the chronicle material, are derived from other related works. However,

certain parts of the story are so striking, and fit so well into the

artistic whole, that it is tempting to believe Robert invented them

himself.

One episode which was probably contributed by Robert is at

the beginning, where the circumstances of Merlin's birth are set out.

Robert created Merlin as a sequel to his Joseph d'Arimathie, which

tells of the Holy Grail after the Last Supper, and how it was brought

west from Jerusalem. The character of Blaise is introduced to connect

the two stories and explain their origin; Blaise is said to have

wri tten them down from Merlin' s dictation. The council of devils

parallels the prologue of Joseph, in which God sends his son to thwart

the Devil. This introduction immediately relates the character of

Merlin to the 1arger idea of the Quest. It also serves as an

explanation of 1ierlin' s supernatural abili ties and, as Alexandre

Micha points out, of the "impish humour" that inspires his pranks and

t "f" t" 3 mys 1 1ca 10ns. The emphasis on Merlin's supernatural potential

established in this initial episode fits in not only with the story

of the Grail as Robert conceives it, but a1so with the general interest

2Gaston Paris and Jacob Ulrich, editors, Merlin, edited from the Huth manuscript (Paris, 1886). volume l, page x.

~icha, "The Vulgate Merlin", page 320.

~

"

J.7

in the supernatural to be found in the literature of the period. Of

this trend, E.S. Ownbey says,

Now the metrical romance is characterized by many conventions, one of the most significant of which is that of the supernatural. In the medieval adaptations of th~ stories of Troy and Thebes, the romancers substitute for the deus ex machina of the Greeks, magic and marvels of aIl sorts. In t~ing the Matter of Britain ••• the weaving into 4 the stories of various supernatural features was an accepted practice.

Merlin, whose father was already established as a devil,5

was ideal for this treatment. He ~s described by Robert as inheriting

his looks from his father; he is hairy and fearful to see. Ownbey

lists sorne other qualities attributed to dem~nic incubi which are

pertinent to Merlin's non-human heritage. These beings could assume

or bestow any form they wished. Because they understood men's bodies

and minds, they were able to deduce their thoughts and influence their

imaginations. With a suprahuman understanding of the universe, they

were able to apply its laws and thus to work what seemed to men:to be

6 marvels. These qualities possessed by the demonic incubi help to

explain the nature of Merlin's abilities as an enchanter. They do

not, however, explain his prophetie ability, which was given him by

God.

The theme of Merlin as enchanter is here subordinate to his

rOle as prophet in the Christian drama, but later, in the continuations,

it is developed for its own interest. In Robert, the supernatural

elements in the Matter of Britain are methodically put to use within

4Egbert Sydnor Ownbey, "Merlin and Arthur", Birmingham Southern College Bulletin XXVI, l (1933), page 7.

5see Geoffrey of Monmouth, ~ X Brenhinedd, edited and translateà by John J. Parry (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1937), page 122.

6 Ownbey, page 10.

18

the framework of Christianity. Belief in the supernatural world was

too central to Medieval life to be abandoned, so it was absorbed into

the Christian culture. The regret often voiced by medievalists that

the old mythical elements lost much in the translation to Christianity

is valid, but this was the only way for them to survive at aIl. If

they were not adopted and used in a Christian context, they were

considered false and dangerous. Since Merlin was a valuable archetype,

he managed to weather the transition to become a major figure in this

Christian romance.

It is noteworthy that although Merlin is portrayed as a

prophet, Most of his prophecies are eliminated. Not only were these

prophecies of a secular nature, but they also carried the story beyond

Arthur's reign; Robert, on the other hand, wishes to foeus on Merlin,

Uther ~endragon, and Arthur. Robert uses the Round Table briefly

mehtioned by Wace as the focal point. The Round Table is meant to

continue the tradition of the sacred tables of Joseph of Arimathea

and the Last Supper. Merlin has the specifie and sole purpose of

making possible the reeovery of the Grail, whieh he does by establishing

this third Round Table, and an order of knights that will uphold the

values of the Table, prepare for and execute the Quest. The means at

his disposaI are the supernatural skills he inherited from his father

and the gift of propheey bestowed on him by God. Robert explains that

this gift is bestowed on Merlin as a reward for the virtue and humility

of his mother. The implication is that Merlin inherits his mother's

goodness, in addition to his non-human powers. With these means,

Merlin is able to see elearly what is needed in the struggle for good

against evil, and how best to help the men whose struggle it is.

19

In Robert, there is no longer any suggestion that Arthur

himself is a magician, as he was in ~ Mabinogian, 80 he needs some

extraordinary help to prepare him for the extraordinary demanda which

will be made of him. Merlin first prepares the way for Arthur by

reinstating the rightful line of kings in Britain, and by establishing

the Round Table and explaining its purpose. He is instrumental in

arranging for Arthur's very existence, a fact already presented in the

chronicles, and for his survival. As soon as Arthur is born, Merlin

takes him away from court to foster parents (apparently introduced by

Robert), in order to produce him at a time when his illegitimacy will

be overlooked because of the great need for a ruler and because of the

assurance that Christ has chosen him to be king. The possibility that

Merlin himself created the sword in the stone is a MOst intriguing

mystery. In any case, the episode is Robert's Most unforgettable

addition to the story, one that has never since been omitted.

One of the MoSt important features of the help that Merlin

brings is that it is designed to allow the men helped to achieve the

Grail themselves. Robert does not make Merlin the hero in the drama

of the Grail, but rather the director of that drama. He inspires men

with a goal and creates a situation in which they will find the strength

to fight for it. Naturally, for him to give them the Grail itself

would have no meaning within the context 'of the story. The ide a of

~erlin as a catalyst, as it were, rather than an active agent in

Arthur's reign, is sacrificed in sorne of the continuations for the

sake of getting as much drama and fireworks as possible out of Merlin's

enchantments. For Robext, however, the promise of a new age, and the

Quest for the fulfilment of that promise are the life of the story,

and, in the end, Merlin's creation of the Round Table and his other

provisions for the future Quest convey a hope that is more dramatic

than the display of magical virtuosity in other versions. It is on

that note of hope that Robert leaves off, just after the coronation

of Arthur. In this single work, Merlin is developed from his brief

appearance in the chronicles and his comic r8le in the Vi ta Merlini

to a major character in the Arthurian cycle.

20

CHAPTER THREE

The Vulgate Continuations

Omce Robert had so successfully described Arthur' s succession

to the throne, it was not long before the romane ers took up the period

between Arthur's coronation and the coming of Lancelot. The two

continuations, the Vulgate Merlin and the Ruth Sui te .2 Merlin, were

done independently at about the same time. Th.e Vulgate Merlin, or

Merlin Ordinaire, was written between 1215 ru!.d 1230, end the !luth Suite

de Merlin between 1230 and 1240. The Vulgate version gave rise to

Arthour ~ Merlin, a Scottish verse romance, Lovelich' s verse Merlin,

. and the English prose Merlin. The Ruth ~ ~ Merlin is the source

for the opening of Malory's Le Morte Darthur. The prose rendering of

Ro bert' s Merlin plus the Vulgate continuation complete the Vulgate

Cycle.

The Vulgate version was the more popular one in the Middle

Ages. It is to be found in aIl the extant cyclic manuscripts. l It is

written in the factual manner of a pseudo-chronicle, and emphasis is

put on the actions themselves, rather than on any meaning they might

convey. The development is completely two-dimensional. After Arthur's

succession to the throne, the plot proceeds with his batt1es against

the rebe1 barons and with their combined strugg1e against the pagan

enemy. Throughout this narrative, episodes appear in which Merlin is

IMarjorie Bo Fox, "Merlin in the Arthurian Prose Cycle", Arthuriana II (1930), page 26.

