mainstreaming gender in labour statistics training slides for producers and users of labour...

Mainstreaming gender in labour statistics

Training slidesFor producers and users

Of labour statistics

International Labour OfficeBureau of Statistics

2

Topics

• Justification• Introduction to gender issues• Mainstreaming in labour statistics• International guidelines• Indicators• Summing up: what needs to be done to mainstrea

m gender in labour statistics


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Justification

• To address policies and programmes on GENDER EQUALITY– Core principle of the ILO– Governments strongly committed– Beijing Platform for Action

• To improve statistics themselves


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Introduction to gender issues

• Sex and gender• Gender roles• Gender equality and gender equity• Gender mainstreaming• Gender analysis• Application to labour issues


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Sex and gender

SEX:Biological differences that men & women, boys & girls are born with, that are universal

GENDER:Social differences and relations between the sexes that are learned, change over time & vary across cultures


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Gender roles

• Roles assigned to men and women in a society as « male » and « female »– Caretaker of household and children– Breadwinner


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Gender equality

Equal rights, responsibilities, treatment, and valuation of both sexes, so that women and men, girls and boys can participate in, decide on and benefit from development on an equal footing.

Same fundamental Human and Workers’ rightsEqual Value and Fair Distribution of:

– responsibilities and opportunities– workload, decision making and income


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Also known as Gender Justice: fair treatment of both sexes that take into account and address the different needs of the men, women, boys and girls, cultural barriers and the effects of (past) discrimination of the specific group.

A stoke and a fox cannot eat from the

same types of dishes.

Equal ≠ the Same

Gender equity


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Gender mainstreaming: 1997 UN definition

• Strategy to achieve gender equality.• Process of

– assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in any area and at all levels.

– Incorporating the concerns and situations of women and men into all actions

– So that women and men benefit equally of them, and inequality is not perpetuated

Source: United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): Agreed Conclusions E/1997/L.30, p.2),as endorsed by the Beijing Platform of Action, 1995, Fourth World Conference on Women


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Gender analysis

• Tool for gender mainstreaming• Evaluates/diagnoses in an

objective way, similarities and differences between men and women with respect to these four areas:– Division of labour– Needs, constraints and opportunities– Access and control over resources

and benefits– Constraints and opportunities– Capacity of organisations and

mechanisms to promote equality


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Practical & Strategic Needs

Roles of men and women are different in families and workplaces, therefore, their needs are different.

Practical needs= basic needs, survival needse.g. food, water, shelter, income, clothing and healthcare

Strategic needs= equality, empowermente.g. sharing of family responsibilities & decision making, equal access to education and training


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WOMEN MEN

combine work with domestic chores perform mainly economic activities

are very active in non-market activities and the informal sector; carry out multiple activities, seasonal work

are mostly active in market activities; full-time work, may have a secondary job

general occupations with more routine and/or multiple, non-specific tasks

specific tasks in occupations with less routine work

DIVISION OF LABOUR

work closer to home: for pay in the house, e.g., as homeworkers, or for family profit in a family enterprise

work for pay or profit outside of the house

activities are less rewarded or not rewarded at all and have lower status

activities are better rewarded and have higher status

RESOUR-CES AND BENEFITS

access to different types of resources and less control over resources and benefits

more control over resources and benefits

participation in the labour force is constrained by marriage and presence of children and other persons requiring care

participation in the labour force is boosted by marriage and presence of children

NEEDS AND CON-STRAINTS

tend to be seen by others and by themselves as housewives and dependents

tend to be seen as breadwinners predominantly

Gender analysis for labour issues


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Gender mainstreaming in labour statistics

• Characteristics of statistics that target gender concerns

• What does gender mainstreaming consist of• Why consider gender in particular • Benefits and difficulties of gender mainstreaming

in labour statistics• Questions to ask• Four major domains of inequality


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What does it consist of

• Evaluate and incorporate the situation of women equally to that of men …– In all topics to be measured– In all statistical definitions and classifications used– When designing measurement methodologies– When collecting the information – When producing tables, graphs and reports


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Why consider gender in particular?

