LostAncientTechnologyOfEgypt

CopyrightBrienFoerster2014CovercopyrightBryanFoerster2014

DedicationIdedicatethisbooktothosethatignitedmyinterestinancientEgypt,andthosethatfuelledthatinterestintoapassionthatgrowseachday.FirstofalltomymotherAnn,whoreadmebedtimestoriesofthelivesofthepharaohs,classicalGreeceandRome,andglobalmythology.TomydearwifeIrene,whohasaccompaniedmetothemagicalland,andsupportedmewhenIhadtogoalone.Tothosegreatscholars,GrahamHancock,RobertBauval,JohnAnthonyWest,ChristopherDunnandRobertSchochwhoseinsightsintoancientEgyptstirredupcontroversyandinsomecasesvehementattacksfromconventionalscholars.

IwishalsotothankalloftheEgyptologistswhoseworkhasrevealedsomuchthatwenowknowaboutthedynasticEgyptians;whotheywere,whentheylived,andwhattheyaccomplished.ButmydeepestloveandrespectgoestoStephenMehler,Yousef,PatriciaandtherestoftheAwyanfamily,wholiveacrossthestreetfromtheGizaPlateau.Theirwarmthofspirit,dedicationtothetrueknowledgeoftheancientland,andalwaysopendoorhasmadeeachandeveryoneofthemamemberofmyfamily.

Andfinally,thisbookisespeciallydedicatedtoAbd'ElHakimAwyan,archaeologist,Egyptologist,traditionalwisdomkeeperandpatriarchoftheAwyanfamily.Ioftenfeelhispresencewhenweareintheancientsites,andsensehimsmilingasweallworktogethertounravelthesemysteriesofhisbelovedKhemit.He,alongwithStephenMehlercreatedthestudynowknownasKhemitology,whichintroducesintothepoolofknowledgemanyaspectsandinterpretationswhichconventionalEgyptologydoesnot,

orcannotaddress.

Hakim’sknowledgeandwisdomcamefromdegreesinarchaeologyandEgyptology,butwhatmadehisapproachtothehistoryofEgyptuniqueisthathespentmostofhislifeasatourguide,andfromchildhoodlearnedfromhisobservationsinthefield,aswellasconsultingwiththosewhowerethecaretakersofthesacredsites.ThisoraltraditionhasseeminglybeenignoredbymostEgyptologists,andfewarethose,suchasHakim,whohavebeencapableofacquiringafullerhistoryofthisancientland.

ForwardIwasquitepleasedwhenBrienFoersteraskedmetowritetheforwardforthisbook—pleasednotonlybecauseBrienhasbecomearespectedcolleagueandgoodfriend,butmainlybecauseIconsiderhimtobeoneoftheclearestandbestresearchersofancientculturesandcivilizationsintheworldtoday.

Myowninterestsandpursuitsinthefieldofhumanprehistoryandancienthistorynowapproaches50yearsofresearch.MymainareaofinteresthasbeenthecivilizationknownasancientEgypt—anenduringinterestsincetheageofeight—andbecamemymainprofessionalareasince1968.Imustmentiontwoprofoundteacherswhohavesupremelyguidedmeinthisdirection:thefirstbeingProfessorFrancoisBordes,formerDirectorofAntiquitiesforSWFrance,oneofthegreatprehistoriansofthe20thCentury.Prof.Bordes,whosedoctoratewasingeology,taughtmenotonlybasicfieldarchaeologyinthesummerof1974,butthefundamentalsofgeology—whichInowconsideressentialforanyarchaeologist.ButmygreatestteacherappearedonlywhenIwasready—andonlyafteryearsofresearchonmyowninacademicEgyptology.

Ibecameinvolvedintheresearchofancientcrystalskullsinthe1980s,wasfeaturedinabookonthesubjectandwasthenonapanelattheSanFranciscoWholeLifeExpoin1987.ThereImettwopeoplemanningaboothforatravelagency—theywereDr.RuthandHarryHover,agents

forPowerPlacesTourswholedspiritualtripstoEgypt.IbecamegreatfriendswithRuthandHarry,andtheytoldmetheyuseda“special”tourguideinEgyptnamedAbd’ElHakimwhoknewthe“oldways”andhadprofoundknowledgeofveryancientEgypt.Iknew--thenandthere--thatIhadtomeetthisman.