22

able to use his special powers. There is no analysis of the significance

of Arthur's rise to power or the nature of Merlin's contribution to it.

The total effectiveness of each episode is limited to that episode

itself. Because little thought is given to the larger picture of Arthur's

reign, except to make the details consistent with later events in

Lancelot, aIl the excitement must be derived from the events as they

happent As such, they are weIl handled and very entertaining, but not

thought-provoking. This is perhaps why it was more popular at the time

but less lasting than the Ruth Merlin.

To get the most out of the character, the author has cast

Merlin as both an enchanter and a hero. (Merlin was a hero in the

Welsh material as weIl, but that r8le did not coincide with the period

in which he was endowed with supernatural powers.) He counsels and aids

Arthur, but not often in such a way that Arthur will eventually be

better able to act on his own. This gives Merlin a greater opportunity

to display his supernatural abilities, but it does not give Arthur much

chance to grow, and therefore, the story loses long range impact while

it gains immediate effectiveness. The wide range of Merlin's activities

and approaches to the problem of establishing Arthur's rule are less

consistent than in the versions in which Merlin remains an outsider.

Bince the ultimate purpose behind Merlin's actions is not emphasized,

his choice of when to use his supernatural powers seems to be quite

haphazard. At one time he will fight and encourage his fellow knights

to do the same, while in another, seemingly identical, situation he will

defeat the enemy in one moment with a sudden storm or fire. This Merlin

is more dynamic, but not as meaningful or compelling a figure as he is

elsewhere.

23

It has been notbd by Alexandre Micha2 that much of the

continuation has been shaped according to incidents provided by

Lancelot, Queste ~ ~ Graal, and Morte~. Since these parts

of the cycle were aIl written before the Vulgate Merlin, they inspire

episodes in the Merlin which are designed to prepare for and explain

later events or remarks. A prominent example is the story of Merlin's

death, which seems to have been prompted by the comment in Lancelot

that Merlin was entombed in a cave in the forest of Darnante. 3 It is

reasonable to suppose, however, that most of the episodes in the

continuation came from the literature and especially from the orAl

tradition of the day. There is enough similarity between the Vulgate

and Huth continuations to suggest that a fairly well-developed tradition

about Merlin was in circulation.

It is impossible to be sure just what features of the Vulgate

text were contributed by the author. His contributions to the material

of Robert de Boron are likely to have been only minor details. For the

continuation, however, the author apparently did not have an earlier

romance to work from. He had to choose from the floating tradition

what of the available material he would use, and how he would arrange

it. He deserves credit for creating many dramatic effects. Merlin's

battle speeches, for instance, not often to be found in the Huth Merlin,

are nsually very weIl done. The only misfortune is that the author

2 Alexandre lviicha, "rrhe Vulgate Merlin" in Arthurian Li terature in ~ Middle Ages, edited by Hoger Sherman Loomis (Oxford, 1960), pages 323 - 324 and "Les Sources de la 'Vulgate' du Merlin", Moyen Age LVIII (1952), 299 - 345.

3 H. Oskar Sommer, editor, Lancelot ~~, Part One (London, 1910), pages 21 - 22.

24

seems to be aware of their success, and he repeats them, along with

several other themes, too often with too little variation. His

characterization of Merlin, though it has its faults, was a notable

contribution to the Arthurian Jegend.

The author has Merlin describe his relationship to Arthur

in the following way. Merlin tells Arthur that he will often repair

to the forest, a desire he inherited from his father. He goes to the

forest not to flee from virtuous company like his father, however, but

to see Blaise. Nevertheless, he ,rill always be available when Arthur

needs his counsel. He will appear to Arthur in various forms so that

others will not always know that it is Merlin who speaks ta him. For

Arthur's sake, Merlin's identity must be kept a secret at these times.

Although this description evokes the image of a mysterious outsider who

advises Arthur but is not a member of his court, Merlin's many activities

encompass a much wider sphere of action. A more detailed picture of

how the characterization is handled in the Vulgate is most easily given

by taking up Merlin' s rather dispaDate characteristics separately~ __ _

These are his r8les of enchanter, soldier, counsellor and friend to

Arthur, prophet, and lover.

Merlin's enchantments appear in two forms: his disguises and

his manipulation of natural forces. Before the continuation begins,

4 Merlin has already appeared, while getting to know Pendragon and Uther,

as a herdsman, a comely man, an old man, a page, a cripple, and as

4In the chronicles, King Constant has two sons, Aurielius and Uther Pendragon. In aIl the French and English versions of the story set out by Robert de Boron except Arthour and Merlin, however, King Constant has three sons. The eldest is naied either Moine or Constantyn, and the younger two, Pendragon and Uther. Uther takes the name Uther Pendragon after his brother's death in the Battle of Salisbury.

25

Bretel when he changes Uther to look like the Uuke of Tintagel.

Sometimes he disguises himself either because he does not want to be

recognized or because he would be more convincing in some other forme

Other times his disguise serves the double purpose of a test and a

practical joke.

Merlin's first disguise in this continuation comprises such

a test. Before the Battle of Bredigan Merlin shows Arthur mere a

great treasure is buried, and advises him to dispense it liberally

among his people after the battle, to gain their approval. When the

battle is over and Arthur is resting in camp~ Merlin arrives in the

form of a taU weatherbeaten "vilain" who appears to be cruel and

rough. He kills a wild goose and a mallard and offers to sell them

to Arthur. When Artàur asks what he wants for them, the churl says,

" ••• vous naues pas cuer de douner la tierce partie de vostre auoir

qui en terre pouirira anchois que vous laies trait ne che ne st mie

vostre hounor ne vostre preu che sachies.,,5 In other words, he has

come to ask Arthur why he has failed to do anything about the treasure,

when it would be 50 much to his advantage to do so. It is interesting

that when asked how he knows about the treasure, the churl says that

a wild man named 11erlin told him. Merlin' s rHe as wild man is

emphasized in this continuation, a r~le that needs emphasizing, since

he joins 50 often in courtly activities. The rest of this disguise

scene i8 very amusing because Ulfin (and the reader) know that the

churl i8 Merlin, and Arthur does note There are similar scenes

elsewhere in the book. Someone is asked if he i8 sure he would

5 H. Oskar Sommer, editor, Le Roman de Merlin, ~ ~ Early History

of King Arthur(London, 1894), page~--

26

recognize Merlin - Merlin having been present all along. The comedy

in this situation is weIl handled by the author.

Another test episode occurs towards the end, when Arthur

holds a feast at Camelot (Camelaoth) shortly before a battle with Rion.

Merlin appears before the king as a fair but blind harper. The harper

asks that he be allowed to bear the king's banner to battle, and

Arthur refuses because the harper is blinde Once refused, the harper

disappears, and aIl realize that they have failed Merlin. Soon a

young child arrives and asks the sarne favour. This time, Arthur grants

it willingly, and Merlin returns to his normel shape. AlI laugh, and,

cheered by the jest, prepare for battle. It is never made clear in the

tale whether Merlin doe.s this to see if Arthur knows and trusts him,

or to cheer up the company, or both. Like so Many parts of this version,

it seems to be included for the simple reason that it makes a good

story.

Merlin takes on other disguises because he believes that the

assumed semblance will better convince the person approached than his

Olm. He cornes to Gawain twice while Gawain is defending Camelot in

Arthur's absence. The first time he comes as a helpless old man to

get aid for Seigramor and his company, who are fighting their way to

Camelot th~~ugh the ranks of the enemy. He plays on Gawain's pit Y by

weeping and lamenting the danger of the brave young men so near.

