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Literature Synthesis of the Effects of Roads and Vehicles on Amphibians and Reptiles
Kimberly M. Andrews1, J. Whitfield Gibbons1, and Denim M. Jochimsen2
1Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Aiken, South Carolina, 29802, USA
2Department of Biological Sciences, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho, 83209,
USA
Federal Highway Administration Publication
FHWA-HEP-08-005
October 2006
Andrews, K. M., J. W. Gibbons, and D. M. Jochimsen. 2006. Literature Synthesis of the Effects
of Roads and Vehicles on Amphibians and Reptiles. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), U.S. Department of Transportation, Report No. FHWA-HEP-08-005. Washington, D.C. 151 pp.
Corresponding author: K. M. Andrews ([email protected])
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1. Report No.FHWA-HEP-08-005
2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
5. Report Date
September 16, 2006
4. Title and Subtitle -
Literature Synthesis of the Effects of Roads and Vehicles on Amphibians and Reptiles
6. Performing Organization Code:
7. Author(s)
Kimberly M. Andrews, J. Whitfield Gibbons, Denim M. Jochimsen
8. Performing Organization Report No.
Final Draft
10. Work Unit No. 9. Performing Organization Name and Address
University of Georgia Savannah River Ecology Lab Drawer E Aiken, SC 29802
11. Contract or Grant No. - DTFH61-04-H-00036
13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Synthesis August 2004 - August 2006
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
Office of Research and Technology Services Federal Highway Administration 6300 Georgetown Pike McLean, VA 22101-2296
14. Sponsoring Agency Code
15. Supplementary Notes
16. Abstract -. This report contains a summary of ongoing work on the behavioral, physiological, and ecological effects of roads and vehicles on amphibians and reptiles (herpetofauna). Roads are the ultimate manifestation of urbanization, providing an essential connectivity within and between rural and heavily populated areas. However, the continual expansion of this infrastructure is not without ecological consequences. Road impacts extend across temporal and spatial scales beginning during the early stages of construction, progressing through final completion, and continuing with daily use. The most obvious effects are direct; injury or death of wildlife during road construction or from contact with vehicles, and the destruction of habitat. In addition to these readily measurable effects, road impacts are compounded further by a variety of indirect effects of roads on herpetofauna that can be pervasive through habitat fragmentation and alteration that extend to population and community levels. This report further identifies potential threats to amphibians and reptiles by noting and discussing previous research in road ecology that is applicable. The report also provides examples of physiological, ecological, and behavioral traits inherent among herpetofauna that enhance their susceptibility to habitat alterations and environmental changes associated with development and roads, emphasizing areas in which impacts have not yet been documented but are likely. Thus, an ecological framework is presented that can serve to suggest research questions and encourage investigators to pursue goals that relate to direct and indirect effects of road development and subsequent urbanization on herpetofauna. The current and possible approaches for resolving and preventing conflicts between wildlife and roads are also presented. The literature synthesis is the most up-to-date bibliographic reference source for consideration of road effects on U.S. amphibians and reptiles to the best of our knowledge. This report will be of interest to government officials responsible for highway planning, road construction, and environmental impact assessments, and to anyone concerned with incorporating ecological research related to environmental concerns, mitigations, and modifications applicable to U.S. roads and the vehicles that use them.
17. Key Words - Amphibian, Direct effect, Ecology, Fragmentation, Herpetofauna, Highway, Indirect effect, Management, Mitigation, Mortality, PARC, Reptile, Road, Vehicle
18. Distribution Statement
No restrictions. This document is available to the public through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161.
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Unclassified
20. Security Classif. (of this page) Unclassified
21. No. of Pages
151
22. Price
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized
Notice This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for the use of the information contained in this document. The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or manufacturers' names appear in this report only because they are considered essential to the objective of the document.
Quality Assurance Statement The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) provides high-quality information to serve Government, industry, and the public in a manner that promotes public understanding. Standards and policies are used to ensure and maximize the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of its information. FHWA periodically reviews quality issues and adjusts its programs and processes to ensure continuous quality improvement.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report contains a summary of ongoing work on the behavioral, physiological, and
ecological effects of roads and vehicles on amphibians and reptiles (herpetofauna). Roads are
the ultimate manifestation of urbanization, providing an essential connectivity within and
between rural and heavily populated areas. However, the continual expansion of this
infrastructure is not without ecological consequences. Road impacts extend across temporal and
spatial scales beginning during the early stages of construction, progressing through final
completion, and continuing with daily use. The most obvious effects are direct; injury or death
of wildlife during road construction or from contact with vehicles and the destruction of habitat.
In addition to these readily measurable effects, road impacts are compounded further by a
variety of indirect effects of roads on herpetofauna that can be pervasive through habitat
fragmentation and alteration that extend to population and community levels. This report further
identifies potential threats to amphibians and reptiles by noting and discussing previous
research in road ecology that is applicable. The report also provides examples of physiological,
ecological, and behavioral traits inherent among herpetofauna that enhance their susceptibility
to habitat alterations and environmental changes associated with development and roads,
emphasizing areas in which impacts have not yet been documented but are likely. Thus, an
ecological framework is presented that can serve to suggest research questions and encourage
investigators to pursue goals that relate to direct and indirect effects of road development and
subsequent urbanization on herpetofauna. The current and possible approaches for resolving
and preventing conflicts between wildlife and roads are also presented. The literature synthesis
is the most up-to-date bibliographic reference source for consideration of road effects on U.S.
amphibians and reptiles to the best of our knowledge. This report will be of interest to
government officials responsible for highway planning, road construction, and environmental
impact assessments, and to anyone concerned with incorporating ecological research related to
environmental concerns, mitigations, and modifications applicable to U.S. roads and the
vehicles that use them.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 7
SUSCEPTIBILITIES AND VULNERABILITIES OF HERPETOFAUNA TO ROAD
IMPACTS ................................................................................................................................... 10
MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ECOLOGY .................................................................. 11
Dependence on Moisture...................................................................................................... 11
Temperature Requirements .................................................................................................. 12
Sensitivity to Chemical Pollution......................................................................................... 13
Sensory Traits....................................................................................................................... 14
BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY............................................................................................................ 15
Movement-associated Behavior ........................................................................................... 15
Daily Movement Patterns..................................................................................................... 17
Migration.............................................................................................................................. 17
Breeding and Nesting ........................................................................................................... 18
Movement to Hibernation Sites............................................................................................ 19
Dispersal............................................................................................................................... 19
Defensive Behaviors ............................................................................................................ 20
Foraging Behavior................................................................................................................ 20
Communication and Social Behavior................................................................................... 21
DEMOGRAPHIC AND LIFE HISTORY TRAITS .............................................................................. 21
Sex Ratios............................................................................................................................. 22
Longevity ............................................................................................................................. 23
SPATIAL HETEROGENEITY........................................................................................................ 23
INTERACTIONS WITH HUMANS.................................................................................................. 24
URBANIZATION AND FRAGMENTATION..................................................................................... 26
DIRECT EFFECTS .................................................................................................................... 28
ORGANISMAL ECOLOGY........................................................................................................... 30
ROAD CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................................................................... 31
HABITAT CORRELATIONS......................................................................................................... 35
ABIOTIC CORRELATIONS.......................................................................................................... 35
ROADS AS TRANSECTS.............................................................................................................. 36
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ASSESSING IMPACTS OF ROADKILL FROM SURVEY DATA ........................................................ 38
INDIRECT EFFECTS ................................................................................................................ 40
EDGE EFFECTS.......................................................................................................................... 41
USE OF THE ROAD ZONE FOR HABITAT ..................................................................................... 42
Foraging Opportunities ........................................................................................................ 42
Thermoregulatory Activities ................................................................................................ 44
Reproductive Behaviors ....................................................................................................... 45
Dispersal Corridors .............................................................................................................. 46
ENVIRONMENTAL ALTERATIONS.............................................................................................. 47
Hydrologic............................................................................................................................ 47
Toxins................................................................................................................................... 49
Noise..................................................................................................................................... 51
Light ..................................................................................................................................... 52
OFF-ROAD ACTIVITY ................................................................................................................ 53
SPATIAL EFFECTS..................................................................................................................... 55
EFFECTS ON THE HIGHER LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION .................... 58
POPULATION-LEVEL IMPACTS................................................................................................... 59
Demographic Effects on Populations................................................................................... 63
Genetic Effects on Populations ............................................................................................ 66
COMMUNITY -LEVEL IMPACTS................................................................................................... 68
SOLUTIONS .............................................................................................................................. 70
POST-CONSTRUCTION M ITIGATION ........................................................................................... 71
PROACTIVE PLANNING .............................................................................................................. 74
CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................................... 76
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................................... 78
LITERATURE CITED ............................................................................................................... 79
TABLES AND FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 123
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INTRODUCTION
“The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts as to discover new ways of thinking about them.” -William Bragg
Human societies, whether urban or rural in population density, depend on transportation
networks to establish conduits for people and products. Roads are the ultimate manifestation of
urbanization, which occurs in progressive stages across multiple temporal and spatial scales.
Between 1950 and 1990, urban land area increased more than twice as fast as population
growth (White and Ernst 2003). In 1990, suburban households represented 40% of all U.S.
households but accounted for 47% of motor vehicle travel, whereas city households comprised
37% of American households and 29% of vehicular travel (NRC [National Research Council]
1997). As development sprawls outward from the city core, existing transportation corridors are
supplemented to support increased traffic volumes (e.g., Forman et al. 2003). Long distance and
commercial travel was facilitated by the construction of the U.S. interstate system which
consisted of 16,000 km (10,000 mi) of divided multi-lane highway that grew by almost 100,000
km (60,000 mi) in less than 20 years (NRC 1997). Freeway development peaked in 1965 and
then slowed, increasing by only 19,200 km (12,000 mi) between 1965 and 1975 (NRC 1997).
Approximately 6.4 million km (~ 4 million mi) of public roads spanned the U.S. by the mid-
1990s (Fig. 1); between 1998 and 2003, the total increased by 112,654 km (69,845 mi, National
Transportation Statistics 2004, www.transtats.bts.gov).
The mass production of vehicles in the 1900s created demand for expansion and
efficiency of the road network, particularly in the United States (Forman et al. 2003). This was
followed by a 1.6% growth of the population between 1950 and 1965 during the baby boom,
with the number of children increasing by 20 million and accounting for half of the population
increase (NRC 1997). Consequently, the number of licensed drivers doubled from 1960-1980 as
adults comprised 75% of the U.S. population in 1980 compared to 64% in 1965 (NRC 1997).
The driver base increased yet again with the entry of women into the labor force. In the mid-
60s, only 55% of women were licensed drivers, increasing to 80% by 1985 with 90% of them
under the age of 50 (NRC 1997).
Roads facilitate future development of an area, increasing use of surrounding habitats by
humans for hunting, collection, and observation of wildlife (Andrews 1990; White and Ernst
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2003). The extension of the U.S. road system permits vehicle access to most areas, as evidenced
by the fact that 73% of all land lies within only 800 m of a road (Riitters and Wickham 2003).
More broadly, the human footprint (i.e., area of impact) has been estimated to cover 83% of the
planet’s land surface (Vitousek et al. 1997). In fact, anthropogenic activity has transformed
between one-third and one-half of the earth’s terrestrial surface (Vitousek et al. 1997). A recent
analysis identifies land transformation, including road development, as the single greatest threat
to conservation of intact natural communities (Sanderson et al. 2002). The authors further noted
that the current population of 6 billion people is projected to reach 8 billion by 2020.
The U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics (2004, www.transtats.bts.gov) defines an
urban area as "a municipality . . . with a population of 5,000 or more.” By this definition, many
national parks and wildlife refuges have daily visitation levels equivalent to populations of
small urban areas and during months of peak visitation have traffic volumes comparable to
some cities (National Park Service 2004, www.nps.gov). Therefore, recreational activities in
these natural areas may detrimentally impact species that should otherwise be protected (e.g.,
Seigel 1986). Furthermore, an estimated 10% of roads occur in national forests (~611,420 km,
Forman 2000), an amount that could encircle the earth approximately 15 times. In an analysis of
road fragmentation in national parks by Schonewald-Cox and Buechner (1992), even the largest
parks (up to 9000 km2) encompassed few areas that lie greater than 10 km from roads. Further,
30% of the land area within highly fragmented parks is within 1 km of a road and all land
parcels comprising 100 km2 were within 500 m of roads. Road management in the parks system
should consider not only the division of land within their jurisdiction, but the nature of the
landscape surrounding the parks as many wildlife species will cross park boundaries into
unprotected habitat.
Roads generate an array of ecological effects that disrupt ecosystem processes and
wildlife movement. Road variables that potentially affect wildlife, both directly and indirectly,
include size, substrate, age, accessibility, and density. Road placement within the surrounding
landscape is possibly the most important factor determining the severity of road impacts on
wildlife, because it influences roadkill locations and rates, the presence or absence of species,
and the diversity and intensity of indirect effects.
The combined environmental effects generated by roads (e.g., thermal, hydrological,
pollutants, noise, light, invasive species, human access), referred to as the “road-effect zone”
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(Forman 2000), extend outward from 100-800 m beyond the road edge (e.g., Reijnen et al.
1995). Considered independently, each factor influences the surrounding ecosystem to varying
extents and is further augmented by road type and environmental processes including wind,
water, and animal behavior (Forman et al. 2003). Based on a conservative assumption that
effects permeate 100-150 m from the road edge, an estimated 15-22% of the nation’s land area
is projected to be ecologically affected by roads (Forman and Alexander 1998), an area about
10 times the size of Florida (Smith et al. 2005). However, some effects appear to extend to 810
m (i.e., 0.5 mi), resulting in 73% of U.S. land area that would be susceptible to impacts (Riitters
and Wickham 2003).
Conflicts continually arise because of issues related to roads, wildlife, and adjacent
habitats. These conflicts have led experts from multiple fields (e.g., transportation planners and
engineers, federal, state, and local governments, land managers and consultants, non-profit
organizations, environmental action groups, and landscape and wildlife ecologists) to contribute
their knowledge in an effort to explain the “complex interactions between organisms and the
environment linked to roads and vehicles” in the field of road ecology (Forman 1998; Forman
et al. 2003). The field continues to grow, as evidenced by the increase in scientific publication
(Fig. 2) of reviews, bibliographies, and texts that focus on the general effects of roads on natural
systems (e.g., Andrews 1990; Forman et al. 1997; Forman and Alexander 1998; Spellerberg
1998; Spellerberg and Morrison 1998; Trombulak and Frissell 2000; Forman et al. 2003; White
and Ernst 2003; NRC 2005). Further, there are also brief reviews that elaborate on the specific
effects that roads have on wildlife. These reviews are published online (FHWA [Federal
Highway Administration] 2000), in conference proceedings (Jackson 1999; Jackson 2000), as
unpublished reports (Noss 1995; Watson 2005), and in a peer-reviewed journal (Trombulak and
Frissell 2000). However, little attention has been given specifically to amphibians and reptiles
(herpetofauna) with the exception of the following: 1) a report that highlights road issues in
regard to the influence of development activities on herpetofauna in British Columbia and
provides guidelines to improve management practices (Ovaska et al. 2004); 2) a review
evaluating the effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain wildlife (Maxell and Hokit 1999); 3) a
review focused on Florida herpetofauna by Smith et al. (2005); and 4) a comprehensive
synthesis by Jochimsen et al. (2004) with emphasis on direct effects and mitigation efforts for
herpetofauna. In this document we elaborate on how roads may cause numerous subtle yet
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pervasive effects through indirect processes, and provide an ecological framework for future
research on herpetofaunal road ecology (see also Andrews et al. in press).
The extent to which roads are linked to the widespread decline of amphibian and reptile
populations (Gibbons et al. 2000; Stuart et al. 2004) is unresolved. Nonetheless, the prospect of
mitigating and, even more ideally, preventing the adverse effects that can be attributed to roads
seems attainable. A better understanding of how roads affect herpetofauna and the subsequent
application of this knowledge will minimize detrimental effects on these taxa. Our objective
here is threefold: 1) identify biological characteristics of herpetofauna that increase their
susceptibility to roads; 2) discuss how roads and vehicles directly and indirectly affect
amphibian and reptile individuals, populations, and communities through direct mortality,
habitat loss, fragmentation, and ecosystem alterations; and 3) provide examples of post-
construction mitigation and long-term solutions of pre-construction transportation planning and
public awareness.
SUSCEPTIBILITIES AND VULNERABILITIES OF HERPETOFAUN A TO ROAD IMPACTS
“ I am worried primarily about our ignorance of the ecology and behavior of most extant organisms, a knowledge gap that is so large that, for most species, even in the best-studied regions on Earth, we cannot specify the most basic aspects of their biology.” -Harry Greene
Considerations of the biological distinctiveness of a taxonomic group are always
important for predicting and ultimately addressing potential impacts of environmental
alterations. The breadth and diversity of ecological traits and behaviors of amphibians and
reptiles enhance their vulnerability to environmental changes associated with road construction
and modifications, as well as environmental impacts generated thereafter (e.g., direct mortality,
petroleum runoff, road noise). Further, susceptibilities unique to certain species may place
herpetofauna at particularly high risk to road impacts. A thorough evaluation of road effects on
herpetofauna has not been available heretofore, and documentation of the direct and,
particularly, the indirect effects of roads on most species of amphibians and reptiles does not
exist. Therefore, it is important to identify vulnerabilities and provide an ecological framework
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for how herpetofauna can be expected to respond to both direct and indirect road impacts at the
individual and population levels.
A general overview of traits characteristic of amphibians and reptiles can be acquired
from standard herpetological textbooks (e.g., Zug et al. 2001; Pough et al. 2004) and does not
require the specific citation of published articles. Nonetheless, in the following section we
provide specific references for traits that make some species or groups susceptible to various
road features, especially those we believe to be sensitive but for which no current data are
available. For instance, physiological traits coupled with various behavior patterns can increase
susceptibility to the indirect environmental effects of roads in a variety of ways. Further, for
many amphibians and reptiles, road features (e.g., traffic density and periodicity) can interact
with the seasonal timing of specific movements thereby increasing susceptibility to direct
mortality. Such movements are related to migration or dispersal, to the spatial relationships of
breeding, hibernation, and foraging sites, and to inherent behaviors. In addition, individual
longevities that are characteristic of some species, as well as population size and demographic
structure, may determine how roads influence population size and persistence. Finally, the
attitude of many people toward herpetofauna needs to be addressed in the context of its
potential to increase or decrease the susceptibility of these taxa to roads. We elaborate on
examples below of biological traits of amphibians or reptiles that could potentially result in
roads causing complications directly or indirectly at individual or population levels.
MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ECOLOGY
A wide variety of notable biological characteristics such as moisture requirements of
amphibians, temperature requirements of reptiles, and locomotion of both taxa make
herpetofauna susceptible to the altered micro-environmental conditions correspondent with road
construction, maintenance, and standard use. These traits should be taken into consideration in
areas where roads could potentially affect endangered, threatened, or other sensitive species.
Dependence on Moisture
Most amphibians require moist conditions and standing water for breeding,
metamorphosis, and hydration (e.g., Pough et al. 2004); therefore, any road features that affect
soil moisture or aquatic habitats could potentially affect some species. Skin permeability and
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vulnerability to water loss also make it difficult for organisms, such as amphibians, to maintain
optimal moisture levels. Desiccation rates increase during dispersal, particularly in altered
environments that do not retain natural moisture levels (e.g., Rothermel and Semlitsch 2002),
and therefore may be accelerated for some species when they traverse roads. Alternatively, drier
soils surrounding the road due to reduced cover and leaf litter could influence the abundances of
some amphibian species, particularly woodland salamanders (e.g., Marsh and Beckman 2004).