• Women and men differ in behaviour, resources, constraints

• Women tend to be omitted from labour statistics to a larger extent than men (sex distribution of excluded groups is not even)

• Lack of detail is more prevalent in work situations typical of women

• Missing topics hinder adequate description of situations typical of women

• Tables often do not consider family context, where women and men have different roles


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Benefits of gender mainstreaming labour

statistics• Improved labour statistics: by identifying gaps

and weaknesses• Promotion of equality: by producing data which

reflect differences and similarities between men and women in the workplace


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Difficulties

• Conventional perceptions• Set new priorities and objectives• Need to change old designs/concepts• Extra measurement effort: cost implications• Inherent limitations of measurement methods


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Inherent limitations of measurement methods

• On range and type (detail) of information– Establishments and Administrative registers will keep

records about data that is useful for their internal purposes – administrative definitions

– Household based surveys can obtain any type of information but suffer from response errors

• On coverage of workers– Establishment surveys and administrative registers often

have limited worker coverage (paid workers in the formal sector)

– Household based surveys have the largest worker coverage but also exclude persons (e.g. living in collective dwellings, the armed forces, children)


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Questions to ask

• Do the definitions used

• Do the questionnaire and methods of data collection

• Do the tables and indicators

• Are there any new topics of interest?

CoverApplyAffect women to the

same extent than men?


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Balancing life and work

• Women and men have different roles in society– As breadwinners and caregivers

• These roles determine their constraints– Women cannot dedicate as much time and energy as

men to work activities, therefore:– Women tend to stay at home, if they can afford it– Otherwise, they will work less hours, in less demanding

jobs, closer to home, on less permanent jobs

The presence of children makes men work more and women less


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Informal economy and unpaid work

• Women will work in the informal economy to a larger extent than men– Even though in absolute numbers they are less

numerous

• Women perform most of the household chores, which are recognised as work but are not included in employment statistics

When all hours of work are considered, women work more than men in practically all countries in the world


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Labour market segregation

• Women and men behave differently in the labour market, they do different activities in different conditions– Differences in the entry to/exit from the labour market– Differences in the types of economic activities carried out– Differences in their labour inputs– Differences in their returns to labour

The more detail in statistics, the more segregated the labour market will appear


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Income inequalities

• Women earn less than men in all countries of the world• This is due in part to differences in

– Their occupation– Their hours of work– Their level of education and skills– Their seniority or work history

Even after correcting for these factors, however, women earn less than men. The difference that cannot be explained is used as an indicator of « discrimination ».


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Entry/exit

• Do they work ? Employment• Do they look for work? Unemployment• Do they work or look for work? Labour force• Do they enter and exit the labour market? Labour

turnover, life cycle patterns


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Types of activities

• The type of work they do - occupations• The type of establishment they work in - industries• The type of contract - status in employment• The type of employer - institutional sector• The size of establishment where they work• Where they work - place of work• Hazardousness of their work – occupational injuries

and disease• Their voice – union density and representation• Social security coverage


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Labour inputs

• How much do they work - hours actually worked/usually worked, overtime, part-time/full-time

• How inconvenient are the hours they work - Night work, shift work, weekend work

• How often are they absent from work and for what reasons – family reasons, economic reasons, social reasons


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Returns to labour

• Income from employment– Basic wages– Overtime payments– Fringe benefits– Social security benefits– Regular and irregular payments


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Characteristics of statistics that target

gender concernsTo be useful for gender concerns, labour indicators need

to:• Cover the whole working population

– Including part-time workers, self employed workers, working in the informal economy, casual workers, unpaid workers, etc.

• Relate to relevant topics– Related to the four major domains of inequality

• Be disaggregated AT LEAST by SEX, and• Be disaggregated with sufficient detail by explanatory

variables, particularly on family context


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Effect of worker coverage

Share of women in employment, selected countries

0 10 20 30 40 50

Egypt, 2005

Brasil, 2004

Iran, 2005

Poland, 2006

Employees

Employees, ownaccount workersand employersAll employed


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Relevant subjects beyond Convention 160

• « Work » in an enlarged sense, unpaid, barter, volunteering

• Working time arrangements• Home-based work• Unstable employment• Poverty• Freedom of association, representation• Social security• Access to and control over productive resources• Allocation of benefits among household members• Violence at the workplace