Gawain is much more readily impressed, one imagines, than he would be

if Merlin arrived in his own form and had first to explain and to

prove who he was. Another time Merlin arrives as a knlght just out

of combat. He challenges Gawain to an adventur€ which turns out to

be a mission to save his mother. Gawain does not know that his mother

27

is in Logres, so if Merlin had come directly and said that Gawain's

mother was captive just a day's ride away, Gawain would no doubt have

wasted time asking questions. As it was, Gawain soon saw for himself

that the adventure concerned his mother.

The author uses the disguises in the Grisandole episode to

demonstrate Merlin's magical versatility. In this tale Merlin turns

" into a hart who announces to the Emperor of Rome that a wild man will

interpret his dream. The wild man is, naturally, also Merlin. In

this way he reveals the treason of the Bmpress, and enables Grisandole

(Auenable) to put off her disguise as a young man and marry the Emperor.

The story has nothing to do with Arthur, but is apparently too good for

the author to waste. This episode and Merlin's frequent visits to

Blaise are the major remnants of the Wild Man of the Woods tradition

as i t appears in the Merlin material.

To supplement his shape-shifting; Merlin uses his special

powers to control natural forces when the odds against Arthur are

especially heavy. The odds against Arthur are almost inevitably over-

whelming, but Merlin is relatively sparing in hi~ use of supernatural

warfare. Examples of his special techniques are: causing aIl the

pavilions in the enemy camp to catch fire, causing a great wind to

blow dust in the eyes of the enemy, causing a flood to descend onto

the enemy, causing a great flame to appear as a signal, and bearing

a dragon standard that seems to vomit real fire. These means are very

helpful to Arthur, but lack subtlety, as the enemies know that Arthur

can depend on this kind of help, and grow to respect Merlin rather

than Arthur.

• 28

Merlin is also indispensable as a knight and strategist. He

bears Arthur's standard into battle and is the most able of warriors.

As he can travel great distances in a very short time, Merlin knows the

movements of the enemy, and he is able to coHrdinate the allies. It is

he who plans the battles. During the battles, Merlin sees to it that

the knights are placed where they are most needed, and that aIl rest

at some point to refresh themselves. Alternately, he gives them

encouragement and calls them cowards, to spur them on to fight harder.

At one time, Merlin asks Gwenivere to give Arthu~ a kiss before battle.

Later, he embarrasses Arthur into Talour by reminding him that he must

fight hard to deserve the kiss. One of Merlin's most outstanding

wartime achievements is to reunite the rebellious barons with Arthur

by explaining that it would be otherwise impossible to conquer their

common foe, the Saisnes. These battle scenes complement Merlin's rOle

as enchanter by establishing, in addition to his supernatural endow­

ments, the superiority as a warrior which seems to be called for by

Merlin's position as the hero of the tale.

Merlin also supports Arthur as his counsellor and friend.

It is in this r6le that the audience sees Merlin as a person, rather

than an enchanter or hero. Merlin begins by assuring Arthur that

there is no need to fear the barons, because he will help him always.

Merlin gives Arthur advice on how to conduct himself, which is im­

portant since Arthur was not raised in the expectation of becoming

king. He explains, for example, how Arthur should receive the kings

Ban and Bohors when they visit him. Much earlier than in the Huth

version, Merlin reveals Arthur's parentage. Merlin suggests that

Gwenivere would make a good wife for Arthur, and he devises the plan

.. ,.

29

of giving her father anonymous aid in his war against Rion, in order to

win her. Merlin also serves as a sort of travel agent; he never fails

to find lodging for the knights. He uncôvers the plot of the false

Gwenivere, as he is weIl equipped with supernatural insight to do. In

short, Merlin arranges everything in both war and peace.

In the continuation, references to religious matters are at a

minimum. Alter the defeat of the Saisnes, Merlin suggests that Arthur

give thanks to God who has saved Arthur's people, but that is a rare

example of specifically Christian sentiment. Merlin's rele as a

prophet is less emphasized than any other. He gives two brief political

prophecies by way of animal symbolism, but refuses to explain them,

saying that Blaise and Leonce, the recipients of the veiled words, will

find out in good time what he means. The prophecies appear to serve no

other purpose than to accentuate Merlin's mysterious nature.

It remains to consider Merlin's r~le as a lover. This theme

is developed from a suggestion in Lancelot, as it has already been

noted, that lIerlin's career ended by his being entombed by a maiden.

This is not the only en ding to the story of Merlin's life. To cite

just one other, a Welsh tale says that Merlin went to sea in a ship of

glass with the nine bards of Britain, and disappeared beyond the

horizon into the light, never to be seen again. 6 However, the story

of his love for Niviene, perhaps because it was the one suggested by

Lancelot, is the version that has come down to us.

At first it seems incongruous that this wise man sbould be

so foolish. Ownbey describes this episode as a tragedy caused by a

6John Veitch, "Merlin and the Merlinian Pocms", ~ Journa! E..! the British Archaeological Association (1889), page 129.

30

conflict between Merlin's hum an and supernatural qualitics. His

emotions cloud his judgment, and he is forced to choose between them. 7

On the other hand, it is also important to note that since many of

Merlin's attributes descend from the tradition of the wild man, Merlin

is potentially a comic character. He is always half comic, half

serious, a dichotomy created by the dual source provided by Geoffrey

in his ~ Z Brenhinedd and 1i!! Merlini. Merlin's lessons, though

they have a serious purpose, are often in the form of a pracitcal

joke. Because the author of the Vulgate Merlin is not trying to

emphasize Arthur's achievements but Merlin's, he takes a more tolerant

view of Merlin' s end than does the author of the Huth manuscript.

Since the author of the Vulgate Merlin is far more interested

in the story than in the moral thereof, he does not extract any sombre

message from the final episode in MerIin's life, nor does he belabour

the disaster of MerIin's choice. He treats the story as a typical

romance, and thereby eliminates the difficulty of judging t~e situation

on any other level. In the Vulgate, Merlin's visits to Niviene are

extended over a fairly long period of time. They meet when Merlin goes

to Benyoc to see Leonce before the battle with Rion and the Giants.

Merlin appears as the fair young squire of the great enchanter Merlin.

He gives Niviene an impressive demonstration of his arts and promises

to teach her sorne of his devices in return for her love. Merlin ailows

himself knowingly to be deceived, but the blow is softened by the fact

that Niviene imprisons him in the fairest tower in thfl world and

afterwards spends much time there with him. In his final conversation

7Egbert Sydnor Ownbey, "Merlin and Arthur", Birmingham Southern College Bulletin ~XVI, 1 (1933), pages Il - 12.

31

with Gawain he initially assumes that he has been forgotten, a very

human reaction that supports Ownbey's thesis that his human qualities

finally overcome his supernatural. Merlin makes this assumption

merely because Gawain fails to recognize his voice, which Gawain hears

as if directly out of the air, and at a time when he least expeets it.

To be eut off from Arthur's court is for Merlin the most painful part

of his end. This differs from Merlin's dislike of court in early

tales, and shows hoy deeply Merlin's connection with Arthur has

influenced the characterization.

Merlin's downfall, though less bitter than in the Huth

continuation, is executed here with an inevitability that precludes

the possibility of any other ending to his life, in spite of his great

wisdom, craft, and heroism. Precisely because of his many skills, it

would have been difficult for his life to have ended in any other way.

It is inconceivable, for example, that Merlin could have been killed

in battle. It is interesting that just as Merlin is destroyed by a

girl, so the whole realm is brought to destruction later on because of

a woman. It is as if man's struggle towar~s transcendent values is

doomed to be defeated by his emotional nature.