These reduced moisture levels are possibly confounded by problems of chemical run-off and
siltation (Semlitsch et al. 2006) in influencing species abundances. Pough and colleagues
(1987) found that some salamander species were not significantly affected given that
microhabitat disturbance levels were low. No studies have been specifically conducted to
evaluate how the direct or indirect effects of roads influence rates of evaporative water loss in
amphibians and reptiles.
Temperature Requirements
Herpetofauna are ectothermic (body heat derived primarily from external sources) and
are therefore highly sensitive to thermal conditions. According to the thermal coadaptation
hypothesis (Bennett 1980; Blouin-Demers et al. 2003) reptiles that naturally experience a
narrow range of environmental temperatures will evolve to perform best over that narrow range,
relative to temperatures outside the range. Consequently, road temperatures that vary (usually
by being higher) from the surrounding natural habitats and ambient conditions, may modify the
behavior of some species, especially reptiles (Bennett 1980), at night as well as during the day
(Huey et al. 1989; Autumn et al. 1994). In fact, numerous studies have documented that flight
behavior and performance of amphibians and reptiles can be affected by body temperature (e.g.,
Hertz et al. 1982; Rocha and Bergallo 1990; Huey and Stevenson 1979).
Some temperature-related behaviors might actually increase susceptibility of some
species to direct mortality on roads, especially among lizards and snakes. For example, gravid
female lizards and snakes of some species prefer narrow temperature ranges within which to
thermoregulate (e.g., Shine 1980; Brown and Weatherhead 2000) and may be more likely to use
edge habitats alongside roads than juveniles, males, or non-gravid females (Blouin-Demers and
Weatherhead 2002). This habitat selection is not only influenced by thermoregulatory
preferences and site availability but foraging opportunities and predation risk (e.g., Huey and
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Slatkin 1976). When road surface temperatures increase and ambient environmental
temperatures remain cooler, some species of snakes may remain on the road longer than
necessary to cross, or may even be attracted to warm roads at night in order to thermoregulate
(Klauber 1939; McClure 1951; Sullivan 1981a; Ashley and Robinson 1996). Andrews and
Gibbons (2005) have challenged the geographical ubiquity of this concept, although
acknowledge the feasibility of the road to serve as a thermal attractant in some situations where
peripheral substrates cool more rapidly than the road.
Focused studies testing the responses of herpetofauna to heating patterns of roads should
be investigated. Although behavioral performance may be only subtly affected in most
instances, the consequences may be profound and could extend beyond the individual level. For
example, thermal-adjusting behaviors that differ among sexes or age classes could lead to
differential road mortality.
Sensitivity to Chemical Pollution
High skin permeability exacerbates the susceptibility of amphibians in particular to the
alteration of microhabitat conditions on roads and in adjacent habitats. Toxic chemicals emitted
from vehicles and compounds used during road maintenance may act as endocrine disruptors in
amphibians that reduce reproductive abilities and survivorship (e.g., Lodé 2000; Hayes et al.
2006; Rohr et al. 2006). In a review of toxicological impacts on amphibians, Harfenist (1989)
reported that potassium and sodium chloride were highly toxic, but high concentrations of
calcium chloride were required to cause mortality. Furthermore, road salts induced the
impairment of respiration and osmoregulatory balance.
Although less is known regarding physiological effects of roads on reptiles, it is feasible
that there could be similar issues with the uptake of pollutants either from prey items or directly
from the environment (e.g., selenium, western fence lizards, Sceloporus occidentalis, Hopkins
et al. 2005), which can vary with sex and body size (e.g., organochlorine pesticides and
mercury, cottonmouths, Agkistrodon piscivorus, Rainwater et al. 2005). In snakes, there is large
variation in length-mass relationships among species (Kaufman and Gibbons 1975), which
suggests that pollutant effects may vary interspecifically and be dependent on concentration.
Terrestrial pollution can also affect marine turtles as observed with heavy metal contamination
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from prey items (e.g., Caurant et al. 1999), which has been shown to bioaccumulate variably
relative to species (Sakai et al. 2000).
Sensory Traits
Although limited investigations have been carried out, the sensory mechanisms
underlying communication and environmental awareness of amphibians and reptiles may be
disrupted by the construction or presence of roads or by traffic activity. Potential effects on
sound, sight, tactile sensations, and smell are all conceivable; thus, any features attributable to
roads that directly or indirectly affect acoustic, visual, tactile, or chemical signals of individuals
qualify as road impacts on the species. A recent study reported that noise can penetrate up to
350 m from a road and light up to 380 m (Pocock 2006).
Vocalization is critical during breeding for most species of frogs and toads (Gerhardt
and Huber 2002), and increased noise levels from traffic could clearly compromise the
effectiveness of breeding choruses. This effect could be especially problematic for small
populations in which only one or a few males are calling, or for species whose vocalizations are
easily overridden by the intensity and frequencies of vehicle noise. A secondary and more
subtle impact of traffic-created lighting and noise confusion is that some species may rely on
darkness for concealment and use sound as a cue in predator detection. Thus, populations of
some species associated with roads may become more vulnerable to predation due to alterations
of sight and sound.
Most species of amphibians and many reptiles are partially or strictly nocturnal. Hence,
stationary lights associated with highway systems as well as vehicle headlights almost surely
influence behavior and activity patterns. There may also be secondary effects if light pollution
influences the foraging patterns of prey species (e.g., mice, Bird et al. 2004). Basic ecological
research and field experiments should be instructive for determining how increased lighting
associated with roads affects different herpetofaunal groups.
Another uninvestigated area is the effect of roadside vibrations on both crossing
individuals and those in adjacent habitats. A mechanism for predator detection among many
aquatic amphibian larvae is a lateral line system that is sensitive to vibrations. Disruption of the
detection capabilities of individuals could reduce their effectiveness at predator avoidance.
Another sensory faculty that may be important for some species of herpetofauna, especially
15
snakes, is tactile stimulation. Snakes cannot hear airborne sounds but are sensitive to surface
vibrations. Although few studies have been conducted to determine the sensitivity of snakes to
substrate-borne sounds, presumably some species would be aware of and responsive to ground
vibrations created by vehicles on and adjacent to road systems.
A further topic demanding research, especially among salamanders and snakes, is the
role of roads in influencing chemical signals as sensory mechanisms of intraspecific
communication and for detection of prey. The ability to detect odors and pheromones is
unquestionably a critical sensory trait for some species, playing a primary role in amphibian
migration and orientation (e.g., Duellman and Trueb 1986), and the detection of cues to locate
mates (e.g., LeMaster et al. 2001), prey items (e.g., Chiszar et al. 1990), and ambush sites (e.g.,
Clark 2004) in reptiles. Amphibians have been noted to follow chemical trails (Hayward et al.
2000), which is a possible explanation for the observation of congenerics sharing terrestrial
refuges (Schabetsberger et al. 2004). Some naïve neonate snakes trail conspecific adults to
hibernacula (e.g., Cobb et al. 2005). Pheromone scent trailing, observed in a variety of species,
could conceivably be altered by some contaminants, such as oil residues on roads (Klauber
1931) or road substrate type (Shine et al. 2004). Whether road systems might disrupt certain
detection abilities because of increased petroleum products on the road itself and in contiguous
habitat has been virtually unexplored.
BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY
The most apparent effect that roads have on amphibians and reptiles is direct mortality
that corresponds with behavior patterns of different species that place them in harm's way. The
timing and direction of movements from breeding or hibernation sites, daily activity cycles that
coincide with traffic patterns, and the attraction of some species to roads, are species-specific
phenomena that may increase on-road mortality risk. In addition to warm surfaces, roads
provide concentrations of prey for scavengers and habitat for breeding amphibians (roadside
borrow pits) or nesting female turtles (road shoulders).
Movement-associated Behavior
A variety of overland movements bring amphibians or reptiles into contact with roads,
or with habitats influenced by road construction, traffic flow, or highway operation. The
16
intrapopulational and extrapopulational movements noted for individual turtles (Gibbons et al.
1990) provide a categorization scheme for identifying the purposes for which other amphibians
and reptiles make overland movements that could result in encounters with roads (Table 1).
Behaviors such as movement speed and defensive behaviors (i.e., predator reactions)
influence responses and susceptibility to road mortality and fragmentation. Slow-moving
animals, or those that cross the road at a wide angle, increase their mortality risk (e.g., Langton
and Burton 1997; Rudolph et al. 1998). Slow movements of amphibians (Hels and Buchwald
2001), turtles (Gibbs and Shriver 2002; Aresco 2005b), and snakes (Klauber 1931; Andrews
and Gibbons 2005) while crossing roads have been documented. The speed of amphibians and
turtles seems fairly consistent across species (but see Finkler et al. 2003 where gravid female
spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum) show reduced speed relative to males); however,
crossing speeds of snakes vary significantly among species, suggesting that snakes may suffer a
greater range of road mortality rates than other taxa (Andrews and Gibbons 2005). Variation in
demographic characteristics (e.g., sex, age) or physical condition (e.g., gravid, satiated) has not
been documented as being related to road crossing speed, although this variation would be
expected with snakes since natural differences in speed exist between sexes (Plummer 1997)
and are dependent on the time since the last meal was consumed (Garland 1983).
Little is published regarding crossing angles for herpetofauna. Research on snakes
demonstrated that individuals almost always move perpendicularly across the road, taking the
shortest route possible (Shine et al. 2004; Andrews and Gibbons 2005). The probability of road
mortality would correlate directly with the amount of deviation from a perpendicular crossing
trajectory as a higher deviation would result in a greater amount of time spent on the road.
Furthermore, minimizing crossing distance would suggest that the road is an area that animals
are simply passing through and not selecting as habitat.
Immobilization behaviors in response to oncoming or passing vehicles could also
significantly influence crossing time and probability of mortality. Mazerolle et al. (2005) found
that the strongest stimuli for immobilization behavior across six amphibian species were a
combination of headlights and vibration. Andrews and Gibbons (2005) found a high rate of
immobilization in response to a passing vehicle among three snake species, at levels that would
greatly jeopardize some from crossing a busy highway. These responses would most logically
be related to natural predator defenses, where some snakes exhibit flight as an initial defense
17
(black racer, Coluber constrictor) while others immobilize and rely on crypsis (canebrake
rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus; Andrews and Gibbons 2005).
Daily Movement Patterns
The time when different species are active during the day or night can determine their
susceptibility to direct mortality because of daily traffic patterns. Thus, the exclusively
nocturnal scarlet snake (Cemophora coccinea; Nelson and Gibbons 1972) would be expected to
have a lower probability of encountering a vehicle on roads with traffic intensity concentrated
during the daytime than would eastern coachwhips (Masticophis flagellum), a species active
only during the day (e.g., Gibbons and Dorcas 2005). Some species of snakes (e.g., corn snakes,
Elaphe guttata) shift their times of greatest overland activity contingent on the season and
temperature (Gibbons and Semlitsch 1987). Further, some reptile species exhibit crepuscular
behaviors during parts of the year (e.g., Klauber 1931) that could result in a coincidence with
rush-hour traffic. Regional classification of amphibians and reptiles in regard to their
probabilities for overland activity during particular times of day relative to traffic density would
be a worthwhile exercise in assessing the potential relative impact of selected roads on target
species.
Migration
Migration is typically defined as persistent movement of an individual across longer
distances in search of specific resources; these movements generally recur on a seasonal basis
as part of an individual’s life cycle (Dingle 1996). Amphibians and reptiles migrate in search of
mates, breeding or nesting sites, prey, and refugia that tend to be concentrated in distinct
habitats that are patchily distributed and seasonally available. Migratory movements may span a
variety of habitats, for example black rat snakes (Elaphe obsoleta) traverse a mosaic of ecotonal
field and forest habitats seasonally (e.g., Weatherhead and Charland 1985). Some species are
philopatric, with migratory routes that are similar across successive years (e.g., amphibians,
Blaustein et al. 1994; turtles, Buhlmann and Gibbons 2001; snakes, Burger and Zappalorti
1992), while movements of some species appear irregular and erratic (e.g., snakes, Fitch and
Shirer 1971). According to Carr and Fahrig (2001), the survival of populations in fragmented
habitats depends on the interaction between the spatial pattern of roads and the movement
18
characteristics of the organisms. Herpetofauna therefore depend on the maintenance of
migration corridors, which may be compromised due to excessive on-road mortality or
behavioral avoidance (Landreth 1973; Webb and Shine 1997). Depending on the mechanisms
driving migratory patterns (e.g., genetic, behavioral), an individual’s ability to readily adapt to a
road that interferes with the animal's migratory route may be limited (Langton 1989).
Deterministic movements by wildlife complicate the ecological provisions that must be retained
when managing an area, a process by which an ecological understanding is essential (Gibbons
and Semlitsch 1987).
Breeding and Nesting
Basic breeding activity patterns can be diagnostic of the likelihood of road encounters.
For example, an individual can be terrestrial for the majority of its life, but moves long
distances to wetlands for breeding (e.g., marbled salamanders, Ambystoma opacum) or remains
terrestrial within a prescribed area (e.g., slimy salamanders, Plethodon glutinosus, Semlitsch
2003). Further, some amphibians make repetitive, within-season forays to breeding ponds
before final migration to an overwintering site (Lamoureux et al. 2002), and many others
migrate en masse between breeding ponds and terrestrial habitats (e.g., Holdgate 1989; Ashley
and Robinson 1996; Semlitsch 2000). Some reptiles such as aquatic turtles that seek terrestrial
habitat for nesting (Buhlmann and Gibbons 2001) and possibly for predator avoidance (Bennett
et al. 1970) also traverse multiple habitat types. Most terrestrial reptiles do not have focal
breeding sites and are less likely to be affected by the presence of roads in a region in regards to
this particular aspect. However, seasonal aggregations have been documented in some
oviparous snake species that are widely spaced for the remainder of the year (e.g., Parker and
Brown 1980; Gannon and Secoy 1985).
In general, breeding activity patterns are an essential component to incorporate when
investigating road effects, as reproductive interactions among sexes are the primary determinant
of seasonality (e.g., Aldridge and Duvall 2002), social interactions (e.g., Gillingham 1987), and
major movement patterns across the landscape. These factors in turn influence the likelihood of
road encounters. For instance, pond-breeding female amphibians cross roads during migration
to wetlands to deposit eggs. Further, evidence is mounting that female turtles are more
susceptible to road mortality than males because of their attraction to roadsides for nesting sites
19
(e.g., Aresco 2005a; Steen et al. 2006). Whether lizards and snakes are attracted to roadsides for
egg-laying purposes because of habitat alterations is unknown.
Movement to Hibernation Sites Aside from migrational behavior associated with the seasonal timing of breeding and
nesting, some herpetofauna, especially certain reptiles, have predictable overland movements
associated with ingress and egress from denning habitat. When such movement patterns place
wildlife in association with roads due to historical travel routes, mortality of individuals can be
increased and population integrity jeopardized. Long-distance movements have been
documented in many species of snakes, especially in colder regions in which long-term
hibernation is a necessity and suitable hibernation sites are limited. In northern latitudes, some
snakes make loop-like migrations between winter hibernacula and summer foraging habitats
(e.g., 17.7 km, red-sided garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis, Gregory and Stewart 1975; 11 km,
prairie rattlesnakes, Crotalus viridis, Duvall 1986), with distances and patterns that can vary
with sex (dark green snakes, Coluber viridiflavus, Ciofi and Chelazzi 1991). Extensive
documentation exists that some species of large snakes traverse great distances between
summer feeding areas and hibernation dens (e.g., Imler 1945; Parker and Brown 1980; King
and Duvall 1990; Fitch 1999). The mean overland distance moved by timber rattlesnakes
(Crotalus horridus) during a year in the New Jersey Pine Barrens was more than 1 km (Reinert
and Zappalorti 1988). Movements between feeding areas have been documented for the
federally threatened copperbelly watersnake (Nerodia erythrogaster), which moved long
distances terrestrially between wetlands during warm months, presumably in search of foraging
opportunities (Hyslop 2001). Any situation that involves movement to and from hibernacula or
foraging areas, could readily lead to fatal encounters for a species if roads are constructed
between critical areas.
Dispersal
Virtually all species of herpetofauna engage in dispersal activities during some stage of
their lives. The metamorphosing young of pond-breeding amphibians disperse from the
wetland. Most hatchling turtles, lizards, and snakes disperse overland from the nest site, and the
young of live-bearing species move from the birth site. Dispersal of some amphibians
20
encompasses long distances (more than 500m) from breeding ponds (Semlitsch and Bodie
2003) increasing their likelihood of traversing roads (see Bonnet et al. 1999 for snakes). In
contrast, individuals that inhabit small home ranges and are limited in dispersal ability are
subject to the isolation effects of fragmentation (Andrews 1990; Boarman and Sazaki 1996).
Defensive Behaviors
Amphibians and reptiles use a variety of mechanisms to defend themselves from
predators. Although herpetofauna are adapted to avoid or deter many of their would-be
predators under natural conditions, the creation of road systems can potentially interfere with
normal behaviors. One of the most obvious road characteristics that can put some species at risk
is exposure while traversing open space, regardless if traffic is present. A secondary problem is
the tendency of some species to avoid the open space of a road (e.g., snakes, Andrews and
Gibbons 2005), which could result in genetic isolation of populations. Roads may also directly
or indirectly affect additional defensive behaviors, such as by increasing the susceptibility of
predation in species that depend on camouflage to avoid detection. The replacement of natural
plant communities with roadside plantings that differ in species composition (see Indirect
Effects section) could increase exposure of some prey species to predators relative to natural
conditions.
Foraging Behavior
A straightforward principle of feeding ecology is that if a barrier is placed between an
animal and its food source, individuals cross the barrier if passable or attempt to circumvent if
impassable. Many species of snakes make overland movements from hibernation sites to
locations where prey are likely to be found (e.g., prairie rattlesnakes, King and Duvall 1990;
timber rattlesnakes, Reinert 1992; cottonmouths, Glaudas et al. 2006). Additionally, several
venomous species (e.g., eastern diamondback rattlesnakes, Crotalus adamanteus, Brock 1980;
rattlesnakes, Crotalus spp., Kardong and Smith 2002) are known to follow mammalian prey for
several meters following envenomation. Desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) in the Mojave
Desert have been reported to travel overland to acquire dietary supplements of localized
nutrients (Marlow and Tollestrup 1982), a behavior pattern that could be dramatically affected
if a road were placed between their normal activity area and habitats with suitable soil nutrients.
21
Freshwater turtles living in an ephemeral wetland habitat will travel overland to another
wetland if the ephemeral habitat becomes unsuitable due to diminished prey availability. Any of
these situations can lead to negative impacts on certain populations by resulting in direct
mortality on roads, or by separating some or all of a population from a feeding source. Another
cause of mortality for reptiles related to feeding is the consumption of road-killed carrion
(Berna and Gibbons 1991), resulting in their becoming roadkill victims themselves (see Indirect
Effects section).
Communication and Social Behavior
Many of the direct and indirect effects of roads on amphibian and reptile behaviors
associated with intraspecific communication and social behaviors have been noted above.
Roads clearly have the potential to disrupt air-borne sound communication of anurans and
migratory, breeding, or nesting routes of amphibians, snakes, and turtles. The ultimate impacts
on herpetofaunal populations as a consequence of the species-specific susceptibilities are yet to
be determined for most situations and most species.
