MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

AND PROCESSESS

What is Management?

One way of looking at management is

through people who compose the organization. In

this manner, it may be considered as the people

responsible for the actions in the organization.

Management is the planning, deciding, or exercising

of control and supervision on some functions of the

organization.

Management process is working with the

people. The people are organized in formal groups to

achieve desired goals necessary to maximize the

utilization of the available resources of the

organizations. On the whole, it requires the manager to

be systematic in undertaking his managerial functions

and exercising his organizational authority. Hence, he

should be primarily concerned with the management

process, represented by the symbol POSDCORB

(planning, organizing, staffing, directing, co-ordinating,

reporting and budgeting)as recommended by Luther

Gulick, an American management consultant.

Management Processes

Planning

Organizing

Staffing

Directing

Controlling

The leader, manager or administrator plays an

important role in planning, organizing, staffing, directing

and controlling. He concerns himself with the social and

individual needs of working group; how the member

relates to one another in an organizational context. Loyalty

to the organization and commitment to its goals are

generally by products of effective management and

leaderships, whether good services marketed by public

enterprises or services performed and delivered to

communities by units of government not measurable in

monetary terms.

Leaderships and Human Motivation

Leadership is subject that has aroused

the interest of scholars and laymen as well.

Ralph M. Stogdill, in his researches on

leadership theories, points out that there can

be as many definitions as there are people

wanting to define the concept. (1)

Leadership can be regarded as an influence

process, since a leader may be called upon to

live a life demonstrating fullness of what he

believes in, thus making him a good example

for followers.

(2) Leaderships occurs when one person

influence another and convinces him to

do a thing to achieve something.

Influence may range from persuasion to

the use of coercion to get things done.

The ability to structure social interaction

systems and accomplish what is proposed

to be achieved creates personality

dynamics needed by one seeking

leadership responsibilities.

(3) Leader is expected to perform certain composite

activities like motivating, assisting them in

identifying their goals, setting the principles for

managing and supervising them, and developing their

awareness of the consequences of behavior.

Leaderships, in its ideal sense, should be

voluntarily and freely accepted in recognition of

one’s moral right to lead, complemented by his

knowledge and capability to direct and guide others.

Theories of Leadership and Leadership Behavior

Trait Theory

Behavioral Theory

Contingency Theory

There are two well-known situational theories

of leaderships:

Fiedler’s contingency theory: Three situational determinants of power and influences of

leaders.

First, is a leader-subordinates relation. When a leader is desired, respected

and trusted and is able to elicit loyalty and commitment from subordinates, that leader is

invested with influence and power.

Second, is the structuring of tasks. When assignments are well-structured and

spelled out clearly, the leader becomes more influential to his subordinates than when tasks

to be performed are vaguely stated and poorly structured.

Third, is power position. This refers to the ability of the leader to make

subordinates comply with and accept directions and orders, when a leader can fire and

discipline subordinates, we say he has power and influence over them arising from the

position he holds

b. House path-goal approach

Robert House proposed this situational approach

theory of leaderships because he believes that the main

functions of leaders are to set goals and direct the path of

subordinates to these goals. In uncertain and fluid situations,

the task oriented and autocratic style of leaderships is

preferred.

Leadership behavior is affected by three factors:

a. Value orientation of the manager or leader

b. Value orientation of the subordinates

c. Situational factors

Qualifying Leaders

a. Possession of ascriptive qualities

b. Popular choice

c. Appointment

d. Force

Decision Making and Policy

Decision-Making is deciding what should be done and how it should be done

brings problems to managers. According to Robert Tannenbaum, decision-making involves

conscious choice of one behavioral alternative from number of behavioral alternatives. It is

concerned with policy issues; to decide an issue involves subjective judgment and individual

preference.

Two personalities are involved in decision-making in an organization: the

private personality of the individual decision-maker and the personality of the organization

of which he is a member or an officer. Deciding for an organization cannot be a personal

responsibility until officially assigned. Personal decisions cannot be delegated. Whoever

exercises the authority to decide, articulates his private personality in the decision

alternative he has chosen. Yet the decision therefore results in authoritative communication

to different persons at different levels of the organizational hierarchy or outside of the

organization itself depending upon who are intended to be affected by it, positively or

negatively.