It can be said in conclusion that the Vulgate continuation

is the work of a skilled story teller with little aesthetic judgment

or philosophie depth. He gave his age a Merlin of ride popular appee.l,

a superman of wit and high standards who is destroyed by a girl.

11erlin is indisputably the central figure of the tale, and when he

disappearsthe tale itself lacks life, and is brought to a hast y close.

The influence of the Vulgate Merlin was considerable, as the number

of translations and similar versions show.

32

Arthour ~ Merlin (written between 1250 and 1300) contains

the same events as the Vulgate Merlin, which puts it definitely in the

Vulgate tradition. It is quite different in sorne respects, however,

and seems to have been taken from another version of the Vulgate than

the one known today. The brevity of Arthour ~ Merlin in comparison

to the French Vulgate (not to mention the English translations) suggests

that the tale came to the author orally. The Auchinleckomanuscript,

the largest extant version of Arthour ~ Merlin, covers the events

from the council of the devils before Merlin's birth up to and through

the defeat of Rion after Arthur's betrothal but before his marriage.

The abridgements are considerable, whether or not the author

himself is responsible for them. There is practically no material that

does not pertain to the main story line, and there are substantially

fewer details in the story itself. This produces a stylized effect,

unlike the journalistic realism of the French Vulgate. The tone of

the verse and the frequent nature passages give the work a lyric

quality, less adventurous and matter-of-tact than the French Vulgate.

Though the book has its full measure of soldiers cleft in two, the

overall impression it gives is less dynamic but more pleasing to the

ear.

In spite of this different tone, war is emphasized as much

as it is in the Vulgate. Mlerlin leads in battle with the dragon

standard, and is much given to chastising the warriors when they begin

to falter. There are very few descriptions of Merlin planning battle

strategy, but he is given credit in the battle scenes for his successful

advice. llis enchantments are lightly touched on but not ernphasizeà,

and his prophecies and attraction to Niviene are barely mentioned.

33

The author seems to take it for granted that his audience knows aIl

about Merlin, and his task is to present the major features of the

story as attractively as possible.

Because the author is not attempting to suggest realism in

his style, he does not pay close attention to psychological cause and

effect. He makesrather heavy, and sometimes careless, use of stock

phrases. For example, in the Vortigern episode, the wise men tell

Vortigern that he must have a fatherless boy slain. "That wist weI

neighe al thing. n8 This is a phrase commonly used to describe Merlin,

but if the counsellors reveal in this way that Merlin is practically (', omniscient, why would Vortigern want to have him killed?

Arthour and Merlin does not make any real contribution to

the characterization of Merlin. Merlin is emphasized less than he is

in the French Vulgate; thus more stress is placed on Arthur's develop-

ment. The work does not present a brilliantly imaginative conception

of Merlin, but it does tell the story in a delightfu1, if occasionally

time-worn manner. It does not seem to say, "this is the Most amazing

story ever told", but simp1y, "here is a story that everyone knows and

likes".

Merlin (circa 1450) by Herry Lovelich is translated from the

French Vulgate Merlin. Lovelich did not complete the translation, but

ended abruptly just a 1ittle farther along than Arthour ~ Merlin,

in the midst of the battle before Trebes against King Claudas. This

work is known chiefly for its length, which is considerable. What

8W•D• Turnbull, editor, Artho~ ~ Merlin, edited from the Auchinleck manuscript for the Abbotsford Club (Edinburgh, 1838), page 23, 1ine 596.-

34

maltes a great impression on·the reader is the realization that although

the book is twic~ as long as the sarne material in the original, it

makes no noticeable addition to that material. Length is added by

greatly increasing the number of speeches an~ the details of the battle

scenes throughout the work. As an example of Lovelich's approach, here

is the passage in whieh Merlin tells Uther and Pendragon that one of

them will die in the next battles

'And now herkene what j sey the: Sethen holychirche cam jnto this lond, Swich a bataylle was non, as j vndirstond, Neper not schal ben be owre daye. therfore, Syker, as j 30W saye, ou of 30W schal deyen jn this bataylle, as j.30W seye with-owten Faylle. and perfore that ryaly 3e 30W araye Forto fyhten, as j 30W saye, and jn worschepe of the Trenyte, For 30wre helpe syker wile he be; And for his love arayeth 30W weI To his plesawnce Everydel!'

Lo, this Was Merlynes Co~saylle, As j 30W sey wit-owten faylle.

This passage actually contains fewer ideas than its equivalent in the

10 French Vulgate. Unlike the author of Arthour ~ Merlin, Lovelich

seems to have been defeated by the exigenciea of the verse forme In

spite of the greater length, he has decreased the body of facts and

ideas about Merlin, and what is left of the material is buried in a

mass of unnecessary details.

There remains one further English translation of the French

Vulgate Merlin, which is known as the English prose Merlin. This

translation is so close to the original French that little more can

9Herry Lovelich, Merlin, edited by Ernest A. Kock. (London, 1904), volume l, pages 108 - 109, lines 4060 - 4074.

10For the original passage, see Sommer, ~ Homan ~ Merlin, pages 50 - 51.

be said of it than that, with the other versions in the Vulgate

tradition, it serves to i11ustrate the widespread popu1arity of the

Vulgate Cycle.

35

Need1ess to say, popu1arity does not presuppose immorta1ity.

The strength of the characterization of Merlin depends on its re1ation­

ship to the basic traits of the 1iterary type he representa. Merlin

is primari1y an a1ien who he1pa a group of men to begin an important

tas~ when they wou1d not have seen the possibi1ity or accomplished the

task without his direction. What distinguishes him from the other

characters is his ability as an enchanter and a prophet. To have him

take on knighthood as an avocation reduces both his own individua1ity

and the accomp1ishments of the other knights. It a1so puts Merlin on

the inside of the society, which limits one's appreciation of his

perspective as an outsider. The Vulgate Merlin includes a maximum

amount of entertaining episodes about Merlin. But the Vulgate

characterization of Merlin eventua11y failed to sustain interest,

perhaps because it tried to do so much with Merlin that, while it

produced a figure with aIl the mystery and heroism a medieval audience

could demand, the characterization was necessarily watered down in the

process.

CHAPTER FOUR

The Huth Continuation

Unlike the Vulgate, the Huth manuscript (circa 1230 - 1240)1

retains the religious context fashioned by Robert de Boron, and is

principally concerned with the Quest. The emphasis of the work is

altogether on another level than that of the Vulgate, and the character-

ization of Merlin is influenced accordingly. The tone is more romantic

than religious, but, nevertheless, Merlin's purpose is to bring glory

tri Arthur and prepare him to deal with the demands of the future. The

author sacrifices Merlin's present glory to make room for that future

time treated in later sections of the cycle, which is known as "Livre

du Graal". By making Merlin more single-minded, he denies him the

rOle of hero, but in the process makes him a far more memorable

character.

The style, too, is different, although the interlaced format

of the plot development issimilar. Narration is replaced by dialogue

(not padded with dialogue, as in Lovelich). For the most part, it is

a book of situations rather than of activity. Merlin engag·es in more

thought and discussion than action. The author does not even attempt

to make Merlin into a warrior. In the few war scenes Merlin remains

in the background as an advisor, or goes to the enemy to speak of

peace. He never carries a weapon. At one point, Merlin is even put

lThe Huth manuscript is the unique version of this continuation that survives in French. Gaston ~aris and Jacob Ulrich, editors, Merlin (Paris, 1886), volume l, page viii.

37

to flight by three wood-cutters, and has to be rescued by Arthur.