DEMOGRAPHIC AND L IFE HISTORY TRAITS
The persistence of a species in fragmented landscapes is dependent on its life history
and ecology. Thus, many anuran populations are dependent on recruitment and dispersal of
juveniles (Sinsch 1992; Semlitsch 2000; Hels and Nachman 2002; Joly et al. 2003). Road
mortality may be particularly detrimental to populations of species with low reproductive rates
(Rosen and Lowe 1994; Ruby et al. 1994; Fowle 1996; Kline and Swann 1998; Gibbs and
Shriver 2002). Additionally, habitat generalists may be more adaptable to altered conditions
created by roads and urbanization than specialist species (geckos, Sarre et al. 1995; skinks,
Prosser et al. 2006; snakes, Kjoss and Litvaitis 2001). Lastly, our ability to detect and measure
road impacts is reliant on the success of sampling techniques. Due to the covert nature of many
herpetofaunal species, sampling methods can be particularly challenging (Lovich and Gibbons
1997).
Susceptibilities of herpetofauna to roads may vary within populations due to behavior
patterns that vary by age or sex. Adult behavior can not always be used to accurately interpret
juvenile behavior, due to different physiological needs (e.g., water retention), predator
22
composition (e.g., Rothermel and Semlitsch 2002) and ecological requirements (e.g., greater
canopy and habitat cover, Gibbs 1998a; deMaynadier and Hunter 1999). For example,
hatchlings of many species of freshwater turtles travel overland between nests and aquatic
habitat, whereas juveniles are less likely to leave the aquatic habitat than are adults.
Sex Ratios
In many species of amphibians and reptiles, one sex may be more susceptible to road
mortality or indirect impacts of roads due to differential behavior between the sexes. For
example, female Italian crested newts (Triturus carnifex) emigrated longer distances from water
than males (Schabetsberger et al. 2004). Further, the sexes may experience differential
vulnerabilities that could influence risk of road mortality. For instance, experiments with five
species of Australian scincid lizards demonstrated that running speeds of gravid females were
reduced by 20-30% and basking behaviors were increased (Shine 1980). Roth (2005a)
suggested that habitat loss adjacent to riparian areas would have the greatest impact on gravid
female cottonmouths because they moved the farthest from the core area most frequently, even
though males had the largest home range sizes (Roth 2005b). Habitat use varies with age class,
sex, and season for many species of herpetofauna (e.g., snakes, Reinert and Kodrich 1982;
Madsen 1984). Dalrymple et al. (1991) urged the need to incorporate both sex and age into
models of seasonal activity patterns, necessary components of road impact assessments. The
effects of sex-biased road mortality on sex ratios will be discussed further in the Population
Demographics section.
Populations of some reptile species may actually be predisposed to producing aberrant
sex ratios as a consequence of artificial environmental conditions associated with roads.
Environmental sex determination has been demonstrated in American alligators (Alligator
mississippiensis, Ferguson and Joanen 1982), with male alligators produced at higher
temperatures and females at lower ones. Nesting within road shoulders by alligators could result
in an excess of males in a localized area due to elevated temperatures. Most species of turtles
that have been examined exhibit environmental sex determination (e.g., Bull and Vogt 1979;
Mrosovsky and Yntema 1980; Ewert and Nelson 1991), where nest temperature during the first
third of incubation determines the sex of developing embryos. Extensive variability has been
reported, but 30ºC is generally regarded as the pivotal temperature, above which hatchlings
23
emerge from the nest as females and below which they are males, the reverse of that observed
for alligators. The ranges of temperature on either side of 30°C in which both sexes are still
produced vary interspecifically and possibly intraspecifically. In some species, females are
produced at both the highest and lowest viable temperatures, with males being produced at
intermediate temperatures (Ewert and Nelson 1991).
The basic trait of environmental sex determination coupled with the fact that many
species of turtles apparently nest selectively on road shoulders and roadsides when suitable
nesting sites are available (e.g., Aresco 2005a; Steen et al. 2006), suggests the possibility of
roads influencing sex ratios. If shoulders and roadsides are suitable for nesting, sex ratio
modifications could prevail, with an excess of female turtles being produced because of high
temperatures compared to surrounding nesting areas shielded from the sun by vegetation.
However, road shoulders could possibly have lower than normal environmental temperatures
under some circumstances due to wind exposure, resulting in a sex ratio favoring males.
Longevity
Many species of amphibians and reptiles exhibit extended longevity under natural
conditions (Gibbons 1987; Gibbons et al. 2006). Although being long-lived does not increase
the annual probability of an individual being killed on a highway, it can be indicative of species
that have evolved under circumstances in which older animals experience low levels of
mortality attributed to predators or disease under natural conditions. In some species, long-lived
females have the highest survivorship and are the major contributors to population
sustainability (e.g., Congdon et al. 2001; Litzgus 2006). Species that frequently cross roads
succumb to direct mortality from traffic. Roads and traffic are comparable to a new predator for
which an amphibian or reptile species has evolved no natural defenses and has no innate
adaptations to increase survivorship. As a result, populations may become unstable due to the
additive morality experienced by older individuals.
SPATIAL HETEROGENEITY
As road density increases, the probability that individuals reliant on landscape
complementation (i.e., spatial arrangement of necessary habitat types) will be killed or injured
by traffic while in search of resources increases (Fahrig and Grez 1996). Species that depend on
24
a non-fragmented landscape to complete their life cycles (e.g., Dunning et al. 1992; Pope et al.
2000) will be in greatest jeopardy. These organisms are considered vulnerable to habitat
fragmentation because their subpopulations periodically go extinct locally and must be re-
established through dispersal from neighboring sources (Lehtinen et al. 1999). Not only is there
a gradient of vulnerability across species, some species are more area-sensitive than others
(Hager 1998). Habitat fragmentation is doubly concerning because it not only reduces the
quality of habitat, but immediately reduces the quantity (Fahrig 1999).
Landscape permeability and maintenance of movement corridors are critical to allow for
natural fluctuations in metapopulation dynamics (Pulliam 1988) of amphibians and reptiles
(Gibbs 1998a; Marsh and Trenham 2001), which ultimately influence extinction and
recolonization rates (Merriam 1991; Laan and Verboom 1990). Many herpetofaunal species
require not only the terrestrial periphery of wetlands, but corridor linkages with other isolated
water bodies (Gibbons 2003; Roe et al. 2003). The degree of isolation is determined by
considering distances between habitat patches and any features that hinder movement between
them (Vos and Chardon 1998). Sjögren (1991) suggested that metapopulation dynamics of
amphibian populations are necessitated by the historical, discontinuous distribution of wetlands
across the landscape. Interpopulation proximity and connectivity were identified as important
factors for the persistence of a northern metapopulation of pool frogs (Rana lessonae, Sjögren
1994). The degree of connectivity across the landscape is species-specific, varying with
dispersal ability and the number of dispersing individuals (e.g., Laan and Verboom 1990).
Several studies of small or isolated habitat patches have documented the absence of anuran
species, including pool frogs (Sjögren 1991, 1994), common frogs (Rana temporaria, Loman
1988), common treefrogs (Hyla arborea, Vos and Stumpel 1996), and moor frogs (Rana
arvalis, Vos and Chardon 1998).
INTERACTIONS WITH HUMANS
Many species of herpetofauna are not heralded by certain members of society, a
response that is contrary to many ancient cultures (some presently) that embraced amphibians
and reptiles with reverent symbolism. In particular, snakes are widely maligned, yet create an
insatiable source of curiosity and awe (e.g., Wilson 2003). Rodent-eating snakes provide a
particularly useful ecological service in consuming animals that are social and health nuisances
25
near human settlements (Parmenter et al. 1993). Many amphibians and reptiles often retreat or
experience population decline in the presence of humans (see references throughout this report).
Others exhibit behavioral alterations, such as reduced movement or altered patterns, for which
the life-history consequences are not biologically understood (e.g., Parent and Weatherhead
2000).
Additionally, many herpetofaunal species are furtive animals and are therefore rarely
encountered. This lack of steady interaction between herpetofauna and humans has led to a
populace that is largely uneducated about the true nature and behavior of this group of animals
(Gibbons and Buhlmann 2001), an ignorance which can lead to fear. Snakes ranked as the top
phobia of Americans, a trend that was greater in women than men and decreased overall with
increasing education levels (Mittermeier et al. 1992).
Swerving to miss animals on roads is the second greatest cause of single car accidents in
the U.S. (Sherman 1995); however some drivers will intentionally run over certain species.
While this behavior is particularly prevalent with snakes, intentional killing on roads has been
noted with turtles as well (Boarman et al. 1997). Deliberate killing of snakes is noted
throughout the literature and known to be a common activity in many regions of the world (e.g.,
Klauber 1931; Langley et al. 1989; Bush et al. 1991; Rubio 1998). Many species of snakes
present a relatively large target as they crawl across roadways, which may affect the frequency
of intentional killing (Whitaker and Shine 2000). Langley et al. (1989) conducted a survey of
college students and found that both males and females chose to intentionally run over a snake
more than any other animal. Aside from a common distaste for herpetofauna, drivers are largely
uneducated regarding wildlife behavior on roads and how they respond to approaching vehicles
(e.g., squirrels zigzagging, cats beelining); locals in New Hampshire have suggested
incorporating wildlife behavior elements into driver-education programs (Sherman 1995).
Roads increase the degree of human-wildlife interactions as they facilitate an increased
use of surrounding habitats by humans, the hunting and collection of amphibians and reptiles,
and future development of an area. Roads provide easy access to the movement corridors of
amphibians and reptiles, placing local populations under pressure from human predation and
collection (Bennett 1991; Krivda 1993; Ballard 1994; McDougal 2000). Animal presence in
urban areas surrounding roads enables human collection (Dodd et al. 1989) and could
contribute to the further decline of already endangered species (eastern indigo snakes;
26
Drymarchon couperi, Whitecar 1973; Kuntz 1977). There are also secondary interactions that
can result in wildlife death, such as the disposal of litter along highways and in areas with
increased human activity. A two-year survey conducted in Virginia along 4.34 km of highways
and interstates counted 10,681 discarded bottles, 427 of which had trapped a total of 795
vertebrates, including 28 lizards and plethodontid salamanders (Benedict and Billeter 2004). An
even more threatening example is the mortality incurred by domestic mammalian pets and by
feral animals. Feral cats that are established on western Milos are predators of Milos vipers
(Macrovipera schweizeri), as evidenced by the loss of two telemetered individuals (Nilson et al.
1999). While habitat loss was the major cause for blue-tongued lizard (Tiliqua scincoides)
injury in highly urbanized areas, domestic pets were the primary threat in the suburbs (Koenig
et al. 2002). Further, adults were most susceptible to mortality by vehicles and dogs during the
mating season (springtime), while domestic cats mostly predated juveniles. Lastly, habitat loss
and road impacts related to human behavior can occur from increased fire frequency around
roads, mostly as a result of unextinguished cigarettes.
URBANIZATION AND FRAGMENTATION
Urbanization accompanied by unmanaged human expansion is the greatest threat to
wildlife persistence. This occurrence encompasses many of the major threats to animal
populations, primarily habitat loss, spread of alien species, overexploitation, and disease
(Wilcove et al. 1998). Habitat loss and fragmentation are often considered the most pervasive
and serious threats to amphibians and reptiles (e.g., Mittermeier et al. 1992) and the catalyst for
the federal listing of many species (Wilcove et al. 1998). Urbanization occurs at multiple spatial
scales from the opening of a store, construction of a residential neighborhood or development of
a city. However all of these are enabled through the establishment of roads. Assessing the
susceptibility of wildlife to impacts from urbanization is complex because natural trophic
dynamics are altered due to shifts in resources and species composition (Faeth et al. 2005) and
the appropriate scale for investigation varies with taxa (Mazerolle and Villard 1999).
The importance of managing urbanization and fragmentation is emphasized by the
emergence of research findings stating the importance of landscape composition, contiguous
habitat, and the critical nature of the surrounding area (e.g., Guerry and Hunter 2002; Gibbons
2003; Roe et al. 2004), including the provision of intact habitat buffer (Semlitsch and Bodie
27
2003) for species persistence. Knutson et al. (1999) found a significant negative correlation
between amphibian abundance and richness and the presence of urban land. Physical instability
in streams in Atlanta, GA, resulting from urbanization, had a negative impact on salamander
population densities, the degree of which was inversely proportional to the amount of
urbanization (Orser and Shure 1972). Nest-site selection by loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta
caretta) was positively correlated with distance to the nearest human settlement (Kikukawa et
al. 1999).
Lastly, the stability and persistence of source-sink dynamics requires permeability of the
surrounding landscapes to enable local recolonization following extinction (Pulliam 1989).
However, if no corridor is available, a local extinction will remain permanent as the population
is disconnected from its source, which likely contributes to resistance between patches (Bennett
1991), thereby catalyzing population isolation. These dynamics are essential to many amphibian
populations (Marsh and Trenham 2001), yet are often disregarded during landscape
development and road placement.
There are, however, several amphibian and reptile species that will readily reside in
human-disturbed areas (e.g., Neill 1950), and are specifically tolerant of human presence along
roads (e.g., Shine and Mason 2001). In a comparison of residential development and an
undeveloped park, Delis et al. (1996) found that while sensitive species are not present in more
developed areas, amphibian species that opportunistically breed (e.g., Rana spp.) are able to
persist in residential areas. Furthermore, tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) have been
observed breeding in particularly disturbed habitats including wetlands decimated by grazing
and water treatment plants in Yellowstone National Park (DMJ unpubl. data). Abandoned
houses, trash piles, and disturbed areas are known to be visited and sometimes inhabited by
certain snake species (e.g., Zappalorti and Burger 1985; Ernst and Ernst 2003). We question the
ultimate sustainability of these occurrences due to the seemingly inevitable fate of wildlife
frequently encountering humans and urbanization. Sometimes species appear to occur in
healthy numbers in suburban areas, but are no longer evident over time and following increased
urbanization. Minton (1968) found reductions in herpetofaunal species presence and an
apparent loss of breeding activity in a suburban area over a 20-year period. Regardless, the
persistence of species that are not tolerant of urbanization could be limited, especially those
residing in regions (e.g., Florida, eastern kingsnake, Lampropeltis getula, Krysko and Smith
28
2005) or habitat types (e.g., coastal sandhills, eastern indigo snake, Lawler 1977) that are
economically prime for development.
DIRECT EFFECTS
“Now I do come from a part of the country where the people say that the only thing in the middle of the road is a yellow line or roadkill” – Blanche Lincoln
Researchers have conducted surveys along roads in an effort to quantify the most
conspicuous effect that roads impose on wildlife--mortality inflicted by vehicles. Direct effects
involve injury or mortality that occurs during road construction or subsequent contact with
vehicles associated with increased urban development. Direct mortality from roads is prevalent
throughout the world on public and private lands. Further, although urban areas present obvious
concerns for roadkills, road mortality has been considered the greatest non-natural source of
vertebrate death in protected areas (e.g., parks and reserves, Bernardino and Dalrymple 1992;
Kline and Swann 1998). As our road network continues to expand, so does the death toll with
estimates as high as one million vertebrate fatalities along America’s roadways each day (Lalo
1987; White and Ernst 2003).
Historically, published reports of roadkills were often based on a single trip and rarely
distinguished observations by species. Further, some of the earlier papers are incidental
documentation on pleasure or business-related road trips where data collection was motivated
by concern of the drivers over the frequency of roadkill (e.g., Stoner 1925). Over time,
scientists fine-tuned questions to gain insight into the interactions between roads and wildlife.
To date, the literature is saturated with investigations focused on charismatic megafauna and
birds, but the question remains, what role do roads play in the worldwide decline of amphibian
and reptile populations? Reviews that summarize research in the emerging field of road ecology
glaze over these taxa at best. Many studies have been designed to document all vertebrate
mortalities across a given survey area and include the proportion of herpetofauna observed (Fig.
3). However, over the decades the number of studies investigating the impacts of traffic,
particularly direct mortality, on these taxa has increased (Fig. 4). In Table 2 we provide a
summary of published road studies that report herpetofaunal fatalities. For more detail
regarding specifics of these studies please see Jochimsen et al. (2004).
29
Direct mortality of herpetofauna has been documented since the beginning of the 20th
century, but the effects of roadkill were not observed until decades later (e.g., amphibians, Puky
2004; snakes, Fitch 1999). Studies investigating road effects specifically on amphibians have
been conducted in Europe perhaps longer than in any other region, and mitigation efforts have
been in place since the 1960s (Puky 2004, 2006). A review of five road studies conducted in
central Europe reported that amphibians were observed more frequently than specimens of four
other vertebrate taxa, comprising 70.4 to 88.1 percent of all observations (Puky 2004). Kuzmin
et al. (1996) synthesized all data concerning the amphibians inhabiting the province of Moscow
and include a summary of the conservation issues affecting these populations, which include
habitat destruction, and fragmentation due to roads.
While on-road mortality is generally the most significant of the direct effects, mortality
associated with construction activities may also have severe consequences for amphibians and
reptiles present within the impending path of development. For example, Goodman and
colleagues (1994) reported the entrapment of radiated tortoises (Geochelone radiata) that had
fallen down a steep embankment adjacent to an unfinished road in Madagascar. These
individuals died from exposure to sun and heavy rainfall, or were collected by humans. In
Yellowstone National Park, recently metamorphosed western toads (Bufo boreas) were
inadvertently buried during blading of the shoulder areas along the Grand Loop Highway north
of Old Faithful (Charles R. Peterson pers. comm.). The late summer blasting of a rocky outcrop
in eastern Idaho for road expansion killed terrestrial garter snakes (Thamnophis elegans) known
to use the site for hibernation; subsequent surveys have not detected individuals in the
remaining habitat (Charles R. Peterson pers. comm.). The loss of certain habitat features, such
as rocky areas, due to construction activities could also alter the prey base that snake species
depend on for survival (e.g. eastern kingsnakes, Smith and Dodd 2003). Given that construction
activities often have unforeseen consequences, it is advisable for a biologist to perform
environmental assessments of the road sites before, during, and after construction.
One of the greatest challenges in addressing direct effects on herpetofauna is that
because of human safety issues, prioritization is given to studies regarding large mammalian
megafauna. However, in southeastern areas where roads transect water bodies, American
alligators can be found crossing roads. Such wildlife-vehicle interactions can present a threat to
wildlife and humans. Traffic deaths have been suggested as the major known source of
30
mortality for some large, endangered species, including the American crocodile (Crocodylus
acutus, Kushlan 1988 and Harris and Gallagher 1989); automobile collisions accounted for 46%
of human-related mortality of this species in southern Florida (Gaby 1987). Crocodilians also
present a human safety concern for drivers as evidenced by the death of a woman when her car
flipped after a collision with an alligator crossing Highway (HWY) 17 in Jasper County, South
Carolina (Associated Press, 11 June 2005). Although this prioritization is a logical one, neglect
of smaller wildlife might result in a missed opportunity to deal with road mortality before rates
are irreparable.
With the exception of areas in which herpetologists have collected data, wildlife
collisions with “harmless” species are not generally reported as they do not often present a
direct human safety threat or substantial automobile damage. However, we note that roadkill is
distracting, resulting in deviant driver behavior. This attitude is particularly true with snakes,
which are frequently a target of intentional killing where drivers will actually swerve to run
over animals (e.g., Langley et al. 1989). Roadkill even presents bizarre concerns as apparent by
the vulture that collided with the tank of the space shuttle Discovery in Cape Canaveral, FL
while scavenging on road-killed carcasses (Associated Press, 27 April 2006). These situations
concerning the deaths of wildlife and human alike are readily avoidable in most instances by
proactive planning of road designs.