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Example of a relevant topic

Indicators of participation of women, selected countries

0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00

Sweden

Finland

Norway

USA

France

Net Activityrate

Women "atwork" rate

Full timeequivalent rate


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Examples of sufficient detail

• Occupations– Professionals by type: doctors vs nurses, physicists vs

teachers– Managers in small vs large firms– Craftworkers in mining vs clothes manufacturing

• Status in employment– Regular vs. casual employees– Subsistence workers and homeworkers vs employers

• Income– Basic pay vs overtime pay, bonuses and social security

contributions

• Hours of work– Normal hours vs overtime and absence from work


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35


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Example of family context

Activity rate by sex, UK

50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0

Women

Men


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Activity rate by sex, UK

50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0

Women

Men

Activity rate by family context and sex, UK

50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0

Married w ithdependent children

Not married w ithdependent children

Without dependentchildren

Married

Not married

Women

Men


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Another example: the unemployment rate

Unemployment rate by sex, UK

0 5 10 15 20

Women

Men


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Example: the unemployment rate

Unemployment rate by sex, UK

0 5 10 15 20

Women

Men

Unemployment rate by family context and sex, UK

0 5 10 15 20

Married w ith dependent children

Not married w ith dependent children

Without dependent children

Married

Not married

Women

Men


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Example: part-time workers

Percentage part-time workers by sex, UK

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Women

Men


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Example: part-time workers

Percentage part-time workers by sex, UK

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Women

Men

Percentage part-time workers by family context and sex, UK

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70




Married

Not married

Women

Men


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Example: the inactivity rate

Inactivity rate by sex, UK

0 10 20 30 40 50

Women

Men


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Example: the inactivity rate

Inactivity rate by sex, UK

0 10 20 30 40 50

Women

Men

Inactivity rate by family context and sex, UK

0 10 20 30 40 50




Married

Not married

Women

Men


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Example: composition of the inactive population

Inactive by type (%) and sex, UK

0 20 40 60 80

Looking afterfamily/home

Student

Retired, other

Women

Men


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Example: the absence rate

Absence rate* by sex, Sweden

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Women

Men

* Hours of absence as a percentage of hours actually w orked


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Absence rate* by sex, Sweden

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Women

Men

* Hours of absence as a percentage of hours actually w orked

Absence rate* by reason and sex, Sweden

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Illness

Vacation

Care of children

Other

Women

Men

* Hours of absence as a percentage of hours actually worked


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Absence rate* of persons with children under 7 years of age, by reason and sex, Sweden

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Illness

Vacation

Care of children

Other

Women

Men


Absence rate* by reason and sex, Sweden

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Illness

Vacation

Care of children

Other

Women

Men



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Example: days of absence

Days lost per year by sex and family context, Canada

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Women

Women with pre-schoolers

Men

Men with pre-schoolers


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Example: days of absence

Days lost per year by sex and family context, Canada

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Women


Men


Days lost per year by reason, family context and sex, Canada

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Women


Men


Days lost dueto personal orfamily reasons

Days lost dueto illness


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International guidelines on gender mainstreaming

• Adopted by the 17th International Conference of Labour Statisticians, 2003– Labour statisticians from national statistical institutes,

ministries of labour, employer and worker organisations– Meets every 5-7 years

• Content of guidelines


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Content of guidelines

Requires political will at all levels

• Statistics by sex• About relevant topics• Covering ALL workers and ALL work situations• With sufficient detail• Disaggregated by useful variables


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Political will

• Essential condition• Commitment at all levels• Reward system• Skilled staff

– Involvement in cross-cutting considerations and networking

– Better advocates for benefit of countries– Observe long-lasting development


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Statistics by sex not always possible …

• Problems of concept– Labour cost– Price indices

• Problems with source of information based on registers (Establishment surveys, Administrative records)– Do not record the information by sex

• Problems of presentation– Can and should be eliminated


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Complete worker coverage not always

possible …• Coverage because of link to SNA-93• Coverage in concepts• Coverage because of use of short or long

reference periods– Short reference periods will exclude intermittent,

seasonal and casual activities

• Coverage because of limitations in measurement methods


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Measurement methods

• Household surveys• Establishment surveys tend to exclude

– Self employed persons– Paid employed persons in small establishments– Paid employment in larger establishments who are

casual workers, absent for long periods, etc. (i.e., who are not in payrolls)