Itwasn’tuntiloverfiveyearslater—whenIwasready—inNovemberof1992—thataseriesofeventsunfoldedthatenabledmetogoontourwithPowerPlacesandjoinagroupledbyNickiScullywhohadcometoEgyptwiththeGratefulDeadin1978andhadmetHakimandusedhimasguide.IdiscusstheamazingmeetingwithHakim—guidedbytheSphinx—inmyfirstbook.Forthenext16years—untilhis“westing”inAugust2008(almostsixyearstothedayasItypethis)—IbecameHakim’smostdevotedstudentanddisciple.Histeachingsweretrulyunique,whichwerearesultofhisextraordinarybackground.HakimhelddualacademicdegreesinarchaeologyandEgyptologyfromFouad(nowCairo)Universityintheearly1950s—butitwashisenduringthirstfortrueancientknowledgethatledhimtobesentbyabeloveduncleasasmallboytostudywithSufimasters.Hakimwasanactivetourguidefor56years,havingbeenamemberofthefirstclassoflicensedguidesin1952.Hehad76yearsofactivefieldwork,havingstartedhiscareerremovingrubbleandrocksforAmericanEgyptologist,GeorgeRiesner,ontheGizaPlateauatthetenderageofsix.HakimspenthisearlyyearstravellingalloverEgypttoseekoutandlearnfromthewisdomkeeperswhokeptthegreatoraltraditionsthatpredatedEgyptologyandthathavebeenpasseddownforthousandsofyearsbeforetherewerewrittenrecords.HakimwasatrueMasteroftheOralTradition,andateverysitehewouldtakemetoovertheyears,healwaysintroducedmetothe“Keepers”—oldmenintraditionaldresswhokeptthe“secrets.”

Hakimpresentedtousthetraditionthattherehadbeenaprehistoric,predynasticEgyptthathadexistedmanythousandsofyearsbeforethetimeEgyptologyhadlabeled“ancientEgypt”—acivilizationofadvanced

knowledgeandtechnologythathadcarvedtheSphinxandbuiltthestonemasonrypyramids—whichwerenot“tombs”butmachines!HakimtaughtthecivilizationwascalledKhem—laterknownasKhemit,the“BlackLand,”andhadexistedinfullgloryover10,000yearsago.Hakimhadthesystem—Ijustputthelabelonit!TogetherwecreatedthedisciplineofKhemitology,asopposedtoEgyptology—whichHakimlabeled“Greco-RomanMythology.”Withhisguidance,Iwrotetwobooks,TheLandofOsiris(AdventuresUnlimitedPress,2001)andFromLightintoDarkness:TheEvolutionofReligionInAncientEgypt(AdventuresUnlimitedPress,2005).LandlatercameoutinRussian,Croatian,ItalianandCzech—somethingbothHakimandIwereproudof.

Inthelate1990sHakimandIspokeofcreatingaschoolthatwouldcontinuetheworkandfurthertheteachings.Thisdreamhasnowbecomeareality;asHakim’ssonYousefandhiswife,PatriciaLehmanAwyan,formedtheKhemitSchoolofAncientMysticismin2009.Patriciafirstcameontourwithmein2005andmetHakimandfellinlovewithEgypt—andKhemit.Shereturnedin2007,totakepartinHakim’slastfulltour.Shereturnedagainin2008andmetandmarriedYousef.PatriciahasadeepconnectiontotheteachingsandwasfullyembracedbyHakimandtheAwyanfamily—asIwas!IhaveknownYousefAbdelHakimAwyansincehewaselevenyearsold.HeishisFather’ssonandsomuchmore.TheKhemitSchool,www.khemitology.com,hasbeenleadingtoursinEgyptsince2010.

ItwasHakimwhoistheconnectionbetweenBrienFoersterandme.Neitherofusremembersexactlywhenbutitwasthroughsocialmedia,FacebookthatBrienandIconnected.Briensawthevideoseries,ThePyramidCode,producedbyCarmenBoulter.TheseriesfeaturedsomeexcellentinterviewclipsofHakimintroducingsomeoftheconceptsofKhemitology.IhadintroducedCarmentoHakimattheCairoAirportin1997.Theserieswasproducedin2009.BrienrelateshowhewasinstantlydrawntoHakim,hisvoice,hisenergy,hisknowledgeandhis

wisdom.BriensoonfoundmeonFacebook—andtherestishistory.ThisbookistheresultoftwotripsBrienFoersterhastakentoEgypt—ontourwiththeKhemitSchoolinApril2013and2014.Wecalledthesetours“Techno-Spiritual”—astheancientKhemitiansdidnotdifferentiatebetweenthetwo—andthetourin2013featuredmydearfriendandesteemedcolleague,ChristopherDunn.BriencametoEgyptwithnotonlyhismindandeyesopen,butwithanopenheart,too.Becauseofthis,notonlyancientKhemitbutmodernEgyptandherpeopleopenedtohim.BecauseofthegreatconnectionsofYousefAwyan,whocarriesthemantleofhisfather,andMohamedIbrahim,ourTourDirectorandEgyptologist;Brienwasabletoseeandexperiencemanythings“normal”researchersandtourists—evenEgyptologists—haveneverseen!IhavesaidBrien’sfirsttwotripswerelikethefirstfiveforme—wefoundsomanynewthings.ThisbookcontainshiswonderfulinsightsgainedthroughhisvastknowledgeofancientSouthAmerican,PolynesianandMicronesian,andmanyNativecultures.Thephotoscontainedinthisbookarefreshandcurrent,andtheunderstandingBriendemonstratesthroughoutthetextisuniquelyprofound.“Laypeople”andprofessionalsalikewillenjoyandgainfromBrienFoerster’sdeepinsightsandpowersofobservation.IlookforwardtomanymorehoursinthefieldwithBrien—inmybelovedEgyptandhisbelovedPeru.