Many factors influence roadkill rates. We will briefly present some of those factors
below, and Table 2 elaborates on correlative findings specific to study. In this section, we will
mention the importance of organismal ecology, road characteristics, bordering habitat, and
weather conditions as interacting factors of influence not only for herpetofauna (e.g., Puky
2004), but other taxa as well (e.g., Clevenger et al. 2003). We then expand on the use of road
driving as a survey technique and data modeling to assess ultimate impacts.
ORGANISMAL ECOLOGY
Life history parameters influence not only severity of road impacts in general (e.g.,
Dodd et al. 1989) as discussed in the Susceptibilities section, but also the overall likelihood of
observing an individual on the road as related to biotic and abiotic conditions. For amphibians,
road mortality may be proportionally high during pulses of movement related to fluctuations in
water level (e.g., Smith and Dodd 2003), breeding (e.g., Hodson 1966; Fahrig et al. 1995;
31
Ashley and Robinson 1996), and dispersal (McClure 1951; Palis 1994), behaviors that vary
across age and sex. Road mortality is likely substantially higher for some species of anurans
relative to most salamanders due to higher reproductive output and tendency to breed in
roadside habitats. In addition, anurans possess a delicate body structure that may make them
more vulnerable to the high pressure wave created by a passing vehicle, which can create
enough force to cause the animal to expel its innards without experiencing a direct hit from a
vehicle (Holden 2002). Reptile examples include movements related to fluctuations in water
level (Bernardino and Dalrymple 1992; Aresco 2005b; Smith and Dodd 2003), adult males
searching for mates (Bonnet et al. 1999; Whitaker and Shine 2000; Jochimsen 2006b), and
nesting migrations of adult females in the spring (Fowle 1996; Bonnet et al. 1999; Haxton
2000; Baldwin et al. 2004).
The detectability of some animals might be increased by high mortality and long carcass
persistence, whereas other characteristics might result in underestimation. For instance, slow-
moving turtles, especially species that retreat into their shells when vehicles pass are highly
likely to be killed while crossing roads. However, testudines are long-lived species that likely
experience irreparable population impacts when adult females are killed (Congdon et al. 1993)
when crossing roads, and therefore, likely suffer from road mortality disproportionately to most
other herpetofaunal species. On the other hand, mortality counts of lizards could easily be
considered underestimations. The lack of evidence for high mortality of lizards could be a
detection issue due to small size and rapid deterioration of road-killed specimens of many
species (e.g., Kline and Swann 1998). However, lizards could actually experience lower
mortality rates due to their ability to cross roads faster than other reptiles (Vijayakumar et al.
2001; but see Kline et al. 2001 for estimates predicting higher mortality rates in lizards than
snakes). Also, most species of lizards do not migrate seasonally and exhibit high site-fidelity
within small home ranges, potentially limiting their encounters with roads (Rutherford and
Gregory 2003).
ROAD CHARACTERISTICS
Road placement is the quintessential feature that determines the diversity and severity of
road impacts on the surrounding wildlife and habitat. Roads placed in the vicinity of water
bodies, particularly wetlands and ponds, may be associated with high levels of road mortality
32
(e.g., Ashley and Robinson 1996; Fowle 1996; Forman and Alexander 1998; Smith and Dodd
2003). Road placement may alter home range size and dimensions, as well as habitat use and
selection. Boarman and Sazaki (1996) found that individuals whose ranges were bisected by
roads were more likely to use road edges or cross roads for foraging and mating activities,
thereby increasing their chance of being killed. Additionally, on a landscape level, the pattern
and spatial distribution of roads can determine fragmentation levels and therefore the extent of
population-level impacts (e.g., turtles, Gibbs and Shriver 2002). Further, road distribution not
only influences species occurrence and persistence, but also species richness (tiger salamanders,
Porej et al. 2004).
Road density is measured as the total length of roads per unit area and can serve as a
useful index for addressing the ecological impacts of roads and vehicles on landscape
connectivity and wildlife movement (Forman and Hersperger 1996). Increased road density
inevitably results in a decrease in patch size and available habitat which results in increased
probability of road encounter and number of road-killed individuals, ultimately reducing
population sizes. Several studies have determined effects of road density on populations and
species richness (Dickman 1987; Halley et al. 1996; Vos and Stumpel 1996; Findlay and
Houlahan 1997; Vos and Chardon 1998; Knutson et al. 1999; Lehtinen et al. 1999; Findlay and
Bourdages 2000); these findings will be discussed more directly in the Effects on Higher Levels
of Ecological Organization section.
The distribution of road densities across the landscape affects the degree of habitat loss.
The higher the road density and the more dispersed the distribution, the greater the habitat loss.
Rowland et al. (2000) concluded that evenly spaced roads had the most extensive impact on
surrounding habitat, while clustered road configurations left larger blocks of unaffected habitat.
Further, this study demonstrated that it is possible to have an area with relatively high road
density, but habitat loss equivalent to an area with lower road density depending on the spatial
distribution of roads. Similarly, in a modeling assessment by Jaeger and colleagues (2005a),
population persistence was higher if roads were spatially clustered as opposed to evenly
distributed across the landscape. However, they further found that if the degree of animal
avoidance was low, it was better to maintain sufficient core habitat away from the road than to
keep the number of patches low (Jaeger et al. 2006).
33
Road mortality can also increase when surges of animal movement coincide with
increased traffic volume (e.g., Joly et al. 2003; Table 2). More vagile species are more
vulnerable to increases in traffic densities, as evidenced by negative impacts on northern
leopard frog (Rana pipiens) population density up to 1.5 km from the road (Carr and Fahrig
2001). Dalrymple and Reichenbach (1984) noted a considerable rise in the road mortality of
snakes, including endangered plains garter snakes (Thamnophis radix), when migrations to
over-wintering hibernacula coincided with peak levels of hunting activity in a wildlife area in
Ohio. Seasonal variation of habitat use within a population of massasauga rattlesnakes
(Sistrurus catenatus), an endangered species of rattlesnake, on Squaw Creek Wildlife Refuge in
Missouri resulted in an overlap of peak snake movements and human visitation to the refuge,
resulting in elevated mortality levels during spring and autumn migrations (Seigel 1986).
Additionally, Bernardino and Dalrymple (1992) found that 56% of annual road mortalities of
snakes in Everglades National Park could be attributed to high visitation rates to the park
coinciding with increased movement of snakes. However, several studies suggest that nocturnal
species experience reduced susceptibility to road mortality due to lower traffic levels at night
(Dodd et al. 1989; Enge and Wood 2002; Jochimsen 2006a; Andrews and Gibbons in press).
Traffic levels can reduce permeability of the road, essentially creating a barrier to
movement by inflicting high rates of mortality. Franz and Scudder (1977) noted that 55% of
snakes crossing HWY 441 across Paynes Prairie (n=132) were killed in the first lane and only
21 snakes reached the far lane of the two-lane highway, where they were ultimately run over. In
a one-year survey along U.S. 441 at Paynes Prairie, Smith and Dodd (2003) observed only 26
animals alive on the road (AOR) surface but observed almost 3000 dead amphibians and
reptiles (Table 2), and concluded virtually all crossing attempts by wildlife would be
unsuccessful. Of the 26 AOR animals, 11 were basking within the right-of-way, 3 crossed
successfully, 7 were injured or roadkilled, and 5 turned around and retreated in the original
direction. Both of these studies from Paynes Prairie observed few individuals within the grassy
median that separates the north- and south-bound lanes of the highway, further supporting a low
success rate of crossing. Aresco (2004, 2005b) found that U.S. 27 creates an impenetrable
barrier for turtles along the 1.2 km section bisecting Lake Jackson in Tallahassee, Florida. This
highway has traffic volumes of 21,500 vehicles/day and in addition to the 612 turtles discovered
dead on the road (DOR), 8,209 individuals were captured along drift fences that restricted them
34
from entering the highway. Using a model from Hels and Buchwald (2001), Aresco (2005b)
estimated the likelihood of mortality was 0.98; this estimate is potentially conservative, as there
has been no evidence of turtles reaching the median.
Some studies have found that even low traffic volumes may be sufficient to cause high
levels of amphibian mortality. On a road in the Netherlands near a breeding pond for common
toads (Bufo bufo), a flow of 10 vehicles per hour resulted in 30% mortality of migrating females
and the author projected that a flow of 60 vehicles per hour would incur 90% mortality (van
Gelder 1973). Due to a high level of variation among species for mortality rates in response to
traffic levels, mortality rates of some species can increase, decrease, or remain constant
depending on the species. Mazerolle (2004) was able to detect interspecific variation in
mortality rates at traffic flows as low as 5-26 vehicles per hour.
The relationship between traffic volume and mortality of reptiles is unclear. The
distance from the road that desert tortoise populations were reduced was positively correlated
with traffic densities; at the highest level (5000 vehicles per day) reductions were apparent 4000
m from the road (von Seckendorff Hoff and Marlow 2002). Seigel (1986) found that the
proportion of DOR massasauga rattlesnakes varied seasonally and were correlated with peak
traffic patterns in the fall (Seigel 1986). However, some studies do not report a significant
correlation between traffic volume and number of road-killed reptiles, which authors attribute to
already reduced populations adjacent to the road (Nicholson 1978; Dodd et al. 1989; Enge and
Wood 2002), discrepancies in the timing of traffic and survey data collection (Smith and Dodd
2003), or variance in species composition and densities along road sections (Enge and Wood
2002).
Low traffic volumes on rural roads can result in high reptile mortality (72%, Louisiana,
Fitch 1949; 82%, Georgia, Herrington and Harrelson 1990). Enge and Wood (2002) noted that
93% of snakes were observed DOR on rural roads in Florida where traffic loads were less than
1,000 vehicles per day. Rural roads are the largest single classification of road types and
therefore, the extent of their impact should not be underestimated. Aside from wildlife
mortality, this road class also poses the largest threat to human safety, particularly in the
southeastern U.S. where 30% of the nation’s traffic fatalities occurred in 8 southeastern states
between 1996 and 2000), 64% of which were on rural roads (Sander 2005). Further, 71% of
Florida’s fatalities occur on rural roads.
35
HABITAT CORRELATIONS
The highest rates of road mortality occur where roads disrupt the spatial connectivity of
essential resources and habitats across the landscape. Many amphibians fall victim to roads in
great numbers during mass migrations of breeding adults and emerging metamorphs from
wetlands (e.g., Ashley and Robinson 1996; Smith and Dodd 2003; Table 2). Breeding adults
may enhance their mortality risk by crossing roads twice annually if their migration corridor
between upland areas and wetlands is bisected by a road (Jackson 1996). Average mortality
rates for salamanders (red-spotted newts, Notophthalmus viridescens; spotted salamanders; red-
backed salamanders, Plethodon cinereus) crossing a paved rural road in New York ranged from
50 to 100% (Wyman 1991). If mortality is sustained, population declines can be insinuated
when numbers of migratory individuals are reduced in subsequent years (e.g., mole
salamanders, Ambystoma talpoideum, Means 1999). Cooke (1995) documented road casualties
of adult individuals near a breeding site in England for 21 years, but cautioned against the use
of the data to represent numbers killed, and even more so against using such data as an indicator
of population trends.
Numerous studies have reported correlations of road mortality with adjacent habitat and
vegetative cover type in herpetofauna (e.g., Enge and Wood 2002; Jochimsen 2006a; Table 2)
and other vertebrate taxa (e.g., Cristoffer 1991). These correlations may be associated with
broader habitat classification (e.g., Sumler 1975) or habitat features, such as canopy cover and
soil type (Titus 2006), or by the degree to which the bordering vegetation encroaches on the
road (Klauber 1939; Fitch 1987). Further, composition shifts in the bordering plant community
can lead to shifts in herpetofaunal composition (Ashley and Robinson 1996; Mendelson and
Jennings 1992). This shift may also occur in response to the intrusion of invasive species and
their influence on crossing corridors and aggregations of roadkill (Jochimsen 2006b).
ABIOTIC CORRELATIONS
While hydrological and temperature influences appear to be the most important
determinants of herpetofaunal movement and therefore road mortality (Turner 1955; Carr 1974;
Harris and Scheck 1991; for specific examples see Table 2), there are others that have been
little explored that may be influential as well. For instance, the amount of natural nocturnal
36
lighting (i.e., moonlight; artificial influences are discussed in the Indirect Effects section) can
inhibit an organism’s willingness to move due to potential predator exposure. Movement rates
in snakes have been shown to vary with moon phase in response to degree of light diffusion
(Kevin Messenger unpubl. data). Copperheads (Agkistrodon contortrix) at Land Between the
Lakes National Recreation Area in western Kentucky and Tennessee increased movement
during full moons (illumination >88%) although the author discusses potential observer and
data bias (Titus 2006). However, Titus (2006) also suggests that lighting could assist in
foraging by serving as a secondary cue to heat-sensing pits.
ROADS AS TRANSECTS
Since the 1930s, herpetologists have driven U.S. roads to document occurrence and
collect specimens (e.g., snakes, Klauber 1931; Scott 1938), and many herpetologists still
consider road surveys valuable for monitoring amphibian and reptile occurrence despite
obvious biases with this method (e.g., Case 1978; Enge and Wood 2002; Steen and Smith
2006). Data that are collected incidentally (e.g., Klauber 1932; Scott 1938) may not be
representative of activity since surveys are conducted in accordance with the human schedule as
opposed to that of the target species. However, these data published in the first half of the 20th
century have provided a framework for biologists to demonstrate that roads are not a new issue.
It is widely accepted that road survey data are valuable, and that this method may prove most
effective for the objective of a study. Road surveys are occasionally used to monitor species
richness, distributions, and the status of populations (Pough 1966; Seigel et al. 2002; Weir and
Mossman 2005; Lee 2005); however, we urge caution in the interpretation of these data to
generate quantified population estimates or relative abundances, as these parameters can not be
considered independent of the myriad impacts of roads on herpetofauna. For example,
Jochimsen (2006a) found that numbers of individuals detected of different species varied
dramatically between road surveys and drift fence arrays at known hibernacula. Therefore, we
recommend that road cruising data are supplemented with additional methodologies when
targeting these objectives.
Actual roadkill counts may be underestimated due to a variety of factors (Table 3).
Counts can vary with speed limit (e.g., Cristoffer 1991) and traffic density (e.g., Mazerolle
2004). Several studies report high incidences of carcass removal by scavengers (Kline and
37
Swann 1998; Enge and Wood 2002; Smith and Dodd 2003; Antworth et al. 2005). Results from
all-night surveys conducted in Saguaro National Park indicated that, on average, no more than
24% of the animals killed between sunset and early morning persisted on the road long enough
to be observed during regular surveys later in the day (Kline and Swann 1998). Enge and Wood
(2002) reported similar data from their pedestrian survey of snake communities in Florida,
where 70.5% of the 207 snake carcasses on the road were gone by the following day, and less
than 1% remained for 5 or more days.
The most thorough, long-term records of direct road mortality have been provided for
snakes, with documentation of traffic fatalities since the 1930s (Fig. 5). Reports in which the
majority of specimens are already dead are not uncommon (Fig. 6). Rates of snakes found
(DOR) presented here range from 24-94%, and the median DOR proportion of these studies is
71.7%. However, rates can be lower when in protected areas where human use is less than that
of public roads. For example, roads surrounding Squaw Creek National Wildlife Refuge in
Missouri yielded DOR rates of 23.2% of massasauga rattlesnakes (n=172, Seigel and Pilgrim
2002). However, the authors still concluded that vehicular traffic was the most detrimental
impact of refuge activities on this species.
Carcass removal rates may vary dramatically due to a variety of biotic and abiotic
factors. Traffic density may influence the species composition of scavengers (KMA unpubl.
data). Injured individuals may leave the road surface before dying (Dodd et al. 1989; Jochimsen
2006a), and carcasses may be displaced by passing vehicles (Enge and Wood 2002; Jochimsen
2006a), or obliterated during high traffic volumes (Clevenger et al. 2001; Hels and Buchwald
2001; Smith and Dodd 2003). Carcasses may be difficult to detect during surveys if abiotic
conditions influence their persistence (KMA unpubl. data), or observers fail to notice
incomplete remains (Klauber 1931; Boarman and Sazaki 1996; Mazerolle 2004). Survey design
may bias detection, as small or greatly deteriorated specimens might not be observed from a
moving vehicle, but be counted when transects are conducted on foot (Franz and Scudder 1977;
Enge and Wood 2002; Smith and Dodd 2003). Slender, small snakes or darkly patterned species
are more difficult to detect (e.g., Mendelson and Jennings 1992; Sullivan in press). The timing
of surveys may also influence results based on how they coincide with periods of wildlife
activity and maximum road mortality (e.g., Duever 1967). Finally, yearly variation of
environmental factors may influence mortality estimates, so that surveys conducted in a
38
particular year may not provide an accurate representation of long-term trends (e.g., Ashley and
Robinson 1996).
ASSESSING IMPACTS OF ROADKILL FROM SURVEY DATA
Due to the difficulty of collecting all of the data necessary to form direct conclusions
regarding population-level impacts, or even extrapolating roadkill counts over a greater
distance, modeling has become a useful exercise to assess larger impacts. Ehmann and Cogger
(1985) estimated that 4.45 million anurans and 1.03 million reptiles get killed annually on roads
throughout Australia by extrapolating data from four surveys of four different road segments
(range, 2.5-25.1 km) across the total length of roads in Australia permeating the focal habitat.
These are the largest approximations reported anywhere in the literature and are often cited
within reviews concerning road effects. While there are obvious valid concerns arising from
such extraordinary numbers, literal figures generated from this level of extrapolation are limited
in use until more extensive research is performed. In another example, pedestrian surveys on
rural roads in Florida estimated annual mortality at 12.8 snakes/km (n=228; 6 km; 2.8 yrs);
extrapolated across the state of Florida (107,950 km in 1998), approximately 1.4 million snakes
are killed annually on rural roads alone across the state (Enge and Wood 2002). Reed et al.
(2004) estimated that 500,000 snakes die annually in the U.S., a number that is likely to be
substantially higher if accurate counts across the country were available. The authors conclude
that road mortality is not only substantial, but exceeds the damage incurred by other human
activities, such as the pet trade.
The list of literature documenting road mortality of snakes spans over 60 years, yet the
actual effects on snake populations have mainly been estimated using models or based on mean
kill rates determined by survey efforts. In a three-year survey on New Mexico highways, the
mortality rate of snakes was estimated at 0.007 snakes/km/per year, yielding annual estimates of
roadkills at 10,489, 13,840 and 25,744 respectively (Campbell 1953, 1956). These figures were
calculated by determining a mortality rate per mile via quantitative road-cruising and then
adjusting those totals for the additional miles covered by other established public roads in New
Mexico. Klauber (1972) estimated the total road deaths in San Diego County, California at
15,000 snakes per year based on his survey efforts in the 1930’s and adjusted for increases in
traffic levels. Researchers reported the traffic casualties of 20 species along a road transect in
39
the Sonoran desert (n=264, 44.1 km, 4 yrs, Rosen and Lowe 1994). Incorporating these data
into a computational model, the authors presented an algebraic method for estimating highway
mortality of snakes. Using this model, the estimated death toll for these snake species is close to
2,383 individuals (13.5/km/year) annually. Over a four-year period along this transect, the
estimated impact of this highway mortality would result in a loss of all individuals within 65 m
of the road edge. Smith and Dodd (2003) report the highest rate of snake mortality on roads of
any published study (to our knowledge) at 1.854 individuals per km surveyed (623 dead snakes
across 336 km) and the death toll for the 52-week survey period was 1,292 snakes. Based on
these kill-rate data, the authors estimated that 2,164 snakes died from traffic-induced injuries
between 1998 and 1999 across Paynes Prairie. We advise that such estimates should be
interpreted with caution due to variation in snake and traffic densities, as well as seasonal and
geographic differences, but report these values to emphasize the potential impact that road
mortality may have on snake populations.