Because Merlin stays in the background, Arthur gets the credit for

building up his realm. It is possible that Merlin inspires less

respect because he is not a hero, but hecause he is not a fighting

man, he seems more mysterious and more iniellectual. Thi~ heightens

the roœantic effect of the characterization. In other words, by

sacrificing breadth in the characterization, the author gains intensity.

It is almost impossible to break down Merlin's activities

into separ.ate r8les, as can be done in dealing with the Vulgate,

bec:ause the characterization is so consistent. In any one episode,

Merlin is counsellor, enchanter, and prophet at the same time. Even

his r8le of lover is built into the entire story, because Merlin

foretells his destruction very early in the continuation. He says to

Arthur, "' ••• tu morras e, hounour et jou a honte. Et seras richement

'" 2 ensevelis et je serai tous vis mis en terre. Early in the tale, he

already shows a remarkable naïveté about clever women. Merlin' s

characteristics, both strong and weak, are integral to the character-

ization at aIl times, as are the moral overtones they convey.

In one single episode Merlin tells Arthur of the latter's

birth and prophesies his death. As Arthur sits wondering about the

significance of a recent dream, Merlin appears to him as a little boy

and tells him that his dream signifies that he is doomed to be destroyed

by Mordred, Arthur's son by his sister. Merlin further tells Arthur

that he is the son of Uther and 19raine. Arthur suspects that the boy

is a devil, because he is too young to know so much more about Arthur

2paris and Ulrich, editors, Merlin, 1.178.

38

than Arthur does himself. Therefore, Merlin leaves and reappears as

a venerable old man, and repeat~ what he has just said as a boy. He

quells Arthur's distrust by saying, "' ••• de chou ne vous devés vous

pas mervillier, que il n'est nule si celee chose que elle ne soit

3 descouverte'". This is an early indication of Merlin's position as

interpreter of the supernatural events which precede the Quest.

This episode includes several of the features of the Huth

continuation which differ most from the Vulgate. The Vulgate has

relatively few romantic episodes of this kind, for aIl its emphasis

on magic, whereas, in contrast, the Huth version has few narrative

war scenes. The scene is presented in the customary dialogue forme

In a very understated manner it manages to create an atmosphere of

mystery that is more dramatic than the journalistic style of the

Vulgate. This may be because the author concentrates on the people

and their reactions :.to one 8llOt'her more than on the event. Merlin' s

sincere concern for Arthur's future is made obvious, a concern that

is one of the distinctive features of the characterization in this

continuation.

This scene, and the clever episode following in which Merlin

arranges ta have the barons discover Arthur's parentage, do not appear

in the Vulgate. It is also to be noted that in the Vulgate Merlin no

connection is made between Mordred and Arthur's doom. In the Huth

version, Merlin's prophecy prompts Arthur to do away with aIl the boys

born on the date of Mordred's birth, in order to eliminate Mordred.

In this continuation, Arthur' s attempted murder of these children is

3paris and Ulrich, editors, Merlin, 1.157.

39

one of the major causes ot the rebellion ot the barons. 4 Much later,

Merlin reveals that Arthur has tailed in this·attempt to avoid his

tate.

Merlin's actions in Arthur's struggle with King Lot (Loth)

and the barons are suggestive ot the nature ot the entire character-

ization. Rather thau encouraging battle between Arthur and the barons,

Merlin tries to prevent the war by going to visit the barons betorehand.

When he has reconciled the barons to Arthur, he goes to King Lot and

tells him that Mordred is alive. Lot considers Arthur's kidnapping

ot Mordred and the other boys unforgivable, however, even. though they

are destined to destroy the realm, and he vows to continue the tight.

At this point, A1erlin casts a spell that causes Lot and his company

to sleep until Arthur is ready to do battle with them. From then on,

Merlin does not intertere in the battle at aIl. His next act is to

create magic tapers to celebrate Arthur's victory, tapers which will

continue to burn until the day Merlin is deceived by a womanand the

dolorous stroke is dealt (although these do not in tact happen on the

same day). These actions show a Merlin more ,vi thdrawn, thoughtful,

and etficacious. Above aIl, the characterization is more consistent

with the larger picture of Arthur's reign and the Quest.

In the next series of events, Merlin establishes Arthur's

strength by finding him the best sword in the land and a magic scabbard

to go with it. Merlin realizes the necessity for Arthur to possess

such a sword and scabbard when Arthur decides to fight with the

4Acting on the suggestion in a dream, Arthur has aIl the boys put to sea in a ship without a pilot. The ship is washed up near the castle of King Oriant, who saves the boys and brings them up along with his own son.

40

"chevalier dou paveillon", whom Arthur is not yet experienced enough

to defeat. After long combat, the knight almost kills Arthur, but

Merlin intervenes and causes the knight to go to sleep. He reprimands

Arthur for his rashness, saying, "'Ore pues tu veoir que mieus te vaut

5 mes sens que ta proueche'''.

Merlin tells Arthur that the best sword in the land is kept

in a fairy land under a lake, and that they should attempt to get it.

They are aided in their endeavour by a lady who arrives at the lake on

a black palfrey. She is able to walk across the water (really on a

fairy bridge, Merlin explains) and take the sword from the hand that

rises out of the lake holding it. The mysterious coincidence of her

arrivaI suggests that it is indeed Arthur who is meant to have the

sword. This episode is designed to explain the scene at the end of

Arthur's life when his sword is thrown back into the lake and accepted

by ihe sarne hand. Merlin tells Arthur that the scabbard is far more

valuable than the sword, because it makes the wearer invincible. He

predicts that Arthur will lose both the sword and the scabbard through

the treachery of Morgan le Fey.

This prophecy comes true in the most astonishing way, as it

is Merlin himself who is responsible for the loss of the sword and

scabbard. In the Huth continuation Merlin's wealmess, as weIl a.s his

strength, shows up during the course of the tale, so that the audience

is not taken by surprise at the end. Long before Merlin is doomed by

his fatal attraction to Niviene, he is greatly attracted to Morgan.

This occurs while Morgan is still very beautiful, before she succumbs

5paris and Ulrich, editors, Merlin, I.195.

41

to the Devil. She encourages Merlin because she wants to learn his

arts, and he teaches them to her without hesitation. She in turn puts

her new skills to work right away, designing a duplicate of the sword

and scabbard, so that she can give the original to her lover Accolon.

She gives him the false one by mistake, however, and, believing himself

to have been deceived on purpose, Accolon tells Arthur of the deception.

Meanwhile, Arthur has given Morgan the real sword for her to guard in

his absence. Merlin, who is unbelievably susceptible ta Morgan's

wiles, helps her to escape from the castle before Arthur's return.

When Arthur returns, Merlin parrots Morgan' s message that she has left

in fear of the false accusation. Consequently, Arthur believes that

Accolon was lying, and that the sword returned to Arthur was thp. real

one. In view of the fact that Merlin is largely responsible for the

loss of the sword, it is interesting that Niviene is later responsible

for getting it back, and thus for saving Arthur' s life when Merlin is

no longer present to do so.

Merlin' s weakness for beautiful and clever women is not

amusing, as it. is in the Vulgate; it is sinister. Merlin twice warns

Arthur that his sword and scabbard will be stolen, but he is powerless

to prevent it. Much earlier, when Merlin introduces himself to Uther

and Pendragon, he sa.ys, '" ••• j e sa.itoutes les cho ses celees que je

voel savoir. , 116 It follcws that, while he knows everything he wants

to know, it is possible for him not to know what he wishes to avoid

knowing. That explains his weakness. This weakness makes Merlin a

more complex character, and, to some extent, even adds ta his dignity,

6paris and Ulrich, editors, Merlin, 1.77.

42

because it makes him more believable and less a stock character. In

this Iight, his wisdom is more impressive than in those representations

where it is taken for granted.