Nature of the Decision Environment

The type of decision and the conditions for decision-making change

from time to time. There are occasions when a decision has to be done by high

level executive; in like manner, there are those which are done at the non-

executive level. Generally, top executives make decision relating to ends and

objectives.

Planning as Decision-Making

Planning refers to be construction of program, formula or alternative

model to be used as basis for a course of action or decision. Its essence is

prognosis or forecasting, whether short-term or long-term. A plan is a tentative

schedule with target dates of completion, which when implemented, lessens

doubt and uncertainty. A plan should consider clientele needs and demands as

well as observed priorities.

Planning by the government generally includes

the following:

a. Identification of people’s desires and needs

b. Determination of national development

thrusts

c. Programming and program implementation

d. Program review and evaluation

Options and Constraints in Decision-Making

Institutional and Policy Decisions

Effective policy is an outcome of strategic interactions more than individual

choices. While institutions influence policy and decision-making, these cannot fully

determine policy choices. As a matter of fact the institutions define a set of constraints

which limit feasible choices. Choice may be opted for by political actors using their norms

and egoistic interests as criteria. Differences in situational constraint explain differences in

policy choices. Choice of goals by a political scientist differs from that of an economist. The

former may have a structuralist interest and the latter may be client-oriented.

Institutions set rules which limit interaction of participants in the policy process.

Yet similar institutions work differently societies at different time. These are situational

variables which can go beyond the control of the decision-maker. On the other hand, similar

policy choices may be produced under dissimilar institutional arrangement.

Theodore C. Sorensen cited five “outer limits” of presidential decision-making in the

United States.

a. Permissibility- this includes constitutional and statutory provisions which set the

parameters of the legally allowable; constraints arising out the reactions of

constituencies and foreign government.

b. Available resources like manpower, financial viability and material assets at the

disposal of the executive.

c. Previous commitments like obligations arising from treaties and other agreement;

programs stated by predecessors but need to be completed; presidential

proclamations’; commitments broadcast in the state of the nation address;

commitments to party leaders who helped to deliver votes which spelled victory.

d. Available time- deadlines which undercut evaluation of on-going programs; crisis

situations which require immediate attention and action are two important things to

consider.

e. Available information whether quantitative; true or false, sufficient, to provide a firm

basis for decision.

Decision-Making Style

At the top executive level, decision-making goes beyond

internal matters of the organization. The decision-maker should

understand that there are other inputs to his role, like political

leadership and the necessary skills that can be employed within the

political system itself and the social system as a whole.

Philip Selznick suggests four things vital to decision

making. There is need to know (a) the institutional mission which

refers to the setting of goals, (b) embodiment of purpose of the

organization which relates to the capability to build policy into the

social structure of the organization, (c) defense of the integrity of the

institutions – its values and identity included, (d) ability to resolve

internal conflicts in the organization.

What is Policy?

A policy is a choice of a course of action, actual or perceived. It is more

comprehensive that decisions because it provides the framework within which particular and

specific decisions are made. In certain ways, it is an aggregation of particular decisions, a

cumulative result of incremental choices of action. It may refer to a program of goal values

and the accompanying practices that help attain the goal values.

Public policy is a composite of decisions that government makes and programs it

embarks upon or implements to achieve goals. As a definite course of action taken from

among a number of alternatives, the choices consider situational factors and organizational

givens. There is always a purposive rationale for a policy and in the process of

implementation it may have to look into certain environmental constraints and utilize

opportunities that are offered to achieve what it hopes to accomplish. The making of policy is

never solely based upon one specific context or framework.

Levels of Policy Making

A study of the activities of government disclosed four

levels of policy

a. Political policy- is also known as general policy

b. Executive policy- is the policy of the executive branch which is

based upon the general policy

c. Administrative policy- refers to the forms by which the

department secretary or board chairperson carries out policy.

d. Operational policy- refers to the day-to-day policy adopted to

work out administrative policy previously decided upon.