StephenS.Mehler,M.A.

TheauthorwithStephenMehleratJFKairportonthewaytoCairoin2013

TableOfContents1/Introduction2/AswanQuarry3/ElephantineIsland4/TombsoftheNobles5/Ramesseum6/ColossiofMemnon7/Dendera8/Abydos

9/Karnak10/Meidum11/Dashur12/Saqqara13/Abusir14/Abugurab15/GizaPlateau16/Bibliography

1/IntroductionEgypt,ormorespecificallyancientEgyptisasubjectthathasfascinatedpeoplefromaroundtheworldsinceNapoleonBonaparte,forexample,arrangedthefirststudiesinEgyptologywhenhebroughtsome150scientistsandartiststostudyanddocumentEgypt'snaturalhistory,whichwaspublishedintheDescriptiondel'Ėgypte.(1)Thatwasaseriesofpublications,appearingfirstin1809andcontinuinguntilthefinalvolumeappearedin1829,whichofferedacomprehensivescientificdescriptionofancientandmodernEgyptaswellasitsnaturalhistory.

Itwasthecollaborativeworkofabout160civilianscholarsandscientists,knownpopularlyasthesavants,whoaccompaniedNapoleon'sexpeditiontoEgyptin1798to1801aspartoftheFrenchRevolutionaryWars,aswellasabout2000artistsandtechnicians,including400engravers,whowouldlatercompileitintoafullwork.

EngravingmadefromNapoleon’svisit

ThehistoryofEgypthasbeentumultuous;tosaytheleastintheatleast5000yearssincetheriseofthefirstleaders,thesocalledpharaohs.Ratherthantherebeingasmoothsuccessionofrulersfromthefirstuntilthelast,majorperiodsofinternalrivalryandforeigninvasionleftscarsontheland.Historicalrecordsweredeliberatelyoraccidentallydestroyed,suchastheburningofthelibraryofAlexandria,andmanyofthegreattemplesandpyramidsweredamagedordestroyedbypeoplelaterthantheirbuilders.Inmanycasesthereasonforthedamagewastoerasetheexistenceofanearlierrulerandhisaccomplishments,ortobuildnewstructuresfromasitethatwasnolongerconsideredrelevant.

TheRoyalLibraryofAlexandria,orAncientLibraryofAlexandria,inAlexandria,Egypt,wasoneofthelargestandmostsignificantlibrariesoftheancientworld.ItwasdedicatedtotheMuses,theninegoddessesofthearts.(2)ItflourishedunderthepatronageofthePtolemaicdynastyandfunctionedasamajorcenterofscholarshipfromitsconstructioninthe3rd

centuryBCuntiltheRomanconquestofEgyptin30BC.Withcollectionsofworks,lecturehalls,meetingrooms,andgardens,thelibrarywaspartofalargerresearchinstitutioncalledtheMuseumofAlexandria,wheremanyofthemostfamousthinkersoftheancientworldstudied.

DrawingofwhatthelibraryofAlexandriamayhavelookedlike

ThelibrarywascreatedbyPtolemyISoter,whowasaMacedoniangeneralandthesuccessorofAlexandertheGreat.(3)AsasymbolofthewealthandpowerofEgypt,itemployedmanyscribestostealbooksfromaroundtheknownworld,copythem,andneverreturnedthem.Mostofthebookswerekeptaspapyrusscrolls,andthoughitisunknownhowmanysuchscrollswerehousedatanygiventime,theircombinedvaluewasincalculable.Thelibraryisfamousforhavingbeenburnedresultinginthelossofmanyscrollsandbooks,andhasbecomeasymbolofthedestructionofculturalknowledge.Afewsourcesdifferonwhois

responsibleforthedestructionandwhenitoccurred.AlthoughthereisamythologyoftheburningoftheLibraryatAlexandria,itmayhavesufferedseveralfiresoractsofdestructionovermanyyears.