In. the Huth continuation, Merlin's r8le as enchanter is

played down. Rather, the whole environment is infused vith magic.

The sense of mystery created by the supernatural events evokes the

feeling that Logres is a land where something most unusual is going

to happen. Although his enchantments and shape-shifting are not as

impressive in themseives because they seem less remarkable in the

general aura of mystery, it is Merlin al one who understands the meaning

of the magic events and is able to explain them toArthur and the

court.

Merlin's part as protagonist in the continuation differs from

that in the Vulgate, theo, in that he and the circumstances surrounding

him are a more integral part of the Quest. He makes many predictions

concerning the Quest, and he also makes his o:wn contribution::, to the

chain of events wh~.ch lead up to i t. He is able to explain circum­

stances unknown to others, and thereby make the destined course of

events run more smoothly.

Merlin is a discerning j,udge of fine knights (even though

appallingly shortsighted in regard to women), and most of his actions

are meant to help such knights support Arthur and accomplish the deeds

which necessarily precede the Quest. Merlin recommends several knights

who would not otherwise have been accepted at court. He stands up for

Balyn (Balaain), for example, confirming Ba'lyn's story about the faise

lady he murdered at Camelot. Merlin, always in disguise, reconciles

Balyn to Arthur by hè-lping him and his brother Balan (Balaan) to

43

defeat Rion, one of Arthur's worst enemies. In contrast to his usual

effort to encourage destined events, Merlin tries to dissuade Balyn

from striking the dolorous stroke, but to no avail. It is due to

Merlin's human feelings that he is unable to accept without a struggle

the disaster which necessitates the Quest. At aIl other times,

however, he works with Arthur and his knights towards the Quest.

The details of his actions have bearing on events which

occur later in the cycle. After Balyn and Balan have killed each

other in combat, they are buried on the island where they fought.

Near their tomb, Merlin makes a magic bed in which anyone will forget

aIl that has happened before he came to the island. The enchantment

can be broken only by Lancelot. Merlin also makes an iron bridge to

the island, so that only the bravest men will attempt to come there.

He puts Balyn's sword in a block of marble in such a way that only

Lancelot will be able to remove it, and he sets the block of marble

afloat. Merlin predicts that the sword will kill the first man who

attempts to pull it out of the marble, and that is Gawain. Lancelot

will be the first to use Balyn's sword, and with it he is destined to

kill Gawain, the man he loves best. The sword will not appear again

until Lancelot comes to Camelot. This episode gives a background

for events further on in the cycle, as do many other of Merlin's

acts and speeches.

When Arthur tells Merlin he would like to marry Gwenivere,

Merlin makes the arrangements with her father, Leodo~an. There is no

period of anonymous military aid to Leodogan before the request, as

there is in the Vulgate. On behalf of Arthur, 11erlin accepts the

Round Table and a hundred knights as dowry. It falls to Merlin to

44

make up the remaining forty-eight available places at the Round Table

by choosing from among Arthur's best knights. Merlin explains the

significance of the two empty seats. The forty-ninth seat, or "siege

perilleus", will be occupied by the excellent knight fated to end the

marvellous adventures of the realm of Logres. The last seat will not

be occupied for a long time, but Merlin refuses to explain why. After

the Archbishop of Canterbury has given his benediction to the company

of the Round Table, Merlin discovers that the name of each knight has

been engraved on his seat. He interprets this to Mean that God is

pleased with the fellowship.

It is not long after the fellowship has been established

before Niviene comes to visit Arthur's court. Merlin has made several

predictions concerning his death, but he does not connect them with

this maiden. It was mentioned above that Merlin predicted a dis­

honourable death for himself. Later, he specifies, "' ••• je serai

livrés a mort par engin de feme,,,.7 However, an enchantment surrounds

his foreknowledge in such a way that he cannot tell exactly what his

death will be. He cannot undo the enchantment obscuring his death

without losing his soul, a solution that does not tempt him.

As soon as Niviene begins her stay at court, Merlin goes to

Blaise, who is living in Camelot, and recounts the past and future

adventures of Logres, in order to finish the book before he leaves

Great Britain. It is noteworthy that Blaise makes his home in Camelot,

and that Merlin has no special longing for the north or the forest.

The outward signs of the Wild Man of the Woods tradition are gone, but

7paris and Ulrich, editors, Merlin, 1.264.

e 45

Merlin's personality remaina foreign to his surroundings. He seems

perhaps even more alien now that he is devoid of the original

explanatory props. The omission of the wild man tradition inherent

in other characterizations of Merlin brings with it a lack of comic

potential. Merlin is full of integrity, thoughtfulness, and wisdom,

but he is not I.t.musing. He does not employ his supernatural poyers

towards practic.al jokes. This is in keeping with the religious tenor

of the book, in accoïdance with which Merlin has a responsibility not

only to Arthur, but also to God. The treatment of Merlin's death in

the continuation is far more serious and sombre than it is in the

Vulgate.

These episodes are permeated witb Niviene's fear and Merlin's

infatuation. Niviene is not tboroughly evil like Morgan; in fact,

after Merlin's death, she twice rescues Arthur from Morgan's attempts

to murder him. However, she hates Merlin because she feels he wishes

to dishonour her. The fact that he is the son of a devil terrifies

her, and she does not dare to be unkind, in spite of her dislike. Merlin

promises to teach her his enchantments and never to use them against

her. When she leaves court to return to her fatber, Merlin a.ccompaniea

ber. He steals away without another word to anyone, because he knows

that Arthur would not willingly give his leave. This shows the extent

to which his principles have been overcome by his infatuation.

During the course of their journey, Merlin and Niviene stop

in Benyoc to visit Hclaine, the wife of King Ban, and their son Lancelot.

Merlin predicts that Lancelot will live to become a great warrior, and

that he will avenge the wrongs done to Benyoc during the period of Ban'a

assistance to Arthur. This scene introduces Niviene to Lancelot. The

46

author says that she will later be known as the Lady of the Lake, and

it is she who will raise Lancelot. The appearance of Lancelot marks

the conclusion of the tale, because his history is another stage of

the cycle.

As they proceèd, Merlin tells Niviene that Arthur is in

great danger, but he will not leave her to go to his aide Niviene

reproaches him for that. Merlin replies that, besides his wish to

remain with her, he feels that as saon as he returns to Great Britain

he will be murdered by treachery. Niviene offers to accompany Merlin

and guard him from the peril that threatens him. On their way to help

Arthur, they pass a valley in which they find a secret chamber in a

cave, beautifully furnished by two loyers. The loyers are buried

there. Merlin and Niviene decide to pass the night in that chamber.

Earlier, Merlin had recounted to Niviene the tale of how Diana rid

herself of an unwanted lover by burying him in a tomb, with the help

of her new lover. As soon as Merlin falls asleep, Niviene, remembering

the tale, puts him into an enchanted coma. She cannot bear to see him

murdered by her cousin, whose aid she has enlisted, so instead she

buries him ali~e in the tomb of the l~vers, and seals it by enchantment.

The only person to speak to him after that is Baudemagus (not Gawain,

as in the Vulgate). Merlin says that he will never again be seen on

earth. He cries out that he has been deceived by a wornan, and his cry

is heard throughout the realm. The cry itself has a magical effect on

the land, causing many marvels which the author does not enumerate.

There are no gentle touches in this representation of Merlints

end. The impressive effect of his final cry shows that Merlints

supernatural influence is still strong, although he has allowed it to

47

be limited by his weakness. However, although he sacrifices judgment

for infatuation, he does not sacrifice his soule Merlin knows the

basic nature of his fate long before he meets Niviene, but the knowledge

does not undermine the struggle to establish Arthur in power 50 that

the Quest will not fail.