Modeling is also a useful exercise for investigating how mortality rates may vary across
certain temporal or spatial scales. The estimated survival rate of toads crossing roads in
Germany with traffic densities of 24-40 cars per hour varied from zero (Heine 1987) to 50%
(Kuhn 1987). Hels and Buchwald (2001) calculated that the probability of an individual getting
killed while crossing a road ranged from 0.34 to 0.98 across traffic volumes, depending on
various attributes of a given species. Their model has been adapted to assess mortality
probabilities for salamanders (Gibbs and Shriver 2005), turtles (Gibbs and Shriver 2002; Aresco
2005b) and snakes (Andrews and Gibbons 2005), but has yet to be applied to lizards. However,
these estimates are based on individual deaths presented as proportions, so the extrapolations to
true population levels are equivocal. Many species cross roads along corridors (e.g., because of
the location of a wetland or hibernation site), making extrapolations from short segments of
road potentially inaccurate because of over- or underestimates. However, with proper
consideration of the level of variance that can be expected for a particular region, such
extrapolations can provide useful preliminary assessments of mortality ranges that can be
expected for a highway complex when surveys cannot be completed in every location.
In summary, ample evidence exists that road mortality of herpetofauna results in
significant loss of individuals and leads to concerns for the sustainability of populations in some
40
situations. As the research on road impacts has been disproportionately focused on mammals
and birds, we are still learning about some of the more straightforward direct effects of roads on
herpetofauna. However, roads are unequivocally a major source of mortality of many
amphibians and reptiles in many areas, raising serious concerns for some populations. The
extrapolation of road mortality numbers across broad geographic regions and time can be useful
both biologically and politically, but such projections must be used with discretion when
applied to scientific conservation or management efforts.
INDIRECT EFFECTS
“When one tugs at a single thing in nature, he finds it attached to the rest of the world.” -John Muir
Roads are designed to serve as travel corridors for humans, usually without regard for
the ecological integrity necessary for wildlife. Therefore, problems may arise when wildlife use
road systems for their own movement or other activities. Unlike natural corridors, roads
frequently cross both topographic and environmental contours, thereby fragmenting a range of
different habitat types (Bennett 1991) and affecting wildlife groups that possess a diversity of
ecological and life history strategies. Road construction creates a zone of intense human activity
that subsequently alters habitat and wildlife behavior (Bennett 1991). Once the area is
accessible to humans, perpetual habitat destruction and human expansion often follows.
The manifold effects of roads extend far beyond encounters between wildlife and
vehicles. Roads affect wildlife indirectly, through landscape fragmentation and alteration of
physical conditions in the vicinity of roads (Andrews 1990; Forman et al. 2003). Additionally,
multiple effects extend across a range of spatial scales beyond the road edge (e.g., Jaeger 2000).
Here, we refer to these secondary ecological consequences as indirect effects. When discussing
indirect road effects on herpetofauna, the information base becomes sparse because these
effects are more pervasive and more difficult to quantify than direct effects, and documenting
indirect effects due to roads often requires extensive and long-term monitoring. Secondly,
research has been disproportionately focused on mammals and birds, and therefore, we are still
learning about some of the most basic effects of roads on herpetofauna so the complex nature of
secondary effects leaves many unasked questions.
41
EDGE EFFECTS
A habitat edge is simply a transition zone between original habitat and altered habitat
(Mitchell and Klemens 2000) and is often of compromised quality. The transformation of
physical conditions on and adjacent to roads eliminates areas of continuous habitat while
simultaneously creating long-lasting edge effects (Forman and Alexander 1998). Roads have
been documented as having greater edge effects than clearcuts in Wyoming forests (Tinker et
al. 1998), a trend that was further exaggerated through even distribution of the road network
across the landscape. Forman and Alexander (1998) coined the term “road-effect zone,” which
includes the road and the area extending beyond the road surface that experiences alteration of
ecological effects. The zone has dynamic boundaries dependent on both biotic (e.g., habitat
quality and soil structure) and abiotic (e.g., wind, precipitation) fluctuations that vary seasonally
or annually. The combined effects (thermal, hydrological, chemical, sediments, noise, species
invasion, fire, and increased human access) of this “road-effect zone” were quantified in two
studies (Netherlands, Reijnen et al. 1995; U.S., Forman & Deblinger 2000); effects extended
more than 100 meters from the road in the surrounding habitat. Forman (2000) subsequently
estimated that about 20% of the U.S. land area is affected ecologically by the infrastructure
network. Further analyses determined that 16% of the total land area within the lower 48 states
of the U.S. is within 100 m of any road type, 22% within 150 m, and 73% within 810 m
(Riitters and Wickham 2003). Edge effects from roads can be 2.5-3.5 greater than those
emanating from clearcuts (Reed et al. 1996), resulting in fragmentation even in remote areas.
Further, edge effects within protected areas, such as National Forests, could extend to over 40%
of the area for some species due to high road densities (Semlitsch et al. 2006). While edge
effects and disturbance distances from roads have been sparsely addressed for herpetofauna,
studies focused on other organisms have observed impacts permeating out from the road at
surprising radii (birds, 500-600 m rural roads, 1600-1800 m highways, van der Zande et al.
1980).
The penetration of road impacts into the surrounding landscape will vary with regards to
location, time, and especially the organism in question. Many herpetofaunal species may
decrease directly or indirectly in response to a reduction of prey that are themselves influenced
by the reduced habitat quality associated with roads. For example, a decrease in invertebrate
42
abundance was correlated with reduced litter depth up to 100 m from the road (e.g., Haskell
2000). Presumably, these habitats would not be ideal for reproductive behaviors of species that
are not naturally “edge” species due to abiotic alterations, (e.g. temperature and light gradients).
Regardless, all animals residing in or using this zone are subjected to a higher risk of on-road
mortality or death caused by other off-road factors.
Clearly, some species would benefit from roadside edge habitat under certain
circumstances yet experience increased risks in others. Edge effects altered plant species
composition up to a maximum of 200 m beyond the road surface (Angold 1997), and
presumably would be even greater in instances of mobile, wide-ranging vertebrates.
Alternatively, species that thrive in disturbed environments may experience road effects across
a comparable area, but effects can be positive in that they support or encourage growth and
reproduction. Therefore, researchers should use caution when measuring effect distances as
variation occurs across and within each component of the system (e.g., trophic position, Faeth
et al. 2005).
Due to this variable and convoluted nature of biological responses to the plethora of
indirect effects, the inherent difficulty in studying the broader scale effects of roads on
ecological systems must be recognized for progress in this area of research. Identification of
umbrella species, in particular long-distance movers such as eastern indigo snakes that are
sensitive to edge effects, could assist in assessments that would protect multiple species from
the effects of landscape fragmentation (Breininger et al. 2004). Forman (2005) performs patch-
corridor analyses to develop the best location for a road. He suggests that in general, road
effects are low adjacent to narrow corridors and lowest around small patches. Further, he
proposes that an ecologically-optimum road network includes: a few busy roads rather than
many lightly used roads, a few large roadless areas, and permeable roads between the roadless
areas for species connectivity. While challenging, this area of study can not be avoided as it is
essential that we understand the whole system to adequately assess the impact of even a single
road. However, due to time and funding limitations, we encourage research scientists to
professionally and efficiently prioritize research topics, organisms, and locations.
USE OF THE ROAD ZONE FOR HABITAT
Foraging Opportunities
43
Edge habitat can result in an increased density of disturbance-tolerant species which
may then consequently attract predators. Adams and Geis (2002) documented an increase in
small mammal abundances within the road right-of-way. Getz and colleagues (1978) observed
small mammals using road corridors for dispersal and residence. Avian edge nesters were at a
higher relative abundance (Ortega and Capen 2002) in habitats adjacent to roadsides. A higher
density of snake species were observed in the ecotonal area along a road transect in California,
possibly due to an increase in prey diversity and density (Sullivan 1981b). Slow worms (Anguis
fragilis) were commonly found in roadside habitats where invertebrate prey was bountiful
(Wells et al. 1996). Slow worms use the road shoulder so extensively that a population
disappeared after a widening project reduced shoulder width and increased slope (Henle 2005).
Small mammal species residing along road borders in Australia were the most common prey
items in road-killed carpet pythons (Morelia spilota; Freeman and Bruce in press). Mass
numbers of western toad tadpoles were observed in deep ruts on a forest road in Idaho, along
with two terrestrial garter snakes that were actively foraging on the young anurans (DMJ pers.
obs.). Dodd et al. (2004) observed alligators attracted to roadside pools that had formed at the
opening of culverts (i.e., Ecopassages) that could have possibly served to increase foraging
opportunities. Finally, some toad species have been observed foraging for insects under
streetlights (e.g., Neill 1950).
Roads also provide simplified foraging opportunities for predators due to increased
exposure of animals crossing the road (e.g., attempted predation by red-tailed hawk (Buteo
jamaicensis) of a black rat snake crossing a highway, Vandermast 1999). Alternatively, dead
animals attract scavengers. Although the opportunity for these observations is rare, there are
several incidences reported in the literature. Guarisco (1985) observed an adult bullfrog (Rana
catesbeiana) scavenging on a road-killed plains leopard frog (Rana blairi). Jackson and
Ostertag (1999) recorded a gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) scavenging on a road-killed
great-horned owl (Bubo virginianus). Jensen (1999) witnessed an eastern box turtle (Terrapene
carolina) scavenging on a road-killed copperhead. Morey (2005) noted a juvenile western
diamondback (Crotalus atrox) foraging on a subadult Couch’s spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus
couchii). On multiple occasions, fresh water snakes (Tropidonophis malrii) were observed
feeding upon road-killed frogs (Litoria spp.) along road segments with high concentrations of
amphibian crossings in Australia (Bedford 1991a). Bedford (1991b) further observed a road-
44
killed mulga snake (Pseudechis australis) that had consumed a flood plain goanna (Varanus
panoptes); the mulga snake was believed to be foraging on the road-killed goanna when struck
by a vehicle. Lastly, a cottonmouth was repeatedly observed in attempts to scavenge a dead red-
bellied watersnake (Nerodia erythrogaster) on a road shoulder (Berna and Gibbons 1991).
There are also many examples of correlations between species presence and roadside
features. Anurans appear to use ditches temporarily when moving long-distances between local
populations (Reh and Seitz 1990, Pope et al. 2000). Roadkill aggregations of amphibians and
turtles occurred alongside water-filled ditches that were created as borrow pits during highway
construction (Main and Allen 2002). Across Paynes Prairie, Franz and Scudder (1977) observed
the highest number of snakes along road sections bordered by permanent water. Anderson
(1965) noted the propensity of aquatic snake species presence in roadside ditches (watersnakes,
Nerodia, ribbon snakes, Thamnophis). There has been documentation throughout the century
that roadside verges in Britain harbor reptiles (lizards, Leighton 1903 and Smith 1969; lizards
and snakes, Langton 1991). Clusters of dead Organ Pipe shovel-nosed snakes (Chionactis
palarostris) were observed along road edges planted with thickets that may have served as an
attractant (Rosen and Lowe 1994). Gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer) mortality was positively
correlated with cover of an invasive grass species (Jochimsen 2006a, 2006b) in Idaho.
Assessments of indirect road impacts associated with predator-prey relationships must be
conducted in the context of individual species and their ecological requirements.
Thermoregulatory Activities
Studies have documented individuals using the road zone for thermoregulatory
purposes, which suggests that roads may serve as an attractant to certain species. Australian
lizards (land mullet, Egernia major) were noted to selectively use clearings adjacent to roads
for thermoregulation (Klingenböck et al. 2000). These lizards were typically abundant along
forest edges and the average distance from the center of a lizard’s activity area to the nearest
road was 17 meters (σ = 2.2 m). Open patches, such as those created by roads and tree
harvesting, benefit large-bodied lizards of the Amazon (e.g., ameiva, Ameiva ameiva) by
increasing foraging efficiency and providing access to warm basking sites (Vitt et al. 1998;
Sartorius et al. 1999). However, both studies conclude that such disturbed areas support high
45
densities of these large lizard predators which could result in cascading effects on the local prey
assemblages.
Many of the reports of reptiles using roads for thermoregulation involve snakes (e.g.,
Klauber 1939, Brattstrom 1965, Moore 1978, Sullivan 1981a, Bernardino and Dalrymple 1992,
Ashley and Robinson 1996). Published documentation of reptile thermoregulatory behaviors
first stemmed from the western U.S. (e.g., Klauber 1931) where desert species are adapted for
open habitats and the road zone is more comparable with their natural habitat (Andrews and
Gibbons 2005). McClure (1951) noted that snake mortality in Nebraska peaked in May and
October during cooler temperatures when individuals were frequently observed basking on road
surfaces. During road surveys in Idaho, snakes were observed motionless on the road with
obvious prey items in their gut (DMJ unpubl. data). For instance, a western rattlesnake
(Crotalus oreganus) remained stretched on the road verge for over an hour despite high traffic
volumes, and on the same evening a gopher snake was discovered coiled on the road surface.
Thermoregulatory behavior has often been assumed, but not necessarily observed or critically
interpreted, in situations where intact habitat occurs directly alongside the road shoulder, on
roads with low traffic densities, or at times of day when traffic levels are reduced and the road
has cooled but is still warm (KMA pers. obs.). However, observations of snakes lying
motionless on roads, common grounds for an interpretation of thermoregulation, can also be
explained in terms of a defensive behavior (immobility) exhibited by some snake species while
on the road (Andrews and Gibbons 2005). The authors speculate that some snake species
perceive the road as a threatening (i.e., foreign) environment. This response could thereby
reduce the frequency with which the road would pose as an attractant for thermoregulatory
activity, particularly in the southeastern U.S. where quality basking sites are presumably more
prevalent. Further research is needed to explore directly the degree to which lizards and snakes
are attracted to roads for thermoregulatory purposes and important variables (e.g., species,
season, abiotic conditions) in the selection of roads as basking habitat.
Reproductive Behaviors
Roads and the peripheral areas they impact can also serve as an attractant for non-
adaptive reproductive activities among some species of amphibians and reptiles, thereby
creating a population sink. Amphibians, particularly anurans, will use roadside ditches for
46
breeding. Generally, pools and roadside ditches are only temporary and may dry before
metamorphosis of young, so that successful egg and larval development may be rare (Richter
1997). Depressions along forest roads fill with rainwater in spots of blocked stream flow or tire
ruts, creating habitat that amphibians may use for hydration or breeding (e.g., Reh and Seitz
1990; Trauth et al. 1989; Pauley 2005). However, this habitat is not suitable, as mortality will
occur following any subsequent vehicles passage (DMJ pers. obs.).
The road zone can also serve as an attractant for reproductive behaviors of reptiles.
Roadside nesting by turtles results in reduced survivorship of both adult females and hatchlings
on the road itself, and can give rise to skewed sex ratios within nests because of the associated
high temperatures (see Effects on Higher Levels section). Hódar et al. (2000) reported that
common chameleons (Chamaeleo chamaeleon) in southern Spain selectively used habitats
adjacent to roads and orchards for nesting habitat, where reproductive activity coincided with
increased traffic densities. Chameleons are highly susceptible to road mortality during this time
period and also suffer from illegal collection along roadsides (Caletrio et al. 1996). While there
is little data regarding roadside reproductive behaviors in snakes, Van Hyning (1931)
documented eastern kingsnakes in Florida mating in a roadside ditch under loose sand and grass
roots.
Dispersal Corridors
Some species use roads as dispersal corridors, which may ultimately have detrimental
affects on amphibian and reptile populations. Seabrook and Dettmann (1996) concluded that
roads and trail systems facilitated the range expansion of the invasive cane toad (Bufo marinus)
across Australia, which has negatively influenced a variety of other amphibian and reptile
species. Surveys revealed a significant increase in toad density along roads and vehicle tracks
compared to transects within surrounding vegetation. Additionally, the majority of tracked
individuals actively used roads as dispersal corridors (Seabrook and Dettman 1996) and are
invading new areas at a rate of over 50 km a year potentially due to rapid adaptation for longer
legs which enables increased dispersal rates (Phillips et al. 2006). Phillips et al. (2003)
estimated that cane toads could pose a threat to as many as 30% of terrestrial Australian snake
species. Additionally, fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) proliferate in roadside areas in the United
States (Stiles and Jones 1998) and have been identified as problematic predators on oviparous
47
reptiles (e.g., Allen et al. 2001; Buhlmann and Coffman 2001; Parris et al. 2002), thereby
reducing reproductive output and hatchling survivorship. Tuberville et al. (2000) documented
the apparent decline of the southern hognose snake (Heterodon simus) across much of its range;
although there is uncertainty regarding the mechanism of decline, both fire ant invasions and
road mortality were suggested as potential contributors.
Roads also enable the spread of invasive plant species along roads and into surrounding
habitats, sometimes displacing native vegetation (Tyser and Worley 1992, Parendes and Jones
2000, Tikka et al. 2001). However, Harrison and colleagues (2002) found that disturbance
related to roads may support the propagation of invasives, but that roads did not necessarily
serve as corridors for invasions into new landscapes. Pauchard and Alaback (2004) support this
dispersal pattern along forest roads in Villarrica and Huerquehue National Parks in the Andean
portion of south-central Chile, and note that invasion is influenced by elevation, land use trends,
and the surrounding landscape matrix. Introduced species comprised 74% of the roadside flora
in Hawaii, a trend that was not observed on adjacent substrates (Wester and Juvik 1983). When
such invasions eliminate native flora and fauna, the quality and availability of habitat and prey
may be compromised consequently depreciating health or survivorship of consumer species
(e.g., Maerz et al. 2005) and may lead to additional movement, possibly increasing mortality
risk (Jochimsen 2006a). Success of exotic vegetation increased with urbanization and the
efficiency of trophic transfer decreased in upstate New York (Kleppel et al. 2004).
Additionally, exotic plants within road corridors may alter mineralization processes and organic
matter in soil, as observed along a pipeline (Zink et al. 1995), which could subsequently have
repercussions on invertebrate communities and their vertebrate predators, including
herpetofauna.
ENVIRONMENTAL ALTERATIONS
Hydrologic
Hydrological changes, such as alteration of flood regimes, debris, and runoff from
roads, often occur beyond the immediate vicinity of road placement (Jones and Grant 1996,
Jones et al. 2000). Adjacent wetlands may experience elevated discharge and fluctuations in
water levels due to the impervious nature of roads, subsequently reducing suitable habitat for
breeding, foraging, and amphibian development (Richter 1997). Runoff from roads likely alters
48
flow velocities and flood regimes (i.e., extent, depth, and frequency of flow), all of which can
influence embryonic survival, breeding success, and species richness. For example, Richter and
Azous (1995) found lower amphibian richness in wetlands experiencing water-level
fluctuations of greater than 20 cm and flow velocities greater than 5.0 cm/sec. An additional
negative consequence of abnormal flooding for most pond-breeding amphibians is the increased
likelihood of fishless isolated wetlands interconnecting with wetlands containing predatory fish.