PossibleoccasionsforthepartialorcompletedestructionoftheLibraryofAlexandriaincludeafiresetbyJuliusCaesarin48BC,anattackbyAurelianinthe270sAD,thedecreeofCopticPopeTheophilusin391AD,andthedecreeofthesecondcaliphOmaribnAl-khattābin640AD.Afterthemainlibrarywasfullydestroyed,ancientscholarsuseda"daughterlibrary"inatempleknownastheSerapeum,locatedinanotherpartofthecity.AccordingtoSocratesofConstantinople,CopticPopeTheophilusdestroyedtheSerapeumin391AD.

Asthelibrarywasfirstbuilt,anditscollectionsgatheredundertheruleofthePtolemaicdynasty,asintheGreeks,onehastowonderifitwasinfactacompleterecordofallofEgyptianhistory.ThePtolemieswerequiteunlikeotherforeignerswhohadruledEgyptinseveralrespects.Mostimportantly,theyruledwithinEgypt.Oneofthebestphrasesforunderstandingthenatureoftheirgovernment’srelationshipwiththecountryonwhichtheyimposedtheirruleisthat“thePtolemiesusedEgypt.”Bycontrast,itisfairtosaythat“theRomansabusedEgypt.”TheGreekscoulduseEgyptbecausetheycameuponawell-developedcountryinrespecttoitseconomic,intellectual,andpoliticallife.ThesefactorswereinforcetoanextentwhichwasunparalleledanywhereelsewithintheHellenisticworldwheretheGreekshadplacedthemselvestoruleoverindigenouspopulations.InthecaseofEgypt,thePtolemiesfoundthemselvesincontrolofahighlysophisticatedancientcivilizationandadministration,notagroupofcloddishbarbarians.TheEgyptianshadashighalevelofcultureastheGreeks,butitwasquitedifferentfromtheirs.(4)

TheideathattheGreekswereofashighaculturallevelisadubiouspointwhenyoutakeintoaccounthowlongeachcivilizationhadexistedpriortotheirengagement.Inthe8thcenturyBC,Greecebegantoemergefromthe

DarkAgeswhichfollowedthefalloftheMycenaeancivilization.LiteracyhadbeenlostandMycenaeanscriptforgotten,buttheGreeksadoptedthePhoenicianalphabet,modifyingittocreatetheGreekalphabet.Fromaboutthe9thcenturyBCwrittenrecordsbegantoappear.(5)Greecewasdividedintomanysmallself-governingcommunities,apatternlargelydictatedbyGreekgeography:everyisland,valleyandplainiscutofffromitsneighboursbytheseaormountainranges.

Amercantileclassaroseinthefirsthalfofthe7thcentury,shownbytheintroductionofcoinageinabout680BC.Thisseemstohaveintroducedtensiontomanycitystates.Thearistocraticregimeswhichgenerallygovernedwerethreatenedbythenew-foundwealthofmerchants,whointurndesiredpoliticalpower.Athenssufferedalandandagrariancrisisinthelate7thcentury,againresultingincivilstrife.TheArchon(chiefmagistrate)Dracomadeseverereformstothelawcodein621BC(hence"draconian"),butthesefailedtoquelltheconflict.EventuallythemoderatereformsofSolon(594BC),improvingthelotofthepoorbutfirmlyentrenchingthearistocracyinpower,gaveAthenssomestability.

BattlesoccurringinclassicalGreektimes

TwomajorwarsshapedtheClassicalGreekworld.ThePersianWars(500to448BC)arerecountedinHerodotus'sHistories.IonianGreekcitiesrevoltedfromthePersianEmpireandweresupportedbysomeofthemainlandcities,eventuallyledbyAthens.Thewarshadleftdevastationintheirwake.DiscontentwiththeSpartanhegemonythatfollowedinducedtheThebanstoattack.Theirgeneral,Epaminondas,crushedSpartaattheBattleofLeuctrain371BC,inauguratingaperiodofThebandominanceinGreece.In346BC,unabletoprevailinitsten-yearwarwithPhocis,ThebescalleduponPhilipIIofMacedonforaid.MacedonquicklyforcedthecitystatesintobeingunitedbytheLeagueof

CorinthwhichledtotheconqueringofthePersianEmpireandtheHellenisticAgehadbegun.SoonAlexandertheGreatconqueredEgyptatanearlystageofhisgreatjourneyofconquests,whichlastedfrom332to323BC.Herespectedthepharaohnicreligionsandcustomsandhewasdeclaredbythepriest,pharaohofEgypt.However,accordingtoStephenMehleritwasmorethathewasappointedHighPriestofAmen,andnotpharaoh,whichStephenandtheKhemitSchoolbelievetohavebeenthetitleofthefemale,notmaleinthesocietybackintodeepantiquity.PharaohseemstobetheGreekformoftheearliertermPer-Aah,meaninghighhouseinKhemitian.ComparethisnowwiththehistoryofEgypt,whichhasalwaysbeencenterednearthelifegivingNileRiver,centerofsomewhatstableagriculturalproductionforthousandsofyears.AunifiedkingdomwasfoundedaccordingtomostEgyptologistsaround3150BCbyKingMenes,leadingtoaseriesofdynastiesthatruledEgyptforthenextthreemillennia.EgyptiancultureflourishedduringthislongperiodandremaineddistinctivelyEgyptianinitsreligion,arts,languageandcustoms.ThefirsttworulingdynastiesofaunifiedEgyptsetthestagefortheOldKingdomperiod,2700to2200BC.,whichconstructedmanypyramids;mostnotablytheThirdDynastypyramidofDjoseratSaqqaraandsomebelievetheFourthDynastyGizaPyramids.