Techniques for implementing and the degree of discretion that

can be delegated are matters of concern at this level.

Evaluation and Control

Evaluation and control are integral components of the managerial function for

three reasons:

a. Both enable policy-makers to address the problems of resource allocation

and help in prioritizing objectives and choosing methods for achieving

the.

b. The evaluation findings may be used as basis for justifying on-going

projects and programs.

c. Results of programs review and audit help pinpoint responsibility for

success or failure; determine whether the program should be sustained or

discontinued; whether activities should be curtailed or expanded; whether

those who implement should be retained or replaced.

Control

Control as a basic function in managing an

enterprise is concerned with the task of seeing to it that

what is performed is kept within prescribed management

channels to achieve organization objectives and desired

results. It involves the setting up of targets, adoption of

criteria to measure performance and implementation of

corrective measures needed. When a program is being

implemented, deviations and changes may be found

necessary and this requires a control system. This

explains the close linkage of planning with controlling.

Why the Need to Control?

Control implies organizing tasks in a way that those

who will perform the function will do so efficiently and

well. Positions with their corresponding duties and

responsibilities are filled by men and as resource base of

an organization, individual psychological orientations,

abilities and skills, motivations and human limitations

have to be considered. As members of a working team,

mean are expected to subordinate individual personality to

the personality of the organization.

Control Process

A control system normally includes the

following:

a. Establishing a standard based upon the plan

b. Measuring work accomplished, on-going or in

progress

c. Taking corrective action

Evaluation

This is a process of assessing results, output per

manpower expended, quality and quantity of product

produced, impact and effectiveness of a program, and

managerial efficiency. Interest evaluation developed as a

result increase in public spending for governmental

service programs like health and sanitation, education,

shelter, infrastructure, peace and order, crime prevention

and detection, and human resource development.

Two Kinds of Evaluation: (a) performance evaluation and (b)

program evaluation

O Performance Evaluation

Appraisal of performance focuses on the individual

employees. Results of the appraisal are used for making decisions on

such matters like compensation upgrading, promotions, transfer and

other employee fringe benefits.

Instruments currently used for employee evaluation are the

following:

(a) Graphic rating scale

(b) Alternation ranking method

(c) Forced distribution method

Who Should Evaluate?

There are four potential raters of performance – (a) immediate

supervisor or unit head, (b) peer, (c) committee or board, (d) self.

O Program Evaluation

Evaluation of program seeks to determine the extent to

which the program achievers goals. It looks into the total program,

unlike MBO (management by objectives) which is more interested in

how managers implement the program. The degree of actual

realization and fulfillment of objectives, which takes into

consideration cost and resources used, I termed effectiveness. The

relationship between what is accomplished and the expense the

accomplishment entails is termed efficiency, which referred to

output-input relationship.

Orville F. Poland suggests two efficiency

measures – (a) cost-benefit which tags a

monetary value to program outcomes and (b)

cost effectiveness which employs more

qualitative standards of efficiency.

Two variants of evaluation for efficiency:

a. Program monitoring

b. Discrepancy evaluation

Evaluation Problems

Evaluation of a program or of performance has both

built-in problems and those arising in the process of

implementation. There is a tendency at stating objectives

in general rather than specific terms. Because there are

many program implementers at different levels of the

objectives/ differences in geographic setting make for

variations of programs.

Program with multiple goals present more difficulties

in the construction of an evaluation criteria, output

indices and efficiency and productivity standards.

Program Evaluation in the Philippines

In the Philippines, development is perceived primarily as socio-

economic growth. Development efforts however, have not moved forward

as expected because of certain shortcomings. For funds for pre-investment

researchers are limited, resulting in ill prepared projects without benefit of

in-depth studies. The National Economic Development Authority (NEDA)

is the entity responsible for preparing development plans which serve as

basis for fund allocations and budgetary outlays. Philippine development

planners distinguish a project from program. A program is broader in

scope while project is smaller separable operation component of a

program which is planned, financed and implemented separately but in

conjunction with the master plan or program like the Medium Term

Program of our government.