Increased sedimentation initially resulting from road construction and erosion is
problematic for amphibians, however, data regarding the impacts of siltation on reptiles are
lacking. Increased runoff in urbanized areas had a negative impact on stream populations of
dusky salamanders (Desmognathus fuscus), resulting in a decline in population density (Orser
and Shure 1972). The authors attributed this decline with excess runoff due to erosion of stream
banks, increased amounts of particulate material suspended within the water column, and the
scouring of stream channels. Low-gradient streams experience the greatest sedimentation
impacts in western Oregon, resulting in decreased densities of Pacific giant salamanders
(Dicamptodon tenebrosus) and southern Torrent salamanders (Rhyacotriton variegatus, Corn
and Bury 1989). Similarly, densities of tailed frogs (Ascaphus truei), Pacific giant salamanders,
and southern Torrent salamanders were lower in streams altered by road construction in
Redwood National Park (Welsh and Ollivier 1998) due to increased sedimentation. In addition
to direct reduction of amphibian densities, erosion may indirectly influence individuals through
depression of invertebrate prey densities in streams experiencing sediment loading from roads
(Richter 1997, Welsh and Ollivier 1998, Semlitsch 2000). Due to these sensitivities, it appears
that stream amphibians are suitable indicators of ecosystem stress (Welsh and Ollivier 1998).
Erosion stemming from road development and urbanization also destroys beach habitat (e.g.,
Kamel and Mrosovsky 2004), critically impairing nesting and hatching success rates for marine
turtles.
Erosion effects on amphibians are especially prevalent in portions of the Pacific
Northwest, U.S. where the highest density of logging roads are documented (Riitters and
Wickham 2003). McCashion and Rice (1983) found that 24% of erosion from logging roads in
California could be prevented with conventional engineering methods, and the remaining 76%
could be attributed to site placement and conditions. Across 30,000 acres of timberland, 40% of
the erosion was attributed to roads. Sediment load can vary with traffic density (Bilby et al.
49
1989), but even on low traffic density logging roads in southwestern Oregon, erosion rates were
found to be 100 times worse than in undisturbed areas (Amaranthus et al. 1985). Lastly,
drainage concentrations from ridgetop roads in the western U.S. can cause landsliding and
integration of the channel and road networks (Montgomery 1994).
Toxins
Heavy metal contamination from tires, gasoline, motor oil and subsequent residues can
result in serious localized pollution that may permeate into the surrounding landscape. Data
directly investigating the impacts of road-associated pollution on herpetofauna are scarce;
however, general documentation is available and suggests problems likely exist for
herpetofauna and other wildlife. Pollutant compounds from vehicle emissions, de-icing
products, road degradation, and mechanical deterioration of car parts were found in habitat
situated up to 30 m from the road (Hautala et al. 1995). Lead levels in soil and vegetation
decreased with increasing distance from roads, and concentrations were positively correlated
with traffic density (Goldsmith et al. 1976; Warren and Birch 1987). Akbar et al. (2003) found
similar correlations between concentration, road distance, and traffic volumes for lead in
Pakistan. However, their assessment suggests that overall levels (lead, copper, manganese, and
zinc) found in the vegetation and soils were not detrimentally high for the vegetation, but could
potentially accumulate in roadside fauna that then enter the food chain. Lagerwerff and Specht
(1970) found that concentration of toxins decreases with soil depth in addition to increasing
distance from the road. Lead was found not only in soil and vegetation samples close to the
road, but in the milk of cows grazing on roadside pastureland (Singh et al. 1997). In addition,
lead, and elevated copper, cadmium and zinc levels were found to be negatively correlated with
distance from the road (Jaradat and Momani 1999). Samples from 13 urban parks in Hong
Kong had significantly higher levels of metal contamination than those from control areas
distantly located from roads (Tam et al. 1987). Further, washing the leaf samples with water
reduced contaminant levels, suggesting that main source is aerial deposition. Scanlon (1979)
also documented high concentrations of heavy metals in earthworms and small mammals in
proximity to roads. Concentrations were positively correlated with traffic density; therefore,
urban areas consistently experienced highly elevated levels. Scanlon (1979) also observed that
deposition was spatially influenced by wind patterns and direction. These data are difficult to
50
assess due to the variability in microhabitat conditions along road verges (Hansen and Jansen
1972) and because of the lack of information related to metal bioaccumulation in food chains.
Compounds associated with road construction, road maintenance, and vehicular by-
products contribute to the deposition of pollutants on and around roads, which may alter
reproduction and have long-term lethal effects on wildlife (Lodé 2000). Fill used during road
construction in Great Smoky Mountain National Park leached toxic chemicals that entered
streams via runoff (Kucken et al. 1994), thereby eliminating a significant proportion of the
populations of two salamander species (black-bellied salamander, Desmognathus
quadramaculatus; Blue Ridge two-lined salamander, Eurycea wilderae) and reducing the
populations of an additional two by 50%. Lead concentrations in bullfrog and green frog (Rana
clamitans) tadpoles living in roadside habitats were at sufficient levels to decrease growth and
reproduction and were correlated with daily traffic volume (Birdsall et al. 1986). Rowe and
colleagues (1998) reported that sediments containing high levels of arsenic, barium, cadmium,
chromium, and selenium caused oral deformities in bullfrog tadpoles. Mahaney (1994) found
that petroleum contamination inhibited tadpole growth in green treefrogs (Hyla cinerea) and
prevented metamorphosis in treatments with high contamination. Physiological (i.e.,
respiratory) and behavioral alterations were observed with lizards (Sceloporus undulatus) and
frogs (Pseudacris cadaverina) when exposed to ozone (Mautz and Dohm 2004). Anthropogenic
acid precipitation resulting from automobile activity acted as an immune disruptor in adult frogs
(northern leopard frogs, Vatnick et al. 2006). Buech and Gerdes attributed the death of hundreds
of blue-spotted salamanders (Ambystoma laterale) along a forest service road to desiccation
from exposure to calcium chloride, which is sprayed periodically for dust-control (deMaynadier
and Hunter 1995). Additionally, roadside herbicide applications may compromise water quality
(Wood 2001). Kohl and colleagues (1994) found that 2-33% of herbicides applied to road
shoulders can leach out into runoff in the first storm following application. Leaching rates can
attain levels between 10-73% of the applied herbicide; however, rates are compound-specific
(Ramwell et al. 2002).
Chloride from de-icing salt runoff contaminates fresh waters peripheral to road systems
(Environment Canada 2001; Kaushal et al. 2005; Karraker in press) and can alter the
composition of the vegetation community (Scott and Davison 1985; Isabelle et al. 1987). De-
icing salt can still be found in high concentrations (Na+ >112 mg/L, Cl- >54 mg/L) within 300
51
m from the application point (Richburg et al. 2001), but it is possible that general effects on
aquatic communities could extend over 1 km into the surrounding habitat (Forman and
Deblinger 2000). Exposure experiments with de-icing salt in roadside pools with larval wood
frogs (Rana sylvatica) resulted in reduced survivorship, decreased time to metamorphosis,
reduced weight and activity, and increased amounts of physical abnormalities with higher salt
concentrations (Sanzo and Hecnar 2006). Embryonic survivorship of spotted salamanders in
New Hampshire was significantly lower in roadside pools relative to those located in the forest
(Turtle 2000), where highway runoff of sodium chloride (frequently used as a de-icing salt) had
contaminated roadside pools.
Although less is known about physiological effects of road-associated pollutants on
reptiles (but see Campbell and Campbell 2001 for a review on snakes), similar issues could
exist with the uptake of pollutants directly from marine or terrestrial environments or from prey
items (e.g., Storelli and Marcotrigiano 2003; Krysko and Smith 2005), where transferred
concentrations vary between sexes and among body sizes (e.g., Rainwater et al. 2005). As
Scanlon (1979) found higher levels in invertebrate-eating shrews than plant-eating rodents, food
chain implications of road-related heavy-metal contamination need to be further explored for
herpetofauna as many species consume invertebrate prey.
Noise
Vehicular traffic and road infrastructure also emit pollution in the form of vibration and
noise, which may result in the modification of behavior and movement patterns of certain
wildlife species (Bennett 1991). The effects of traffic noise and vibrations on vertebrates
include hearing loss, increase in stress hormones, and interference of breeding communications
(Dufour 1980; Forman and Alexander 1998). Exposure to loud noise (120 db) induced
immobility in northern leopard frogs (Nash et. al 1970), a reaction that may inhibit the ability of
animals to successfully find shelter or cross roads (Maxell and Hokit 1999). Noise from
motorcycles and dune buggies (≥100 db) decreased receptiveness of lizards to acoustical cues,
and exposures of 8 minutes in duration induced hearing loss (Bondello and Brattstrom 1979).
The authors concluded that exposure to vehicle noise may indirectly increase mortality risk for
herpetofauna reliant on acoustical cues to locate prey or avoid predators. Amphibians and
reptiles suffered physiological and behavioral hearing loss and misinterpretation of
52
environmental acoustical signals when exposed to off-road vehicle noise (Brattstrom and
Bondello 1983). Background noise often resulted in modification of calling behavior in male
treefrogs which may impair the ability of females to discriminate among call types necessary to
discern locations of calling males during breeding migrations (hourglass treefrogs, Hyla
ebraccata, and yellow treefrogs, Hyla microcephala, Schwartz and Wells 1983; gray treefrogs,
Hyla versicolor, Schwartz et al. 2001).
Further, these effects can have behavioral implications by disrupting cues necessary for
orientation and navigation during migratory movements, especially for species that rely on such
cues for sustaining ecological behaviors (e.g., breeding frogs and salamanders). Low-frequency
vibrations on the ground surface mimicked rainfall and stimulated the emergence of Couch’s
spadefoot toads (Scaphiopus couchii Bondello and Brattstrom 1979; Dimmitt and Ruibal 1980).
These toads reside in arid habitats, and only emerge from burrows to mate when thunderstorms
provide appropriate temperature and moisture conditions. It is possible that traffic noise on
paved roads may also trigger emergence, as we have observed dozens of Great Basin spadefoot
toads (Scaphiopus intermontanus) roadkilled in southeastern Idaho in the absence of
appropriate abiotic conditions (DMJ unpubl. data).
Light
Herpetofauna are susceptible to alterations in foraging, reproductive, and defensive
behaviors in response to artificial lighting along roads and urban areas (e.g., anurans, Buchanan
2006; salamanders, Wise and Buchanan 2006). Exposure to artificial light can cause nocturnal
frogs to suspend normal foraging and reproductive behavior and remain motionless long after
the light has been removed (Buchanan 1993). Airplane and motorcycle noise reduced the
calling frequency of some anuran species (painted chorus frogs, Microhyla butleri; black
striped frogs, Rana nigrovittata; Malaysian narrowmouth toads, Kaloula pulchra) but increased
the frequency of another (Taipeh frogs, Rana taipehensis, Sun and Narins 2004); the authors
predict that the increase in Taipeh frog calls was a response to the decrease in call frequency of
the former species. Although essentially nothing is known regarding the effects of noise and
light pollution from roads on reptiles, disorientation due to artificial lighting obscuring the
natural light of the horizon on developed beaches (e.g., Tuxbury and Salmon 2005) has proven
to be a significant and well-documented hindrance of the ocean-finding ability of hatchling sea
53
turtles (e.g., McFarlane 1963) and nesting females (e.g., Witherington 1992). Much work needs
to be done to assess the overall impacts of artificial lighting at night before informed
recommendations can be made (Perry et al. in press).
Aside from the sources of point and non-point pollution listed above, amphibians and
reptiles are likely to be negatively affected by numerous factors not yet documented such as
physical or atmospheric pollution, predator-prey balance, and parasitism as has been noted for
other forms of wildlife (e.g., Forman et al. 2003). Further, some indirect effects of roads have
not yet even been considered with any wildlife species and will pose unknown challenges for
investigators in the future to determine their ultimate impacts on herpetofauna.
OFF-ROAD ACTIVITY
This issue is of particular concern due to the increase in off-road vehicle production and
the degree of recreational use. In fact, both the USDA Forest Service and National Park Service
are reviewing regulations in efforts to improve land management. Between 1982 and 1986, the
number of all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) sold in the U.S. tripled to more than 2.5 million (Davis et
al. 1999). Accurate estimates regarding the number of vehicles that travel off road are difficult
to attain because in addition to registered off-road vehicles (ORVs), street-licensed vehicles and
unregistered drivers also participate in this recreational activity. Data are lacking and are
generally based on indirect measurements such as fuel reports from state governments (Forman
et al. 2003). An Oak Ridge National Laboratory study suggests that privately owned pickups
and sport-utility vehicles traveled 36.2 billion km and motorcycles traveled 3.1 billion km off-
road in the U.S. in 1997 alone (Davis et al. 1999). Research suggests that ecological impacts are
comparable across vehicle type and are correlated with intensity of use and sensitivity of the
environment (Stokowski and LaPointe 2000). For a comprehensive review covering the
environmental and social effects of ATVs and ORVs see Stokowski and LaPointe (2000).
Although less studied, ORV activity poses a conservation threat to herpetofauna, mainly
through habitat alteration including soil erosion, sedimentation of streams, devegetation, and
decrease in soil moisture. Maxell and Hokit (1999) elaborate on how human recreation off
roads influence herpetofauna through summaries of research conducted in the western U.S.
(www.montanatws.org). For example, population declines of desert tortoises have been
54
attributed to off-road activity (Bury 1980). Furthermore, potential prey decreased in abundance
in response to increased ORV use. Primack (1980) reported that sand compaction associated
with ORV use led to nesting difficulties for turtles in coastal ecosystems, and that some
individuals were disoriented by tire tracks. Iverson et al. (1981) suggest that impacts from
ORVs are numerous and sustained such that even low-use trails might be problematic. They
performed field experiments and found that off-road activity increased the quantity and
frequency of water runoff and erosion as a result of decreased soil porosity, effectiveness of
surface stabilizers, and hydraulic resistance to overland flow. Bury and Luckenbach (2002)
found that ORV activity in the western Mojave Desert resulted in reduced habitat quality for
desert tortoises, as areas unused by ORVs had 3.9 times the plant cover, 3.9 times the desert
tortoises, and 4 times the active tortoise burrows. Busack and Bury (1974) detected a negative
correlation between the abundance of lizard species within 1 hectare plots and the degree of
vegetation damage due to ORVs; the density of individuals also decreased by 85% within areas
of concentrated use compared to control plots (Bury et. al 1977). Off-road activity directly
impacted flat-tailed horned lizard (Phrynosoma mcallii) habitat (Lovich and Bainbridge 1999)
and exhibited indirect effects in behavior modification (Wone and Beauchamp 1995;
Beauchamp et al. 1998). Additionally, flat-tailed horned lizards demonstrated immediate
response to ORV activity with erratic movement patterns (Nicolai and Lovich 2000).
However, the creation and maintenance of recreational trails may provide habitat for
some species. Two studies in Owyhee County, Idaho reported that the density of most reptile
species increased with proximity to motorized vehicle trails (Munger and Ames 2001; Munger
et al. 2003). The trails clear surrounding cheat grass (Bromus tectorum) which the authors
suggest enables swifter movements of reptiles through the road zone. It is noteworthy that the
authors only examined low-use trails; substantial increases in trail use would likely result in the
mortality of individuals attempting to follow the corridor.
Aside from off-road vehicular impacts, off-road activity can consist of management
practices of the surrounding landscape that can also influence movement patterns of animals.
Both natural (e.g., fire) and man-made (e.g., clearcuts, invasive species) disturbances can force
reptiles to retreat to more suitable habitat, which results in a movement burst that can increase
road crossing in search of habitat patches (Bush et al. 1991; Jochimsen 2006a). Bush and
colleagues (1991) also note that fires create more of an impact in areas where the surrounding
55
landscape has been cleared, eliminating suitable retreat habitat during the burn. Roadside
mowing can have negative impacts on surrounding snake populations (massasauga rattlesnakes,
Seigel 1986; plains garter snakes, Dalrymple and Reichenbach 1984) and in general by
perpetually creating disturbance (Varland and Schaefer 1998). Mowing not only incurs direct
mortality of individuals, but reduces cover availability, soil moisture, and prey densities, often
rendering the habitat unsuitable for certain species (Kjoss and Litvaitis 2001). Impacts would
likely be minimized if mowing schedules were organized to coincide with periods of inactivity
for the animals.
SPATIAL EFFECTS
A budding arena of investigation regarding road effects on herpetofauna is the study of
impacts on spatial movements and behaviors. Roads that fragment natural habitats may alter
patch size, dimensions, and landscape configuration (i.e., spatial arrangement of habitats) which
in turn affects wildlife dispersal patterns (Fahrig and Merriam 1994). Barrier effects can occur
when 1) animals are killed on the road in unsustainable numbers such that sufficient
interchange of individuals does not take place; 2) the surrounding habitat quality is reduced
such that animals cannot persist; or 3) animals behaviorally avoid the road, contributing to
isolation and habitat fragmentation. Vehicles can also force wildlife to adapt their behavior
either by posing an impenetrable barrier, in which animals selectively avoid the road due to
awareness to traffic as suggested by Klauber (1931) and other influences on crossing behavior
(Andrews and Gibbons 2005).
Roads serve as a barrier to movement by the mechanism of selective (i.e., genetic or
behavioral) road avoidance. Behavioral avoidance has been documented in wildlife groups
ranging from invertebrates (e.g., snails, Baur and Baur 1990; bumblebees, Bhattacharya et al.
2003; beetles, Keller et al. 2005) to birds (e.g., Laurance et al. 2004) to mammals (e.g., mice,
Mader 1984; wolves, Thurber et al. 1994), but documentation of these occurrences with
herpetofauna is novel. Models show that differing catalysts for avoidance accentuate differing
degrees of vulnerability at the population level (Jaeger et al. 2005a), thereby, indicating a need
for species-level considerations. In more extreme situations, the road forms a complete barrier
as seen in Europe where a restored pond was not recolonized by anurans or salamanders over a
56
period of more than 12 years, despite the fact that populations existed within 150 m of the other
side of the road (Henle 2005).
The degree of permeability, hence the severity of the barrier effect, is specific to the
type of movement being made. For example, movement data collected in Maine on eight
species of amphibians reflect that the highest proportion of movements across roads were natal
dispersals (22.1%) rather than either migratory movements (17.0%) or home-range movements
(9.2%; deMaynadier and Hunter 2000). While anuran movements and habitat use generally
seemed unaffected by wider (i.e., 12 m) logging roads with heavy use (300 vehicles/day),
salamander (i.e., mole salamanders, Ambystoma spp.; red-backed salamanders, Plethodon
serratus; red-spotted newts), species abundance was 2.3 times higher at forest control sites than
at roadside sites (deMaynadier and Hunter 2000).
Roads can hinder amphibian movement (e.g., Gibbs 1998b) and reduction in
permeability can create a partial barrier even on low-use forest roads (e.g., Marsh et al. 2005).
Gibbs (1998b) compared drift-fence captures of frogs and salamanders along the forest edge
with captures in the forest interior to determine relative permeability of forest edges to
amphibian movement. Forest edges associated with roads were less permeable than forest edges
associated with open habitat, suggesting that some woodland amphibians will cross substantial
areas of open land during breeding migrations, if physical barriers such as a road do not inhibit
their movement. Radio-tracked tiger salamanders moved in all directions within surrounding
forest habitat, but avoided open habitats including paved roads, commercial development, and
fields during terrestrial emigrations from breeding ponds (Madison and Farrand 1998).