TheFirstIntermediatePeriodusheredinatimeofpoliticalupheavalforabout150years.(6)StrongerNilefloodsandstabilizationofgovernment,however,broughtbackrenewedprosperityforthecountryintheMiddleKingdomc.2040BC,reachingapeakduringthereignofPharaohAmenemhatIII.AsecondperiodofdisunityheraldedthearrivalofthefirstforeignrulingdynastyinEgypt,thatoftheSemiticHyksos.TheHyksosinvaderstookovermuchofLowerEgyptaround1650BCandfoundedanewcapitalatAvaris.TheyweredrivenoutbyanUpperEgyptianforceledbyAhmoseI,whofoundedtheEighteenthDynastyandrelocatedthecapitalfromMemphistoThebes.

TheNewKingdom,1550to1070BC,beganwiththeEighteenthDynasty,markingtheriseofEgyptasaninternationalpowerthatexpandedduringitsgreatestextensiontoanempireasfarsouthasTombosinNubia,andincludedpartsoftheLevantintheeast.Thisperiodisnotedforsomeofthemostwell-knownPharaohs,includingHatshepsut,ThutmoseIII,AkhenatenandhiswifeNefertiti,TutankhamunandRamessesII.ThefirsthistoricallyattestedexpressionofmonotheismcameduringthisperiodasAtenism,ledbyAkhenatenandNefertitiuntiltheAmun(orAmen)priesthood,whohadpreviouslybeeninpower,tookoveronceagain.FrequentcontactswithothernationsbroughtnewideastotheNewKingdom.ThecountrywaslaterinvadedandconqueredbyLibyans,NubiansandAssyrians,butnativeEgyptianseventuallydrovethemoutandregainedcontroloftheircountry.(7)TheThirtiethDynastywasthelastnativerulingdynastyduringthePharaohnicepoch.ItfelltothePersiansin343BCafterthelastnativePharaoh,KingNectaneboII,wasdefeatedinbattle.Soonafter,AlexandertheGreatenteredtheland.

ReliefcarvingofAkhenaten’sfamily

ForittobesuggestedthattheGreekshadashighalevelofculture,andwiththatscientificandartisticachievement,takingintoaccounttheirincrediblywarliketendencieswhichseeminglyresultedinlongperiodsofsocialinstabilityasthatoftheEgyptiansismostlikelynaïve.ThoughEgypthaditsfairshareofdisputes,bothinternalandexternal,itwasrelativelystablefor3000years.Thiscouldhaveledtoprolongedculturalevolution,oratleastretentionofwhatwasknownofscienceandartupuntiltheGreek,andworstyetRomanoccupations.

EgyptologyisthestudyofancientEgyptianhistory,language,literature,religion,architectureandartfromthe5thmillenniumBCuntiltheendofitsnativereligiouspracticesinthe4thcenturyAD.A

practitionerofthedisciplineiscalledan“Egyptologist”.InEurope,particularlycontinentalEurope,Egyptologyisprimarilyregardedasbeingaphilologicaldiscipline(thestudyoflanguageinwrittenhistoricalsources,)whileinNorthAmericaitisoftenregardedasabranchofarchaeology.

SomeofthefirsthistoricalaccountsofEgyptweregiventousbyHerodotus,Strabo,DiodorusSiculusandthelargelylostworkofManetho,whowasanEgyptianpriestduringthereignofPtolemyIandPtolemyIIinthe3rdcenturyBC.ThePtolemieswereverymuchinterestedintheworkoftheancientEgyptians,andmanyofthemonuments,includingthepyramids,wererestoredbythem(althoughtheybuiltmanynewtemplesintheEgyptianstyle.)TheRomanstoocarriedoutrestorationworkinthismostancientoflands.