• Administrative records will exclude persons not covered by the administrative system


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Household surveys

• When measuring employment: tend to exclude persons who do small jobs, unless an activity list is included– Persons who work a few hours and whose social role is to be a

housewife, student or retired– Unpaid family workers, casual workers, etc. who work a few

hours– Workers without fixed work location– Armed forces and other population groups

• When measuring the informal sector: tend to exclude secondary jobs– But many workers work in the informal sector in their

secondary jobs

• When not periodic: will not capture intermittent and seasonal activities


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Activity list:

Pakistan


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Activity list:

South Africa


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Definition of work, SNA-93

Goods produced by corporations, government or NPISH units

Services rendered by corporations, government and NPISHs; or by households for sale

Services rendered by households for free for the consumption of own/another household

General production boundary

Restricted production boundary

Goods produced by households for consumption of own/another households when the contribution is significant

Goods produced by households for the consumption of own/another hh when contribution is not significant


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Treatment of the production for own final use, SNA-93

Included(if the amount of that good is quantitatively important in relation to the

total supply of that good in a country)Excluded

Growing or gathering field crops, fruits and vegetablesProducing eggs, milk and foodHunting animals and birdsCatching fish, crabs and shellfishCutting firewood and building polesCollecting thatching and weaving materialsBurning charcoalMining slatCutting peatCarrying water

Threshing and milling grainMaking butter, ghee and cheeseSlaughtering livestockCuring hides and skinsPreserving meat and fishMaking beer, wine and spiritsCrushing oil seedsWeaving baskets and matsMaking clay pots and platesWeaving textilesMaking furnitureDressmaking and tailoringHandicrafts made from non-primary products

Constructing dwellingsConstructing farm buildingsBuilding boats and canoesClearing land for cultivation

Cleaning, decorating and maintaining dwelling, including small repairCleaning, repairing household durables, vehicles or other goodsPreparing and serving mealsCaring for, training and instructing childrenCaring for the sick, invalid or old peopleTransporting household members or their goods

Source: Based on System of National Accounts, 1993.


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Coverage in concepts

• Employment• Unemployment• Informal sector• Wages• Industrial disputes


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Concept of employment

• Includes all persons who carry out an activity within the restricted boundary for at least one hour– Even if their main activity is to be a student, retired or

home-worker– Even if the person does not earn any money

• Includes persons who are absent from a job– Because of a temporary absence (sickness, vacation, etc.)– But may include persons on extended absences who do

not contribute to production

• Excludes – Persons who do mainly volunteer and domestic chores– Persons below a certain age (e.g., working children)


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Concept of unemployment

• Includes persons who are exerting a pressure for jobs in the labour market– Identified as persons who do something to get a job and

who are available for work

• But may exclude – Persons who want to work but do not seek work, even if

they are more likely to find work than the unemployed– Persons who have social restrictions to be available for

certain types of jobs, e.g., work outside the house


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Concept of the informal sector

• Includes workers in units which are unregistered, small or uncovered by labour legislation

– Whether it is the main or the secondary job

• Excludes workers in– Domestic work– Outwork/homework– Work for the benefit of own household


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Concepts of wages

• Income related to employment includes all income components for all workers– Including social security benefits and irregular bonuses

• Earnings – Covers only the paid employed– Includes only income regularly received from the employer– Excludes irregular bonuses, payments in kind and social security

benefits

• Wage rates– Covers only the paid employed– Includes only the agreed wages to be paid for normal hours of

work– Excludes payment for overtime and includes wages not paid due

to absence


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Coverage in industrial disputes

• Includes – Legal or official disputes– Above a certain minimum duration (in days)

• May not include– Workers indirectly involved


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Sufficient detail

• The more detail, the clearer it is to see gender differences

• Requires that coding be done at the most detailed level of the classification sustained by the information provided

• Sample size in household and establishment surveys– Will not allow much disaggregation

• Classifications used (occupations, status in employment, industry, occupational injuries)– May not provide descriptions about typical women’s jobs

to the same extent than men’s


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Disaggregations by useful variables

• Personal characteristics – Sex, age, education, civil status

• Family context– Presence of small children or other persons requiring

care

• Job characteristics– Occupations, status in employment

• Variable components– Of income: bonuses, overtime, social security benefits,

payments in kind, etc.– Of hours of work: overtime, absence from work,

travelling time, short breaks, etc.