Based on relationship with other projects, these

may be;

a. Independent project

b. Mutually project

c. Complementary project

Project development is a cycle of activity with

three general phases:

a. Pre-investment Phase

b. Implementation Phase

c. Post Investment Phase

Administrative Communication

Communication is an integral element of anorganization. Through the communication process, aperson makes known his ideas and feelings to others. Morethan transmission of information, the person to whom theinformation is transmitted needs to understand themeaning of what is being transmitted; otherwise nocommunication has taken place. It is a two-way flow ofinstruction and information --- instruction when thecommunication comes from the top and goes to thebottom; information when it comes from below and goesto the higher levels of the organization pyramid. Themembers of an organization must understand that theyhave responsibility to communicate. Such could be aninterpersonal communication done on a person to personbasis; it could also be an organizational communication ona unit to unit basis where the information movesthroughout the different hierarchical levels.

Communication enhances coordination,

improves working relationships and facilitates

the integration of the inputs of the different

component units of an organization. Policy

decisions must be communicated to those levels

where these are to be implemented. How the

policies are implemented must be made known

to those who formulate them. Since

communication is an interactive process, the

forms and patterns of communicating should be

studied carefully in order to know effects and

consequences.

Directional Types of Communication

Based on directional flow, communication

may be of three types:

a. Downward

b. Upward

c. Lateral or Horizontal

Communication Barriers

Barriers to effective directional types of communication may

arise because of physical distance. Generally, service functions of

government require the setting up of field units resulting in

supervision by remote control through functional decentralization.

With big organizations, the more the supervisory chain links, the ore

remote supervision becomes. Information could be diluted and

distorted because of the filtering process at each level. Supervisor

can shut off upward communication if they have no interest in the

problems of those at the lower levels. Subordinates may hesitate

sending information upward thinking this could be an intrusion into

management prerogative.

Components of a Communication System

A good communication system should have the following:

1. Communicator

He could be the sender of the information; the speaker in a

seminar or symposium of the petitioner in a complaint.

2. Something to be communicated

This could be an order, a rule or regulation, a circular or

memorandum, a letter, a report or a suggestion.

3.Transmission procedure

It could be direct oral transmission, by mail, telegram,

messenger or special courter.

4. Recipient

The recipient could be individual, members of a work

unity like a section, division or bureau, or all the members

of the organization.

5. Desired response

The response could be turning in a report, compliance

with an order or directive, performance of function,

rectification of an error, or completion of deficiency.

Generally there are deadlines for working out or

submitting the responses.

Communicating with the Clientele

A public service-oriented organization communicates with it clientele in a

more manifest way by undertaking programs and projects for the clientele

community. Because there are multiple publics in a society with varying demands,

desires and expectations from government, maintaining positive public relations

image is difficult because budgetary appropriations generally fall short of what the

administrative agency hopes to do for them.

The image of an organization in the eyes of the public depends largely upon

its relations program. A public relations is an important management tool. The

man must be knowledgeable about the policies of his organization. His familiarity

with the thinking of management and its staff will help him interpret policies to

the different publics and win the sympathy and confidence of a society to its sides.

More than informing the public what it does, the communication should convince

them of the need to act or do something about the information conveyed to them.

Control through Communication

Control may be viewed in terms of production

standards by comparing actual individual or team

performance with expected or planned performance. It

may also view as a device for coordinating manpower

inputs toward the accomplishment of objectives. Goal

realization is the primary group performance is to the

first view.

Kinds of Control

Control may be exercised by the following:

1. Society

2. Management

Controlling operations and activities, especially of

government agencies, require project and production planning.

Without planning, an activity becomes wayward and uncoordinated.

Inventory control is an indispensable requirement for material and

equipment accountability. Quality control is crucial to make sure

that the specifications requirements are followed. Target dates for

completion of projects require strict enforcement. Without these

control mechanisms there will be undue delay in accomplishing

projects, tremendous waste of money, poor quality of materials

used, substandard structures and civil works constructed and

prolonged inconvenience to the general public.