AbdulLatifal-Baghdadi,ateacheratCairo'sAl-AzharUniversityinthe13thcentury,wrotedetaileddescriptionsonancientEgyptianmonuments.(8)Similarly,the15th-centuryEgyptianhistorianal-MaqriziwrotedetailedaccountsofEgyptianantiquities.EuropeanexplorationandtravelwritingsofancientEgyptcommencedfromthe13thcenturyonward,withonlyoccasionaldetoursintoamorescientificapproach,notablybyClaudeSicard,BenoîtdeMaillet,FredericLouisNordenandRichardPococke.Intheearly17thcentury,JohnGreavesmeasuredthepyramids,havinginspectedthebrokenObeliskofDomitianinRome,andthendestinedfortheEarlofArundel'scollectioninLondon.(9)HewentontopublishtheillustratedPyramidographiain1646,whiletheJesuitscientist-priestAthanasiusKircherwasperhapsthefirsttohintatthephoneticimportanceofEgyptianhieroglyphs,demonstratingCopticasavestigeofearlyEgyptian,forwhichheisconsidereda"founder"ofEgyptology.Inthelate18thcentury,withNapoleon'sscholars'recordingofEgyptianflora,faunaandhistory,publishedasDescriptiondel'EgyptethestudyofmanyaspectsofancientEgyptbecamemorescientificallyoriented.AndwhentheBritishcapturedEgyptfromtheFrenchandgainedtheRosetta

stone.ModernEgyptologyisgenerallyperceivedasbeginningabout1822.

TheRosettastoneintheBritishMuseuminLondon

TheRosettastoneisagranodioritesteleinscribedwithadecreeissuedatMemphisin196BCEonbehalfofKingPtolemyV.Thedecreeappearsinthreescripts:theuppertextisancientEgyptianhieroglyphs,themiddleportionDemoticscript(thestageoftheEgyptianlanguagefollowingLateEgyptianandprecedingCoptic,)andthelowestAncientGreek.Becauseitpresentsessentiallythesametextinallthreescripts(withsomeminordifferencesamongthem),itprovidedthekeytothemodernunderstandingofEgyptianhieroglyphs.

Studyofthedecreewasalreadyunderwayasthefirstfulltranslationof

theGreektextappearedin1803.Itwas20years,however,beforethetransliterationoftheEgyptianscriptswasannouncedbyJean-FrançoisChampollioninParisin1822;ittooklongerstillbeforescholarswereabletoreadAncientEgyptianinscriptionsandliteratureconfidently.Majoradvancesinthedecodingwererecognitionthatthestoneofferedthreeversionsofthesametext(1799);thatthedemotictextusedphoneticcharacterstospellforeignnames(1802);thatthehieroglyphictextdidsoaswell,andhadpervasivesimilaritiestothedemotic(ThomasYoung,1814);andthat,inadditiontobeingusedforforeignnames,phoneticcharacterswerealsousedtospellnativeEgyptianwords(Champollion,1822to1824).

ThoughtheRosettastonehasclearlyprovenuseful,questionsarisefromsomeEgyptianhieroglyphicexpertsastoitsaccuracy,especiallythevalidityanddepthofmeaningoftheancientEgyptianglyphs.SincetheRosettastonewastheworkofscribesduringthetimeofGreekoccupation,theancientEgyptianmeaningscouldsimplybethesuperficialaspects,ratherthanthedeeperexpressionsofthepriestlyclass,forexample.AuthorLairdScranton,inhisfirstbook,TheScienceoftheDogon,demonstratedthatthecosmologicalstructuredescribedinthemythsanddrawingsoftheDogon(anethnicgrouplivinginthecentralplateauregionofthecountryofMali,inWesternAfrica)runsparalleltomodernscience(atomictheory,quantumtheory,andstringtheory),withDogondrawingsoftentakingthesameformasaccuratescientificdiagramsthatrelatetotheformationofmatter.

ScrantonalsopointedtothecloseresemblancebetweenthekeywordsandcomponentelementsofDogoncosmologyandthoseofancientEgyptaswellastotheimplicationthatancientcosmologymayalsobeaboutactualscience.SacredSymbolsoftheDogonusestheseparallelsasthestartingpointforanewinterpretationoftheEgyptianhieroglyphiclanguage.BysubstitutingDogoncosmologicaldrawingsforequivalentglyphshapesinEgyptianwords,anewwayofreadingandinterpretingtheEgyptian

hieroglyphsemerges.Scrantonshowshoweachhieroglyphconstitutesanentireconceptandthattheirmeaningsarescientificinnature.UsingtheDogonsymbolsasa“Rosettastone,”herevealsreferenceswithintheancientEgyptianlanguagethatdefinethefullrangeofscientificcomponentsofmatter.

Abd’ElHakimAwyandidnotfeelthatChampollion’stranslationswereofanydepth,sincetheGreeksthemselveswerenotprivytothedepthsofthemeaningsofthesymbols(frompersonalconsultationswithStephenMehler.)

Dogonvillageinarecentphoto

Therefore,theexclusiveuseoftheRosettastoneasawaytotranslate

Egyptianhieroglyphicsandthereforeinterpretwhattheyaresayingmaybeasuperficialexercise,withthedeepermeaningsbeinglost.WhatthismeansisthatEgyptologymayjustbebrushingthesurfaceofthehistoryofancientEgypt,andthiscomesintoplayhereespeciallywhenwelookatsome,andImuststresssomeoftheancientstructuresofEgyptandwhattheywereoriginallymadefor,andbywhom.