The Merlin presented in the Ruth continuation does not have

the unlimited abilities of the Vulgate's Merlin. There are many things

that he does not know or cannat do. Instead: for the first time Merlin

has a real personality, one that gives meaning and dimensions to his

actions. He knows in advance about the Quest. He knows how to ensure

its success and how to impress its meaning on the knights who execute

it and on those who benefit by it. He creates an atmosphere of

expectancy and provides the inspiration and the ability to fulfil""

that mission.

CHAPTER FlVE

Sir Thomas Malory

In Malory, Arthur has become the central figure in the story.

It is on this change in emphasis that aIl the alterations in the

characterization of Merlin depend. To prepare for the Quest is not

the main function of the opening tales in Le Morte Darthur, nor does

Merlin's r8le primarily consist in announcing it. Instead, the Quest

becomes part of the development of the chivalric code, represented in

Malory by the history of the fellowship of the Round Table. The code

is initiated by Arthur just before Merlin's death. Although Malory

maltes Arthur the c~;rltral figure and stresses the significance of his

court, he does not belittle Merlin's importance. Merlin is retained

as one of the major characters, probably in order to show the special

circumstances in which Arthur was established.

Malory' s style and approach in Books 1 - IV of Le Morte

Darthur are very different from their source, the Huth Merlin. On

the whole, there are fewer middle-men, disguises, and discussions in

Malory's version. The plot is broader in outline and the details are

more selected, for greater emphasis. The most essential difference,

however, is the difference in approach. The Huth Merlin centres

around the establishment of the Round Table and the promise of the

Grail. The Round Table stands for the highest concept of chivalry:

the defence of the Church and the establishment of peace and concord.

In ~ Morte Darthur Arthur charges his knights,

49

••• neuer to doo outragyousyte nor modre/ and alweyes to flee treason/ Also by no meane to be cruel/ but to gyue mercy vnto hym that asketh mercy/ vpon payn of forfeture of their worship and lordship of kyng Arthur for euermore/ and alweyes to doo ladyes/ damoysels/ and gentylwymmen socour vpon payn of dethe/ Also that no man tayke noo 1 batails in a wrongful quarrel for no lawe ne for noo worldes goodes.

This is a code of integrity, magnanimity, and courage, but it leads

to adventure, not to denial of the world. Merlin's r6le changes from

that of the person who ma4e the Quest possible to that of the one who

made possible this legendary attempt at a secular ideal.

The most obvious change that Malory makes is his reduction

of the Huth Merlin to about one fifth of the original length. He had

the presence of mind to drop some of the best episodes about Merlin

in order to allow more uni ty around Arthur. He entirely leaves out

Merlin's birth and childhood, beginning with the conception of Arthur

instead. It i5 clear from the atart, then, that the story will circle

around Arthur. The omission of the details of Merlin's birth do not

radically lessen the mystery that surrounds him. Certain comments

spoken in passing refer to Merlin's origins, especially to the fact

2 that " ••• he knoweth 0.11 thynges by the deuyls crafte". It seems that

Malory assumes Merlin's mysterious beginnings to be known to 0.11.

Besides increasing Arthur's importance, this omission makes it possible

for Malory to de~mphasize the specifically religious tone of his source.

Not only is the material greatly reduced, but the pro-

portionate number of Merlin's appearances is lessened as weIl. Malory

separates the themes which are interwoven in the Huth Merlin, and

lSir Thomas Malory, Le ~ Darthur .!?r Syr Thomas Malory, edited by H. Oskn,r Sommer (London, l889), volume l, page 118.

2 Malory, 1.116.

50

presents them individually. The themes are those of Merlin and the

beginning of Arthur's reign; Balyn, Tor, and Pellynor; the death of

Merlin and the, war with the five kings; Arthur and Accolon; and the

adventures of Gawain, Yvain, and Marhalt. Many episodes which before

included Merlin now take place after his death. The fact that Merlin

does not take part in as many episodes as he did in the Huth version

means that the characterization is more limited than it was in the

source o Occasionally, however, the characterizationis strengthened

by this limitation, since what Merlin loses in diversity he gains in

purposefulness.

Malory achieves a change in the characterization by toning

down the supernatural element. He rarely describes Merlin's disguises

or enchantments, except when they are essential to the story. A good

example of this shift in emphasis is the episode in which Arthur, with

the help of Merlin, gets his sword and scabbard from the Lady of the

Lake. In Malory it is Arthur rather than Merlin who realizes his need

for a good sword, a change that demonstrates Arthur's increased aware­

ness of his requirements and his importance. Malory reduces the

original account to an absolute minimum, leaving out as much of the

inexplicable as possible without distorting the episode. For example,

rather than walking across the lake on a fairy bridge to fetch the

sword ~rom the emerging hand, the unnamed lady shows Arthur and Merlin

to a barge and tells them to row out and get it. Because supernatural

events are often given a prosaic explanation, Merlin has lessopportunity

to make use of his supernatural abilities.

Merlin's r6les of enchanter and prophet are understated not

only to give prominence to Arthur, but specifically to bring out

51

Merlin's relationship to him. In the Huth Merlin, Merlin's super-

natural attributes are stressed in order to show him as prophet of the

Quest. In b! Morte Darthur, Malory is not primarily interested in

either Merlin or the Quest; he is interested in the reign of Arthur

and the actions of his knights.

Merlin is Arthur's guardian, and those features of his

character which bring out this essential but subordinate r6le are

emphasized. Therefore, his contributions as counsellor to Arthur are

fully described. As Lumiansky points out, Merlin's advice is more

sensible and adapted te the situation than it is in either the Huth

Merlin or the Vulgate, and his battle planning depends on good strategy

th th . d . 3 ra er an on surpr~se an mag~c. As there are many more references

to Merlin's advice than there are to his enchantments, he appears to

be more deeply concerned with Arthur's development, to the exclusion

of other interests. For the first time, instead of agreeing en-

thusiastically to Arthur's marri age to Gwenivere, he warns Arthur

that Lancelot will fall in love with her and she with him. It is

clear that Merlin is interested in the success of Arthur' s reign as

an end in itself.

The audience hears of Merlin's death on only one occasion

before it happens, when Merlin predicts, "1 shaUe dye a shameful

dethj to be put in the earthe quickj and ye [Arthur] shaU dye a

worshipful deth". 4 Merlin does not faU in love wi th Morgan le Fey

3Robert Maynex Lumiansky, Malory's Originality (Baltimore, 1964), pages 27 - 29.

\Ialory, 1.67.

52

at aIl, nor does he become infatuated with Niviene until near the

close of the tale. Therefore, his weakness is not apparent until the

end. Malory begins to describe Merlin's death as soon as Arthur has

established his code for the Round Table,. Malory offers no suggestion

whatsoever of a possible cause for Merlin's doom, nor does Merlin.

Malory does not even give the explanation provided by the source that

Merlin cannot undo the enchantment surrounding knowledge of his death

without losing his soule Most of the explanation and description of

the events leading up to his death are replaced by these two sentences:

"A sayd the kyng/ syn ye knowe of your aduenture purvey for hit/ and

put awey by your craftes that misaduenture/ Nay sayd Merlyn it wylle

5 not bel soo he departed from the kynge". The description of Merlin's

relationship to Niviene and herdreeption of him takes onlya few

sentences. The brevity and suddenness of the final episode in Merlin's

life reduce its credibility to a certain extent, because the audience

is in no way prepared for what happens to Merlin. At the sarne time,

however, the abruptness increases the mystery of the situation. By

offering no explanation, the sense of inevitable doom is intensified.