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Cohabiting(marital) Status

Children in the Householdbelow 6?

Children in the HouseholdBelow 6?

Not cohabiting with

small children

Not cohabiting with no

small children

Cohabitingwith

small children

Cohabitingwith no

small children

Not cohabiting (single,divorced, widowed)

Cohabiting (married, living together)

yes no

Family context variable

yes no


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Indicators

• Types of indicators• Indicators to measure segregation in:

– The entry to/exit from the labour market– The types of economic activities carried out– Labour inputs– Returns to labour

• International indicators


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Types of indicators

• Measures of relationship– Ratios : relation between two quantities (a/b)– Proportions, percentages : quotient between one part and

the total (a/(a+b))– Index numbers

• Measures of central tendency – Mean, median, mode

• Measures of variability – Frequency distribution, range, standard deviation

• Shape of the distribution – Skewness, kurtosis


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Index numbers

• Value in relation to a standard value (often =100)• When are index numbers used

– Summarize large quantities of qualitative informationID= ½ ∑ | Mi/M - Fi/F |

– Indicate variations in timeWage index = (Wt – W(t-1))/W(t-1)

• Types– Simple index number

Gender pay gap = (Wm-Wf)/Wm

– Weighted index numberLaspeyres price index = ∑ Pi1Qi0/ ∑ Pi0Qi0


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Indicators to measure entry/exit

• Activity rate– Gross: Labour force/total population * 100– Net: Labour force/working age population * 100

• Employment rate– Employed persons/working age population * 100

• Unemployment rate– Unemployed persons/Labour force * 100


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Indicators to measure activities carried out

• Share of women in category iWomen in category i/total workers in category i * 100

= Fi/Ni * 100

• Percentage of all women in category IWomen in category i/all women * 100

= Fi/F * 100

• Sex ratio (in category i)Women in category i/Men in category i * 100

= Fi/Mi * 100

• Dissimilarity index (ID)ID= ½ ∑ | Mi/M - Fi/F |


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Indicators to measure labour inputs

• Percentage distribution of workers by hours worked per week

• Percentage women/men who work less/more than x hours per week

• Distribution of workers by working time arrangements


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Indicators to measure returns to labour

• Gender wage gap(Wm – Wf)/Wm * 100

• Gender wage gap corrected for differences in occupations/industries

1/N ∑Ni * (Wmi - Wfi)/Wmi• Average wage

1/N ∑ Wi• Median wage - wage below and above which half of

the population is found• Distribution of workers by categories of income

earned


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International indicators

• Millennium Development Goals http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Default.aspx – 8 objectives– One objective about gender equality– One indicator about gender equality in the labour

market : MDG11: Proportion of women in paid non-agricultural employment

• HDI: Human Development Indicators by sex http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/

• Gender wage gap: only indicator used in EU region

Inevitable limitations

http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Default.aspx

http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/




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Wage gap by occupational group, USA 2000

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60

Executive, administrative and managerial

Technicians and related support

Administrative support, including clerical

Protective services

Mechanics and repairers

Other precision production, craft and repair

Transportation and materal moving occupations

Farming, forestry and fishing

Wage gap


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Wage gap by % women in occupational group, USA

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Summing up: what needs to be done

• Develop and measure NEW TOPICS• When source does not cover ALL workers,

calculate ESTIMATES on the extent of excluded groups by sex

• Design MEASUREMENT METHODS to include– Personal and family context variables– Sufficiently detailed information– Do not forget: activity lists in household surveys

• Design STATISTICAL TABLES that show up gender distinctions– Cross-classify all topics by SEX and FAMILY context

variables

[email protected]

www.ilo.org/stathttp://laborsta.ilo.org

mainstreaming gender in labour statistics training slides for producers and users of labour...

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