Egyptology’smodernhistorybeginswiththeinvasionofEgyptbyNapoleonBonaparte.ThesubsequentpublicationofDescriptiondel’Egyptebetween1809and1829madenumerousancientEgyptiansourcematerialsavailabletoEuropeansforthefirsttime.JeanFrançoisChampollion,ThomasYoungandIppolitoRoselliniweresomeofthefirstEgyptologistsofwideacclaim.TheGermanKarlRichardLepsiuswasanearlyparticipantintheinvestigationsofEgypt;mapping,excavating,andrecordingseveralsites.ChampollionannouncedhisgeneraldeciphermentofthesystemofEgyptianhieroglyphicsforthefirsttime,employingtheRosettastoneashisprimaryaid.WithsubsequentlyeverincreasingknowledgeofEgyptianwritingandlanguage,thestudyofancientEgyptiancivilizationwasabletoproceedwithgreateracademicrigourandwithalltheaddedimpetusthatcomprehensionofthewrittensourceswasabletoengender.EgyptologybecamemoreprofessionalviaworkofWilliamMatthewFlindersPetrie,amongothers.Petrieintroducedtechniquesoffieldpreservation,recording,andexcavating.HowardCarter'sexpeditionanddiscoveryofTutankhamunbroughtmuchacclaimtothefieldofEgyptology.ManyhighlyeducatedamateursnowalsotravelledtoEgypt,however,includingwomensuchasHarrietMartineauandFlorenceNightingale,whobothleftfascinatinglyphilosophicalaccountsoftheirtravels,whichrevealedlearnedfamiliaritywithallthelatestEuropeanEgyptology.

WilliamFlindersPetrieasayoungmaninEgypt

ItmustbestressedthatweoweatremendousdebtofgratitudetoalloftheEgyptologistsfortheyhaveprovideduswithinvaluableinformationaboutthelivesandachievementsofthedynasticEgyptiansfrom3100BConwards.WhatthisbookwilladdressarethoseconstructionsforwhichEgyptology,inmyestimationdoesnothavesatisfactoryanswersastowhomadethem,whenandwhy.TheapproachtothiswillbesimilartomyLegacy;VintagePhotosOfAncientEgypt.WewillexplorefromthemostsouthernpartofEgypt,socalledUpperEgyptandmovenorthwards,intowhatwasknownasLowerEgypt,discussingsomeofthepuzzlingworksthatarenotproperlyexplainedalongtheway.

2/AswanQuarryAswanistheancientcityofSwenet,whichinantiquitywasthefrontiertownofancientEgyptfacingthesouth.SwenetissupposedtohavederiveditsnamefromanEgyptiangoddesswiththesamename.ThisgoddesslaterwasidentifiedasEileithyiabytheGreeksandLucinabytheRomansduringtheiroccupationofancientEgyptbecauseofthesimilarassociationoftheirgoddesseswithchildbirth,andofwhichmeans"theopener".TheancientnameofthecityalsoissaidtobederivedfromtheEgyptiansymbolfortrade,(10)andtheKhemitSchoolcontendthatitmeant“TheBeginningoftheWaters”inancientKhemitian,namedafteramucholdercityinthesouthwheretheNileenteredthelandofKhemit,TheBlackLand.

BecausetheancientEgyptiansorientedtowardtheoriginofthelifegivingwatersoftheNileinthesouth,Swenetwasthefirsttowninthecountry,andEgyptalwayswasconceivedto"open"orbeginatSwenet.Thecitystooduponapeninsulaontheright(east)bankoftheNile,immediatelybelow(andnorthof)thefirstcataractoftheflowingwaters,whichextendtoitfromPhilae.Navigationtothedeltawaspossiblefromthislocationwithoutencounteringabarrier.ThestonequarriesofancientEgyptlocatedherewerecelebratedfortheirstone,andespeciallyforthegraniticrockcalledSyenite,whichisusuallypinkorredinappearance.Theyfurnishedthecolossalstatues,obelisks,andmonolithicshrinesthatarefoundthroughoutEgypt,includingthepyramids;andthetracesofthequarrymenwhowroughtinthese3,000yearsagoarestillvisibleinthenativerock.