Merlin has brought Arthur to a position of leadership and

a level of independence where Arthur no longer needs to depend on

him. To establish a ruler and a court capable of carrying out the

struggle towards the highest ideals of chivalry, supernaturaJ.

assistance was required. Although Merlin receives less attention in

Malory than he did in previous versions of the early history of King

Arthur, he is still an indispensable contributor to the success of

5 Malory, 1.119.

53

the Round Table. With his supernatural powCirs and extraordinary

wisdom, he fosters the creation of a great reign. Malory makes very

few positive changes in the characterization of Merlin. Instead, he

changes the frame of ~eference around him, and emphasizes his special

contribution to a heroic age.

CHAPTER SIX

Conclusion

, Merlin is a character wi th origins in a pre-literary age.

The character developed through the accumulation of several ancient

and widespread traditions. Although the characterization went through

several changes in the Middle Ages, there are certain attributes which

constitute a distinct personage, and set Merlin apart from other

archetypal figures. Like aIl legendary character types, Merlin is a

figure with deep meaning for the men who believed in him, those who

handed down the tradition, and those who retain interest in it. The

characterization does not become' weaker in the course of time, in

spite of the different philosophical approaches it is subjected to,

but increases in vitality. The extent to ,which interesi in Merlin

has survived is proof of the importance of the motif embodied in this

character.

It has been conjectured that the character we know as Merlin

descended from a pagan demon, and with the coming of Christianity was

translated into the Wïld Man of the Woods. l Early analogues from

Scotland, Ireland, and Wales show a madman with superhuman knowledge,

prophetie insight, and the ability to change shape. This madman lives

in the woods and shuns most human company. In the ~ ~ 2!

Carmarthen, the first examples of the written tradition appear.

lRichard Bernheimer, ~~ in ~ Middle Ages (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1963), pages 21 - 22.

56

Myrddin was a warrior who went mad with grief after the Battie of

Ardderyd and retired to the Wood of Celyddon. At the time of his lament,

he feels close to nature, but regrets the loss 011 human society. With

his madness cornes the gift of prophecy.

Because the Church could not tolerate any popular pagan

figures as such, the Wild Man of the Woods was transformed into a comic

figure. By the time Geoffrey of Monomouth writes the ~ Merlini, the

Welsh tradition has become a matter of jest. Myrddin is still that

warrior who went mad for grief and fled to the woods, but the tone has

changed from poetry to humour, and he is ~âde to look foolish. Myrddin

acquires the gift of prophecy with the onset of madness, but he also

acquires the shortcomings of an outsider, and he is eventually rejected

by his wife. To illustrate those shartcomings, Geoffrey adds many

episodes from various ancient traditions as he found them in Latin

sources.

Meanwhile, in his chronicle Brut ~ Brenhinedd, Geoffrey has

developed another character who first appeared in Historia Britonum

by Nennius. 'fhis character, Merlin, is the son of a de vil and a virgin.

He inherits special powers from his father, but, thanks to a hast y

baptism, is saved from evil. He shows great wisdom, skill, and virtue

at an early age. He counsels certain kings of Britain, and arranges

for Arthur's birth. By a single reference in the ~ Merlini, Geoffrey ./

associates Myrddin with Merlin, an association that enriches the

characterization considerably. Wace expands on the details in Geoffrey's

~, and has Merlin stay on into Arthur's lifetime. These early

accounts show Merlin to be avirtuous character with supernatural

powers, estranged from the society in which he occasionally appears.

56

These qualities and his association with Arthur make Merlin

the ideal character for Robert de B~ron to use as prophet of the Quest

for the Holy Grail. In this romance, as in the Welsh tradition and

the chronicles, he is not a hero. He uses his supernatural powers and

knowledge to create the Round Table and to estahlish Arthur as king so

that the Quest can be carried out, but always in such a way that only

a few trusted men know that he is responsible.

From the theme of Merlin as an outsider, the Vulgate tradition

makes a drastic departure. Since Merlin i8 the protagonist of the tale,

the author of the Vulgate version feels that he deserves the status of

a hero, as weIl as that of an enchanter. The combined attributes do not

blend weIl, however, and although the idea is popular at the time, the

strength of the archetypal figure is diluted. That is perhaps why this

tradition failed to be perpetuated beyond the Middle Ages.

The Huth continuation, on the other hand, carries on with the

characterization begun by Robert de Boron. Merlin's main function is

to prophesy and arrange for the Quest. No longer is Merlin the one

source of enchantment in the tale. Instead, the whole atmosphere breeds

wonders whir.h set the time apart as the age preceding a supremely

miraculous event that will colour aIl history to com~. In the Middle

Ages, Merlin's powers ~f enchantment were not considered as extra­

ordinary as they seam today. Any person of an intellectual bent who

could read was believed capable of acquiring skills of enchantment.

This is obvious from the ease with which Morgan and Niviene learn

Merlin's arts. Such people were not common, however, and seemed remote

from the ordinary world of action. In the Huth continuation, Merlin

is again a non-hero, a prophet and enchanter who believes in thought

57

before action. While he bestows on Arthur aIl the advantages of an

intellectual approach to life, he is ultimately destroyed by that same

approach. Whereas he has far greater insight than ordinary men, it is

possible for him to shut out of his mind what he does not wish to see.

Because he has a weakness for young women who are both pretty and b~ight,

but has no experience with their wiles, he is easily overcome. Never­

theless, he succumbs only when Arthur and his court are prepared to

carry on and fulfil the Quest without his further guidance.

As the matter of Britain develops, Arthur becomes increasingly

mportant in the tales which revol~e around him. Little by little,

material extraneous to that theme is eliminated. It is not surprising,

then, that a version of the Arthurian Cycle is written in which Arthur

is consistently the central figure (if not the hero) of the series of

tales, and the nature of his reign constitutes the subject of them.

Therefore, in ~ ~ Darthur, Merlin is no longer the protagonist of

the early history. He is completely involved with Arthur, and those

of his traits which are of direct assistance to Arthur are emphasized.

Merlin is a devoted but stern guardian who makes extensive use of his

wisdom, and modest but telling use of his non-human powers to establish

this court that represents the essence of chivalry. Many of the old

trappings of the pagan demon disappear from the characterization of

Merlin as the Arthurian Cycle becomes increasingly unified, but the

essential qualities of that figure remain unchanged. Merlin's newer

and more courtly inclinations simply transpose the basie traits of the

character into a garb consistent with the requirement"s of the story

and the age in which it is developed into its most lasting forme

58

In ~ ~ Darthur, for the first time, the myntery of the

characterization lies not in what Merlin does, but in what he is. The

circumstances of his birth are never described, but his supernatural

skill and wisdom distinguish him immediately from aIl the other

characters in the story. The suspicion that he is not fully human is

far more intriguing than knowledge of the details. Because he has a

deeper understanding than the other characters of the meaning of events

as the tale unfolds, he is able to guide them towards the achievement

in which he will never partake. He is an alien who creates for a group

of out standing men the possibility of rising above their individual

excellence to an unsurpassed level of nobility. That he should strive

to establish on age of nobility in a world of action is a result of

the change from religious to secular ethical standards that marks the

close of the Middle Ages. That he should enter the society of men to

help them aehieve their own goal, though he knows he will be destroyed

in the proeess, is what continues to make Merlin one of the compelling

characters of literature. Sinee Merlin is endowed with superhuman

insight, one imagines that he knows that the struggle towards an ideal

world will ultimately fail. As always, however, it is the struggle

itself that matters.

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The bib1iography inc1udes the works cited in the text, as

weIl as those works which have material1y inf1uenced my approach to

the subject.

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60

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61

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62

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