Road avoidance by reptiles is also an increasingly common finding. Roads have been
shown to restrict the movement patterns of desert tortoise populations (Boarman and Sazaki
1996). Blue-tongued lizards were able to persist in suburban settings via their ability to use
artificial cover and feed on garden species, but were found to actively avoid roads (Koenig et al.
2001). Lastly, although data revealed that land mullets selectively used edge-habitat adjacent to
roads, radio-tracked individuals avoided crossing roads (Klingenböck et al. 2000).
Road avoidance by snakes was suggested by Klauber (1931) and is increasingly being
noted in the literature in the forms of incidental observations (timber rattlesnake, Fitch 1999,
Sealy 2002, and Laidig and Golden 2004), single-species assessments (massasauga rattlesnakes,
Weatherhead and Prior 1992 and Bruce Kingsbury pers. comm.; red-sided garter snakes,
57
Thamnophis parietalis, Shine et al. 2004; tiger rattlesnakes, Crotalus tigris, Goode and Wall
2002; eastern hognose snakes, Heterodon platirhinos, Plummer and Mills 2006) and
interspecific comparisons (nine species, Andrews and Gibbons 2005). Road avoidance could be
attributed to many factors (Andrews and Gibbons 2005), such as vehicular traffic, changes in
microhabitat (e.g., oil residue and scent-trailing implications), and the open space that increases
vulnerability to predators (e.g., Klauber 1931; Fitch 1999; Enge and Wood 2002; Andrews
2004) and is associated with human use (e.g., Sealy 2002). Massasauga rattlesnake occurrence
was strongly correlated with wetlands and coniferous forests and individuals seldom used roads
or trails (only 2% of relocations, Weatherhead and Prior 1992). More specifically, Bruce
Kingsbury (pers. comm.) found that paved roads and road shoulders are almost completely
impermeable to massasauga rattlesnake movement, while gravel roads and mowed paths are
not. Radiotelemetry data on eastern indigo snakes indicated that snakes did not cross paved
roads, although they would readily cross dirt roads and trails (Hyslop et al. 2006). Hyslop and
colleagues also noted that all snake activity (n=32) occurred within boundaries of paved roads,
although six individuals were within 100 m of paved roads. Further, telemetry data from indigo
snakes inhabiting Ross Prairie Reserve in Florida suggest that roads function as a home range
boundary (Daniel J. Smith pers. comm.).
Andrews and Gibbons (2005, 2006) performed experiments that revealed significant
levels of variation among species in road avoidance rates. A correlation was found between the
propensity to cross roads and body length, where smaller snakes had a higher road avoidance
rate. The authors suggested that this finding is likely due to natural behaviors of smaller snakes
to avoid open spaces (but see Kevin Messenger (unpubl. data) who regularly finds southeastern
crowned snakes (Tantilla coronata) crossing roads). Enge and Wood (2002) also speculate that
small secretive species that often occur in high numbers within habitats adjacent to roads may
be reluctant to emerge onto the road surface (see also Klauber 1931; Dodd et al. 1989; Fitch
1999). Seigel and Pilgrim (2002) observed shifts in the composition of snakes crossing roads
after a flood where few adult massasauga rattlesnakes crossed roads; the remaining individuals
that crossed were disproportionately comprised of neonates. Data collected in the area
surrounding the road did not reflect this skew, possibly implying road avoidance.
Further, some animals attempt to cross, but deter and retreat; these individuals or species
are prone to both mortality and road fragmentation since they enter the road, but do not
58
ultimately cross (ringneck snakes, Diadophis punctatus, Andrews and Gibbons 2005). Road
deterrence has also been observed with watersnakes (Nerodia spp.) at Paynes Prairie (Franz and
Scudder 1977). In a mass unidirectional movement catalyzed by drought conditions in Alachua
County, Florida, banded watersnakes (Nerodia fasciata) were observed retreating to the original
side of entry after disturbance from a passing vehicle, but would then attempt to cross again
(Holman and Hill 1961). To our knowledge, published studies on other herpetofaunal taxa
examining road deterrence and other incomplete crossing behaviors are not available.
Genetically-inherited avoidance or learned avoidance of roads has not been directly
documented. However, if a genetic or learned component for response to roads and traffic exists
within species, natural selection can be expected to occur for individuals that are biased towards
behaviors that increase survival. For instance, in areas of greater intact habitat, organisms that
avoid the road would be at a selective advantage (i.e., reducing the chance of mortality)
increasing the chance of breeding successfully. Alternatively, in fragmented landscapes,
individuals that risk crossing roads might be effective breeders. Increasing awareness of the
prevalence of behavioral avoidance of roads within and among amphibian and reptile species
suggests a topic of interest from both ecological and evolutionary perspectives. This occurrence
has been observed with Florida scrub-jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens) which showed a
decreased mortality rate over time, but higher levels of mortality among immigrants who were
inexperienced at living along the road (Mumme et al. 2000). An alternate explanation was that
selective mortality was taking place due to demographic heterogeneity within the population.
Ultimately, the roadside environment only served as a sink as inexperienced fledglings were
killed on roads and the population was maintained by immigrants only.
In summary, indirect impacts from roads on herpetofauna vary considerably within and
among amphibian and reptile taxonomic groups. Many indirect effects of roads are poorly
understood and some have yet to be considered, posing unknown challenges for investigators to
determine their ultimate impacts on wildlife. Potential discoveries of the indirect effects of
roads on herpetofaunal biology promise a wealth of opportunities to conduct meaningful
ecological research applicable to conservation on a global scale.
EFFECTS ON THE HIGHER LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL ORGANIZA TION
59
“ It is the whole range of biodiversity that we must care for – the whole thing – rather than just one or two stars.” -David Attenborough
The difficulty in assessing road impacts at the population and community levels of
biological organization is a consequence of the overall sparseness of available data. Although
we present only what has been documented regarding effects at the population- and community-
levels, potentially all road impacts on individuals, for which extensive data are available in
some areas, may inevitably result in impacts at higher ecological levels if sustained.
POPULATION -LEVEL IMPACTS
Habitat fragmentation has been documented to affect population dynamics and
distributional patterns of amphibians (e.g., Marsh and Trenham 2001) and reptiles (e.g.,
Robinson et al. 1992). Specifically, roads may have an impact on population size and the degree
of isolation through mortality (i.e., direct removal of individuals), edge effects on roadsides that
attract or restrict individuals’ movements, the fragmentation of continuous habitat, and
modification of behaviors that make animals less likely to cross the road successfully. While
these factors have all been discussed throughout this report, most studies have been unable to
apply their findings to the population-level beyond speculative conclusion. Forman and
Alexander (1998) concluded that vehicles are prolific killers of terrestrial vertebrates, but with
the exception of a small number of rare species, roadkills have minimal effect on overall
population size (mostly based on avian and mammalian data). However, our review of the
literature reveals documentation of amphibian and reptile population declines as a result of
direct road mortality and isolation.
The negative repercussions of road impacts on herpetofaunal populations are often
underestimated (Vos and Chardon 1998). One challenge is that the direct and indirect effects of
roads on populations become apparent at different rates. Initial habitat loss and on-road
mortality may have a more pronounced and immediate effect that readily translates to
population declines, while the consequences of effects such as reduced connectivity,
demographic effects, suppressed gene flow, and lower reproductive success would more likely
not be realized for several generations (Findlay and Bourdages 2000; Forman et al. 2003). For
example, breeding in a population of Columbia spotted frogs (Rana luteiventris) at a roadside
60
pond in Yellowstone National Park did not cease until almost two decades after the relocation
of a highway that isolated the breeding pond and summer foraging area from a stream used for
hibernation (Patla and Peterson 1999).
Secondly, natural fluctuations in amphibian and reptile population dynamics require the
perspective of broad temporal and spatial scales to study road effects adequately. For instance,
variation in natural abiotic factors regulates populations of larval and adult amphibians (Wilbur
1980). Therefore, breeding populations of frogs and salamanders fluctuate by as much as 1-2
orders of magnitude among years (Pechmann et al. 1991; Blaustein et al. 1994), with pond-
breeding amphibians experiencing the highest degree of variation in population size (Green
2003). Thus, documenting that a population decline was caused by road phenomena rather than
by natural causes can sometimes be difficult.
Lastly, as roads are the enablers for further habitat conversion and landscape
development, detrimental effects on populations also occur secondarily (Riitters and Wickham
2003) and indefinitely. Urbanization is the most drastic form of subsequent development, but
even biologically conservative landscape changes such as silviculture practices can have
negative impacts. In Florida, silviculture was implicated in a population decline of flatwoods
salamanders (Ambystoma cingulatum), where the largest known breeding migration of this
species was reported (Means et al. 1996). The reported silvicultural impacts on salamander
populations would not have been achieved without the building of roads to permit successful
tree farming.
Species persistence in fragmented landscapes is dependent on ecological strategy. For
example, habitat generalists may be able to adapt better to altered conditions created by roads
than are specialists (geckos, Sarre et al. 1995; snakes, Kjoss and Litvaitis 2001). Further, the
impact of road mortality is particularly detrimental on animal populations of long-lived species
that exhibit low annual recruitment, delayed reproduction, and high adult survivorship,
strategies exhibited by many turtles. The persistence of many anuran populations is dependent
on juvenile recruitment and survivorship (Sinsch 1992; Semlitsch 2000; Hels and Nachman
2002; Joly et al. 2003). Hels and Nachman (2002) modeled the probability of subpopulation
persistence of spadefoot toads (Pelobates fuscus) in a fragmented landscape in Denmark and
found that persistence probability was most sensitive to the rate of juvenile survivorship.
61
Traffic density has been indicated as influencing population persistence in anurans. The
abundance of roadside anuran populations in Ottawa, Canada was negatively correlated with
traffic volume (Fahrig et al. 1995). Vos and Chardon (1998) also found a negative correlation
between population persistence and road and traffic densities with moor frogs. Conversely, a
road-cruising survey conducted over eight years in Kouchibouguac National Park, Canada did
not detect a decreasing trend in amphibian abundance despite high levels of road mortality,
which could be a factor of local population resiliency, moderate traffic volumes, or sampling
limitations (Mazerolle 2004). Regardless, the author cautions that the effects of roads with low
traffic volumes should not be underestimated.
Salamander populations have also exhibited decreased abundances as a result of roads.
Further, there is evidence that unpaved forest roads may have detrimental population-level
effects (Gucinski et al. 2001). In the southern Appalachians of Virginia, red-backed
salamanders exhibited decreased abundances for 20-80 m into the forest habitat adjacent to
roads (Marsh and Beckman 2004). However, the authors did not detect a response to the forest
roads from the sympatric and congeneric slimy salamanders (Plethodon glutinosus, Plethodon
cylindraceus). Also, Semlitsch and colleagues (2006) noted decreased abundances of woodland
salamanders (Plethodon spp.) near roads and further found that roadside individuals tended to
be large. The authors suggest a 35 m road-effect zone exists on either side of narrow, low use
forest roads.
Due to the long-lived nature of turtles, road effects would presumably have a delayed
effect at the population level and have not yet been adequately documented with field data.
Road mortality is well documented for eastern box turtles (McClure 1951; Dodd et al. 1989), a
species whose populations may not be able to sustain annual loss of adults (Doroff and Keith
1990). The development of residential areas and a four-lane highway in Virginia resulted in
continual road mortality in an isolated population of chicken turtles (Deirochelys reticularia;
Mitchell 1994; Buhlmann 1995). Boarman and Sazaki (1996, 2006) conducted transect surveys
to measure signs of desert tortoise activity as an indicator of population density and noted
reduced activity within 400-800 m from the edge of California Highway 58. Activity reduction
in this species was further noted to be affected by traffic level (von Seckendorff Hoff and
Marlow 2002). Similarly, according to population estimates, densities of western painted turtles
(Chrysemys picta) were depressed within close distances of the highway (Fowle 1996). A
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landscape model by Gibbs and Shriver (2002) indicated that population-level vulnerability to
roads is influenced by the dispersal and migratory patterns resulting from differing ecological
strategies and habitat association, with terrestrial and semi-terrestrial land turtles (Terrapene)
being more susceptible to road mortality than most pond turtles (Chelydra, Chrysemys). The
authors further estimate that roads result in annual mortality rates of more than 5% of
individuals in populations of terrestrial and large-bodied turtles. Cumulative rates of mortality
for these species should not exceed 2-3% to achieve healthy population growth and
maintenance (Doroff and Keith 1990; Brooks et al. 1991, Congdon et al. 1993, 1994).
Declines have also been documented in several snake species. Expansion of the San
Diego-Tijuana highway in the early 20th century resulted in an apparent decline of snakes in the
surrounding area as exhibited by a marked decrease in roadkill numbers over four years
(Klauber 1939). Rudolph et al. (1998) noted that the distribution of timber rattlesnakes was
negatively correlated with road density in eastern Texas. Trapping results revealed that
population sizes of timber rattlesnakes and Louisiana pine snakes (Pituophis ruthveni) were
reduced by approximately 50% up to a distance of 450 m from roads with moderate traffic
volume and trapping arrays suggest that abundance is limited up to a kilometer from the road
(Rudolph et al. 1999). A two-year (1999-2000) monitoring study on massasauga rattlesnakes in
Illinois revealed an estimated population size between 65 and 72 individuals (Chris Phillips
pers. comm.). Vehicular traffic accounted for 60% of the 28 known cases of mortality that
occurred during August, a rate of mortality that is likely to further contribute to the endangered
status of this species. Roe and colleagues (2006), using a model by Hels and Buchwald (2001),
detected a higher probability (14-20% of annual population mortality) of road mortality for the
wide-ranging and imperiled copperbelly watersnake than the more sedentary northern
watersnake (Nerodia sipedon, 3-5% mortality), further portraying how impacts must
incorporate the ecological strategies of the species of concern.
However, some studies have not detected any shifts in snake abundance due to roads. In
an investigation of how wetland distances from roads influence northern watersnake abundance,
no significant effect was found, which the authors attributed to a lower vagility as this species
does not depend on forest area as much as other watersnake species that rely on moving
between wetlands (Attum et al. 2006). Lastly, Sullivan (2000) detected similar abundances of
snakes along a 19-km transect of road surveyed in the 1970s and 1990s, with the exception of
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gopher snakes, despite an increase in traffic levels, off-road vehicle use, grazing, and human
predation.
Demographic Effects on Populations
Many amphibians and reptiles exhibit intraspecific variation in ecological requirements
and strategies between sexes (e.g., Johnson 2003; Koenig et al. 2001; Morreale et al. 1984;
Reinert and Zappalorti 1988), across life history stages (e.g., deMaynadier and Hunter 1999;
Jochimsen 2006b), and among seasons (e.g., Carpenter and Delzell 1951; Gibbons and
Semlitsch 1987; Dalrymple et al. 1991). Different responses to impacts from urbanization and
road development lead to skewed population structure in amphibians and reptiles via altered sex
ratios and composition of age classes. Intraspecific variation in road impacts can often be linked
to spatial and temporal attributes of movement, which can most often be correlated with the
mating system. For instance, males of polygynous species are often more risk prone as they are
responsible for courting and defending multiple females within a territory, as seen with West
Indian rock iguanas (Cyclura lewisi) on Grand Cayman Island (Goodman et al. 2005).
Differential direct mortality of the sexes on roads undoubtedly occurs also within
amphibians. For instance, male-biased road mortality constituted 1.4 – 2.0% of the estimated
population of breeding long-toed salamanders (Ambystoma macrodactylum) which the authors
suggested was a possible contributor to a female-biased (3:1) sex ratio (Fukumoto and Herrero
1998). From a biological perspective, natural differences in behaviors exist that would
presumably result in differential road effects. For instance, the crawling speed of gravid females
of some species is slower than that of males (spotted salamanders, Finkler et al. 2003).
An increasing amount of data are emerging that present substantial removal of adult
female turtles due to tendencies to nest in road shoulders, in some instances leading to male-
biased populations surrounding roads. Female diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin)
using the road shoulder for nesting habitat in New Jersey experienced a rate of road mortality
that exceeded the rate of replacement, and resulted in substantial decreases in the numbers of
mature females encountered (Wood and Herlands 1997). Road mortality that was
disproportionately higher for female diamondback terrapins was also observed by Szerlag and
McRobert (2006a, 2006b). Aresco (2005a) documented male-biased populations that were
coincident with rates of road mortality that were biased towards nesting females for three
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species of freshwater turtles (Florida cooters, Pseudemys floridana; common musk turtles,
Sternotherus odoratus; yellow-bellied sliders, Trachemys scripta) at Lake Jackson in Florida.
Marchand and Litvaitis (2004) documented a positive correlation between the proportion of
male painted turtles and road density in New Hampshire, which they attributed to female-biased
road mortality. Steen and Gibbs (2004) documented a correlation between male-biased sex
ratios (painted turtles, common snapping turtles, Chelydra serpentina) and high road densities
in New York, although they observed no influence on morphology or abundance. In a nation-
wide comparison of data collected from turtles on-roads versus off-roads, a female bias (61%)
was consistently observed on-roads relative to off-road data (41%; Steen et al. 2006). Although
correlations with abundance have not been found in these studies (Steen and Gibbs 2004;
Marchand and Litvaitis 2004), documentation of a female bias in road mortality suggests future
population instability and reduced reproduction. Further, Gibbs and Steen (2005) performed a
meta-analysis on 36 species of U.S. turtles and found that population sex ratios have become
increasingly male-biased over time, a trend that was correlated with an increase in road
coverage area. Although nesting female eastern box turtles in suburban areas in South Carolina
were observed crossing roads at a higher frequency than males, no change in population sex
ratios was confirmed and the population continued to persist (Brisbin et al. in press). Female
oblong turtles (Chelodina oblonga) in the suburbs of Perth, Australia, experienced differential
mortality rates while crossing roads in attempts to nest in residential gardens (Guyot and
Kuchling 1998). Although skewed sex ratios were not documented in the latter two populations,
disproportionate losses among the sexes as a consequence of sex-biased mortality rates could be
unsustainable despite the ability of the species to persist initially in human-dominated
environments.
Conversely, with snakes, a higher proportion of males are killed on roads, which could
have a destabilizing effect on local populations, although the trends are not as consistent as
observed with turtles. Data on six species of French snakes (whip snake, Coluber viridiflavus;
Aesculapian snake, Elaphe longissima; viperine snake, Natrix maura; grass snake, N. natrix;
aspic viper, Vipera aspis; adder, Vipera berus) correlates road mortality frequencies with
periods of movement, which vary among sexes, but found an overall higher propensity for
males, which move longer distances, to be killed (Bonnet et al. 1999). Road mortality in male
timber rattlesnakes in North Carolina is suggested as a significant cause in population decline
65
and the mechanism for a female-biased skew in the sex ratio (Sealy 2002). This pattern with
timber rattlesnakes was also observed on roads in eastern Texas (Rudolph and Burgdorf 1997).
The presence and degree of sex-biased road mortality varies across species and regions.
For example, Sherbrooke (2002) found an overall male bias in road captures of Texas horned
lizard (Phrynosoma cornutum), although Moeller and colleagues (2005) detected a higher
average number of females on roads. In an analysis of 15 species of snakes in South Carolina,
seven species exhibited significant male-biased mortality whereas eight species showed no
significant difference in mortality rates among sexes (Andrews and Gibbons in press). On a
road transect survey through Everglades National Park in Florida, males were more common in
four species, females were more common in four, and one species exhibited no differences in
road-capture frequencies among the sexes (Dalrymple et al. 1991). Further, Titus (2006)
observed overall uniform capture rates of male and female copperheads, although temporal
variation in movement patterns was observed across the sexes.