AstonishingflatwallattheAswanquarry

Todaythereare2unfinishedobelisks,onelargeandanothermuchsmallerthatstilllieinthequarry,attachedfirmlytothebedrock.ArchaeologistsclaimthepharaohknownasHatshepsutsanctionedtheconstructionofthebiggerofthetwo.ItisnearlyonethirdlargerthananyancientEgyptianobeliskevererected.Iffinisheditwouldhavemeasuredaround42m(approximately137feet)andwouldhaveweighednearly1,200tons.(11)Archeologistsspeculatethatitwasintendedtocomplementtheso-calledLateranObeliskwhichwasoriginallyatKarnakandisnowoutsidetheLateranPalaceinRome.Theobelisk'screatorsbegantocarveitdirectlyoutofbedrock,butcracksappearedinthegraniteandtheprojectwasabandoned.Originallyitwasthoughtthatthestonehadanundetectedflaw(seephoto)andthusworkstoppedabruptlyonit.

Trenchattheunfinishedobeliskshowingcrack

Thegreatestquestionsthatariseare,whattoolscouldhavebeenusedtoshapethismassivestonemonument,andhowweretheEgyptiansplanningonraisingitoutofthepitinwhichitsits,takingintoaccountitsimmensesize.Totheformer,mostEgyptologistsbelievethatroundandhandheldstonedoleritepounderswerethemaintoolsbeingused.Doleriteisavolcanicrock.Whilesimilartobasalt,itcontainscrystalswhichcanbeseenwithahandlens.Thisindicatesthatitcooledalittlemoreslowlythanbasalt.Typicallyitisfoundinvolcanicplugswhichchannelledthebasalttothesurface.Doleritecontainspyroxenewhichisahardsilicatemineralwithahardnessof5to6.5onwhatiscalledtheMohsscale.

Conventionalpocketsmadeforinsertionofwoodenwedges

TheMohsscaleofmineralhardnesscharacterizesthescratchresistanceofvariousmineralsthroughtheabilityofahardermaterialtoscratchasoftermaterial.Itwascreatedin1812bytheGermangeologistandmineralogistFriedrichMohsandisoneofseveraldefinitionsofhardnessinmaterialsscience.Asthehardestknownnaturallyoccurringsubstancewhenthescalewasdesigned,diamondsareatthetopofthescaleandhavethemaximumvalueof10,whileallothermaterialshavealesservalue.

DoloritepoundersatthequarryatAswan

Inbasicterms,anytoolshouldhaveagreaterhardnessthanthematerialbeingcutorshaped.ThepinkgraniteofwhichtheunfinishedobeliskiscomposedhasaMohshardnessthatsitsbetweenthescaleof6and7,andthusismoreorlessthesamehardnessasdolerite,makingthelatterapoormaterialforshapingtheformer.Also,Aswangranitecontainsbetween45and55%quartzcrystal,whichhasaMohsvalueof7,thusmakingthisgraniteespeciallydifficulttoworkwithBronze,theothertoolsubstanceknowntoandusedbytheancientEgyptiansismuchsofter,beingonaverage3.5ontheMohsscale.Ifdoleritepounderswereusedtoshapethegranite,thetoolswouldbasicallywearoutasfastasthematerialbeingworkedon,andsoundslikeanunlikelycandidate.

ImyselftriedtomakeanimpressioninagranitesurfaceattheAswanquarryusingoneofthemanydoleritepoundersthatlayaroundthesite.

After15repeatedhardblows,notmorethanafewsmallflecksofgranitewereremoved,andmyhandhurtasaresult.Inordertomakeanyrealimpressioninthegranitematerial,alotofforcewouldneedtobeused.Theproblemsencounteredattheunfinishedobeliskisthatthereisverylittleroominsidethetrenchtobeabletocreateahardblow,andsuchrepeatedeffortscouldalsobreakthedoleritetool.

Viewoftheunfinishedobeliskatitsbase

Soifstonetoolswerenotthosethatwereusedtoattempttoshapeandeventuallyreleasetheobeliskfromitsbedrockenclosure?OneofthebestresourcesforlookingatalternativesisengineerandmastermachinistChristopherDunn'sbookLostTechnologiesofAncientEgypt:AdvancedEngineeringintheTemplesofthePharaohs.AsregardstheunfinishedobeliskatAswan,hequotesfromNovaproducerPeterTysonwhotriedhishandatquarryingwithadoleritepounder:

'Cuppingagreenish-blackdoleriteballinmyhands,Ibroughtitdownwithacrackontoablockofgranite.Overandover,Ibounceditonthesamespot,tillIthoughtI'dscrapetheskinoffmypalms.Aftertenminutes,mywristshurtfromtryingtoguidethe12poundrockinatanangle-thebettertobreakthegranite–andstabsofpainbeganshootingupmyarms.MarkLehner(amajorproponentofthedoleritepoundertheory)recalledthatafteroncepoundingforseveralhours,hecouldbarelytypeonacomputer.Ididitforonly20minutes,andallIhadtoshowforitwasababy'spalmfulofgranitedust.Andthegranite'ssurfacelookednodifferentthanwhenI'dstated.'

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