Movement patterns vary among age classes as well as between the sexes and could
presumably result in variation in road mortality rates, although the phenomenon has been
poorly documented in both amphibians and reptiles. Existing information on age-biased road
mortality trends in reptiles is heavily biased towards snakes. In Idaho, adult male gopher snakes
were more susceptible to road mortality during spring emergence from hibernacula, while
dispersing subadults accounted for 74% of autumn mortality (Jochimsen 2006b). Bonnet and
colleagues (1999) found a higher likelihood of neonatal road mortality during post-hatching
dispersal (Coluber and Natrix). Pulses of juveniles and young-of-year were observed in the
autumn in four species (Dalrymple et al. 1991). Enge and Wood (2002) found concentrations of
neonate mortality in late summer and early autumn. Brito and Álvares (2004) observed a pulse
of road-killed immature vipers (Vipera latastei and Vipera seoanei) in the spring, which they
attributed to increased dispersal rates following hibernation, although they noted a higher
overall mortality rate for adults. Lastly, more adult copperheads were observed on roads in
western Kentucky than juveniles (Titus 2006).
In conclusion, little is understood regarding demographic effects of roads on
amphibians, while data are clearly demonstrating global trends for reptiles. The consequences
of sex and age structure modifications within populations and the ultimate alteration of
demographic patterns as a result are unknown at this time. However, sex ratios of reptiles and
66
probably amphibians can clearly be altered due to the presence of roads, and influences on age
structures are likely. Seasonality appears to be the primary determinant of differential impacts
among sexes and age classes as temporal patterns are a critical mechanism driving movement
peaks. The variation in sex and age biases in road captures needs greater exploration for the
necessary translation to population-level demographic impacts from roads.
Genetic Effects on Populations Amphibian and reptile taxa often have restricted or disjunct distributions and small
population sizes. Further, many species rely on dispersal and migration to maintain population
connectivity, increasing vulnerability to local extinction due to landscape change (e.g., Marsh
and Trenham 2001) and a decreased ability to recolonize (Rodriguez et al. 1996). Barrier effects
created by roads hamper gene flow, reducing genetic diversity and increasing inbreeding rates,
an effect that is particularly dramatic in smaller populations (e.g., Lande 1988). Even if
individuals are observed crossing roads, genetic differentiation may occur if these individuals
do not reproduce (mammals, Riley et al. 2006; Strasburg 2006). Therefore, we suggest that the
monitoring of mitigation success should consider both movement and genetic connectivity.
However, despite the significance of these potential effects, few studies have
empirically documented genetic effects due to roads on herpetofauna. In Germany, habitat
division by highways reduced both average heterozygosity and genetic polymorphism of
common frog populations, which appeared to be highly inbred as a result (Reh 1989; Reh and
Seitz 1990). Further, genetic exchange occurred in the absence of roads between populations
separated by 3-7 km of grassland or up to 40 km of ditches, but roads reduced gene flow in
populations that were less than 4 km apart (Reh 1989). Reduced heterozygosity was also
observed in agile frogs (Rana dalmatina) in ponds near highways in western France
(Lesbarrères et al. 2003). Further, roads in urban environments reduced genetic diversity and
abundance in common toad populations in Britain (Scribner et al. 2001).
Gene flow also appears to be significantly constrained by the presence of urban areas
and roads. In common frogs in Britain, population subdivision values were more than double
among urban sites compared to rural sites (Hitchings and Beebee 1997) and urban sites
demonstrated lower genetic diversity and higher inbreeding in comparison with rural areas
(Hitchings and Beebee 1998). Based on a study that used microsatellites, Rowe et al. (2000)
67
suggested that the presence of urban areas resulted in greater genetic differentiation in
natterjack toads (Bufo calamita) than would be expected by separation occurring simply from
distance. Vos et al. (2001) used microsatellites to investigate effects of roads on gene flow in
moor frogs and also found that road presence increased the genetic differentiation between
populations, although extreme subdivision among the populations was not detected. The
interpretation of these data is problematic as anthropogenic effects may be confounded by
historical patterns of population subdivision and therefore, it may be difficult to determine the
exact contribution of road effects on genetic structure (e.g., Cunningham and Moritz 1998; Vos
et al. 2001). Furthermore, if a barrier has only recently existed, then it may take several
generations before genetic differentiation is detected. In this case, direct monitoring through
radiotelemetry or mark-recapture may be more valuable. However, in the instance of the study
by Vos and colleagues (2001), fragmentation of the study area had existed for more than 60
years and microsatellites are generally sensitive genetic markers. For example, data from
microsatellite markers from a population of voles showed genetic differentiation around a 50-
year-old highway (Gerlach and Musolf 2000). A combination of techniques could be
advantageous for assessments across broader biological, temporal, and spatial scales. In
Australia, van der Ree and colleagues (2006) employed microsatellites, while using natural
history data from radiotelemetry and trapping techniques to complement the genetic data. Such
information will assist in parameterizing quantitative models that can predict effects on
population viability from reduced dispersal from landscape barriers, such as roads (van der Ree
et al. 2006).
Although virtually all genetic studies of road impacts on herpetofauna heretofore have
focused on amphibians, reptiles likely sustain comparable genetic impacts from roads. Life
history traits such as long life spans, low reproductive rates, and delayed maturity of many
reptile species increase the difficulty in discerning the role that roads and urban fragmentation
have on genetic isolation. Nonetheless, modern genetic approaches offer great potential for
providing insight into how roads affect populations of both amphibians and reptiles. This
increase in technological ability will allow for more accurate genetic investigations of
populations surrounding roads, thereby permitting impact assessments within populations as
applicable to an evolutionary time scale. Additionally, the emergence of landscape genetics has
merged the arenas of population genetics and landscape ecology (Manel et al. 2003). This
68
approach aims to assess population substructure at fine taxonomic levels across varying
geographic scales, which can be achieved by detecting genetic discontinuities (i.e., distinct
genetic change within a geographic zone) as they are correlated with environmental features,
including barriers such as mountains, temperature gradients, or roads.
COMMUNITY -LEVEL IMPACTS
Herpetofaunal species richness has been correlated with landscape-level variables, such
as spatial configuration of habitats (including the presence of core and buffer habitats) and road
density (Dickman 1987; Findlay and Houlahan 1997; Halley et al. 1996; Vos and Stumpel
1996; Knutson et al. 1999; Lehtinen et al. 1999). It follows that patch characteristics and the
surrounding landscape composition can be predictors of species presence and abundance
(Mazerolle and Villard 1999). Species assemblages are therefore affected in fragmented
habitats when landscape connectivity is reduced.
Data on community-level impacts on herpetofauna are lacking in general, especially
with reptiles. Herpetofaunal biodiversity was positively correlated with forest cover and
wetland area, but was negatively correlated with paved road density in a study in southeastern
Ontario (Findlay and Houlahan 1997). Amphibian species richness is particularly sensitive to
fragmentation due to individual movements among ponds, where assemblage composition has
been linked to the distance to the nearest neighboring pond and amphibian dispersal ability
(Vos and Stumpel 1996; Halley et al. 1996). In a model based on survey data, tiger salamander
occurrence and overall species richness was negatively correlated with paved road density
within 1 km of a wetland (Porej et al. 2004).
The amount of urban land cover in general has consistently been shown to influence
species assemblages, which often correlates with increased road density and wetland isolation, a
finding that supports the species-area hypothesis (MacArthur and Wilson 1967). Species
richness of amphibians and reptiles in habitat patches bordered by roads or other artificial
boundaries in the city of Oxford showed a positive correlation with patch size and negative
correlation with distance from permanent water source (Dickman 1987). Kjoss and Litvaitis
(2001) sampled early-successional habitats bordered by idle agricultural lands, edges of
industrial sites, powerline corridors and highways and found that species richness and
abundance of snakes increased with increasing patch size, although the proportion of large-
69
bodied individuals on small patches was greater. Minton (1968) performed a survey of
herpetofauna in a suburban area of Indianapolis, Indiana. Results indicated that land clearing,
ground cover removal, aquatic habitat modification, isolation by roads that reduced access to
breeding and hibernacula, and direct killing by man in developed areas all have negative
impacts on species composition. While some species of herpetofauna can persist in urban areas,
it is likely contingent upon prey base persistence and the retention of breeding and over-
wintering locations. All of these biologically important features are affected negatively for most
species as a result of the construction and use of roads, as they become barriers to access and
also result in sustained road mortality.
Species shifts have been attributed to changes in vegetation type and cover along
roadsides. For instance, the presence of two new species (corn snakes; rough green snakes,
Opheodrys aestivus) at Paynes Prairie, Florida along Highway 441 and a three-fold increase in
the number of Florida cottonmouths are suggested to have occurred in response to habitat
changes adjacent to the road edge (Franz and Scudder 1977; Smith and Dodd 2003). Shifts in
the abundance of snake species in the desert grasslands of Arizona and New Mexico were
attributed to succession of vegetation communities along bordering highways (Mendelson and
Jennings 1992). Enge and Wood (2002) performed a comparison of Florida snake communities
in xeric upland habitats using drift fences located in both intact and disturbed sandhill and xeric
habitats. Forty-six percent of southern hognose snakes were found on road segments bordered
by disturbed habitats, although such segments covered only 21% of the survey route. Despite
documentation of 18 species in the survey, drift fence data referenced from protected areas
showed that rough green snakes, southern hognose snakes, and Florida brown snakes (Storeria
dekayi) were seldom captured in drift fences although they were frequently observed during
road surveys and comprised 43% of the observed road mortality, suggesting a concentration of
these species along roadsides. Lastly, construction of an impoundment and dyke in Ontario
increased water depth and circulation altered plant communties, causing subsequent shifts in the
amphibian and reptiles species noted along the bordering causeway (Ashley and Robinson
1996).
Analyses of road impacts on herpetofauna at ecological scales higher than the individual
or species are inherently difficult because larger, more significant impacts on populations and
communities are not instantaneous. As with populations, cumulative effects that roads may
70
have on local wildlife communities may take decades to become apparent. Due to natural
fluctuations across spatial and temporal scales, effective analyses require long-term research.
This factor further complicates our assessment as many of the existing studies were only
monitored over a short period of time and were not repeated. However, Findlay and Bourdages
(2000) found that species richness in wetlands corresponded with historical road density
estimates from 30 to 40 years prior to the survey, rather than recent densitites. In a 25-year
assessment of amphibian and reptile populations at the John F. Kennedy Space Center in
Florida, all species present during the 1970s surveys were detected again during the 1990s with
the exception of the eastern hognose snake (Seigel et al. 2002). However, road survey data
detected shifts in species composition in addition to an overall decline in snake abundance,
particularly in cottonmouths and Florida green watersnakes (Nerodia floridana). Suggested
factors were habitat loss, fragmentation, and cumulative road mortality.
Ecological modeling offers an outlet to predict long-term effects from data analysis of
short-term surveys. However, the full extent of road impacts will be realized only through data
collection at population and community levels. Unfortunately, long-term research is usually
complicated by the availability of time and funding. Further, this limited resource availability
discourages ideal experimental designs for more complex scales and long-term data collection.
The challenge in measuring the range of road effects across temporal scales should be noted for
biologically valid data extrapolations.
SOLUTIONS
“What is the use of running when we are not on the right road?” –German proverb
The continued expansion of our road network contributes to landscape fragmentation,
which is recognized as one of the major threats to biodiversity (Forman 1995). Consequently,
scientists, conservation advocates, and agencies are driven to design various pre- or post-
construction measures to prevent, mitigate, or compensate for road impacts on surrounding
habitats and wildlife (Forman et al. 2003). This section will discuss a variety of options
available to minimize road impacts on herpetofauna and summarize research related to the
effectiveness of these efforts and factors that define project success.
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POST-CONSTRUCTION M ITIGATION
Internationally, road systems were designed and constructed primarily in the “pre-
ecological era,” prior to the understanding that superimposing this infrastructure would disrupt
ecological systems of horizontal flows and biological diversity (Forman 1998). Hence the
majority of solutions are applied post-construction. Here, we define mitigation as the process by
which a solution is devised for an existing road that attempts to reduce road mortality or assist
in re-establishing connectivity. The majority of mitigation projects have focused on larger
mammalian fauna, but over the past two decades the drive to develop methods to mitigate road
effects on amphibians and reptiles has increased. The synthesis by Jochimsen et al. (2004)
provides a composite summary of the various mitigation structures based on descriptions
provided by Jackson (1996), Forman et al. (2003), and the USFS website - Wildlife Crossings
Toolkit (www.wildlifecrossings.info).
Road closure and signage are some of the least expensive mitigation techniques,
although not necessarily the most convenient, effective, or biologically valuable. While road
closure is often pondered as an option to reduce impacts, it is usually only feasible in remote
areas with limited public access, such as protected forests and refuges (e.g., Arroyo toads, Bufo
californicus, Eastwood and Winter 2006). Road closure has proven effective in some areas,
particularly when the closure only occurs during parts of the year in association with
predictable migrations (Seigel 1986; Podlucky 1989; Ballard 1994). However, closing roads can
often poses driver inconvenience, which can ultimately result in antagonism for wildlife-
protection measures with roads.
Road signage has likely been most effective in raising local awareness of wildlife-road
interactions. However, it does not necessarily reduce mortality as many drivers disregard signs
and fail to reduce speeds, consequently running over animals (e.g., red-sided garter snakes,
Thamnophis sirtalis, CARCNET, www.carcnet.ca). Studies suggest that signage has been
ineffective in ten states in the U.S. and two places in Canada (TranSafety, Inc. 1997).
The installation of culverts (i.e., underpasses, ecopassages) in conjunction with barrier
fences is commonly used to increase road permeability and reduce on-road mortality.
Underpasses placed with guide fencing have become the most common mitigation structure as
overpasses are not ideal for amphibians and reptiles due to avoidance of exposed areas (but see
72
Teufert et al. 2005). The use of the culvert and fencing design with herpetofauna was initiated
in Europe at the Toad Tunnel Conference in Germany in 1989 that addressed topics including
mortality of amphibians, tunnel design, and structural characteristics that influenced animal
passage (Langton 1989). The general functions of these structures are to provide safe passage
for an animal across the road and to enhance connectivity between fragmented habitats (Forman
et al. 2003). Similar culvert designs have also been applied to railways (Pelletier et al. 2006).
Further, several European countries have successfully used pipes and directive rails (Germany),
fine-meshed fencing (France and Netherlands), and concrete trenches (Switzerland) to direct
amphibians to culverts rather than using expensive concrete barrier walls (Bank et al. 2002). In
addition, the potential for non-wildlife-engineered passages to be adapted for wildlife use is
often overlooked (Forman et al. 2003). Such structures may provide important linkages across
landscapes for various species (Rodríguez et al. 1996), and recent studies have evaluated this
potential (e.g., Aresco 2005b; Mata et al. 2005; Ascensão and Mira 2006). However, fences and
culverts may be limited in the objective of reestablishing connectivity with animals that exhibit
high road avoidance (Jaeger and Fahrig 2004).
Innovative approaches are evolving in regards to mitigation design. For instance, while
many projects monitor road mortality alone to determine culvert placement, a project in Poland
supplemented field data by conducting interviews with local park officials to identify precise
locations of amphibian choruses and breeding ponds (Brodziewska 2006). Massachusetts
Department of Transportation (DOT) performed a two-year pre-construction survey for a new
highway alignment and determined that it would impact three turtle species (wood turtles,
Clemmys insculpta; spotted turtles, Clemmys guttata; eastern box turtles, Kaye et al. 2006).
They then adapted a culvert design that was subsequently shown to be initially effective
through radiotelemetry and thread bobbin trailing.
Despite the initiatives to address road and wildlife conflicts over the past three decades,
knowledge regarding the ultimate effectiveness of mitigation efforts is generally lacking (Mata
et al. 2005). Furthermore, evaluation studies tend to focus on mammal passage and are not very
rigorous by design. The majority of studies simply compare pre-versus post-construction
measurements of road mortality and typically concentrate on one species. Few develop and test
hypotheses, or list predetermined criteria that provide a basis from which to assess passage
performance (Forman et al. 2003). Evaluations of passage effectiveness in terms of connecting
73
landscapes and natural processes are often based solely on total count measurements of
individuals observed crossing. Forman et al. (2003) emphasize that future studies need to place
observations in a population context (abundance and distributions in the vicinity) across broad
time scales (frequency of crossing).
In addition to diminution of road casualties, for a project to be deemed truly successful
it must also restore ecological processes. Goals of a successful mitigation project include
(Forman et al. 2003): (1) reduction of roadkill rates post-mitigation efforts; (2) maintenance of
habitat connectivity; (3) persistence of gene flow among populations; (4) affirmation that
biological requirements are met; (5) allowance for dispersal and recolonization; (6)
maintenance of metapopulation processes and ecosystem function. Encouragingly, a general
survey summarizing the status of North American mitigation regimes found increases in the
number of species considered in projects, monitoring time of structures, and the number and
diversity of participants solicited in the process (Cramer and Bissonette 2006). In Table 4 we
summarize case studies (organized alphabetically) that attempt to address these criteria in
assessment of various mitigation efforts. Several of these projects were published within peer-
reviewed journals, or symposia proceedings, while others were discovered within on-line
databases or websites.
Furthermore, research reveals that multiple variables ranging from fine-scale
microhabitat conditions to broad-scale landscape context can affect structure efficacy (Table 5).
Several recent studies have been designed to compare structure efficacy by examining use
across structure type and design (Mata et al. 2005; Ascensão and Mira 2006). We stress that
species may differ in their preferences and each case needs to be evaluated on an individual
basis as best as possible (e.g., Lesbarrères et al. 2004; Wright in press).
Once in place, crossing structures must be monitored and evaluated to determine their
conservation value and ecological performance (e.g., Clevenger 2005). Regular monitoring is
necessary to ensure accessibility to passage entrances (e.g., Puky 2004) and identify
maintenance needs (e.g., Jackson and Griffin 2000). In fact, some highway projects have
delegated funds for long-term management into budgets during the planning phases of
development (Cuperus et al. 1999). Vegetation may need to be maintained, in order to prevent
trespass over the fence for some species, particularly hylid frogs or others with climbing ability
(Ryser and Grossenbacher 1989; Dodd et al. 2004), although, some species will be capable of
74
trespass regardless of maintenance (Aresco 2005b). Further, erosion should be controlled and
monitored as it readily occurs along the base of the fence resulting in areas where animals can
trespass (Roof and Wooding 1996). van der Grift (2005) states that monitoring studies provide
evidence that passages are frequently used by a variety of wildlife species, but only if regularly
inspected and maintained. He also recommends that in order to judge the success of mitigation
measures, future monitoring studies must assess their long-term influence on population
viability.
Additionally, predator aggregations may form at culvert openings, an instance that could
potentially result in mortality levels comparable or greater to that experienced with road
mortality. This effect may not be exhibited within the first year following culvert construction
as it results from learned behavior of the predators, and therefore requires longer-term
monitoring for detection. This occurrence may eventually lead to prey avoidance of the culverts
(e.g., Little et al. 2002), in which instance the culverts become ineffective at restoring landscape
connectivity. Further, prey may temporally shift activity patterns as a predator avoidance
strategy (Little et al. 2002). Little et al. (2002) present observational evidence of these two
occurrences and urge for more research into these responses. Finally, human access to
mitigation structures and areas should be restricted to reduce site disturbance and illegal
collection, in addition to protect human safety along road shoulders (Dodd et al. 2004; Aresco
2005b).
PROACTIVE PLANNING
Post-construction mitigation measures serve only as a second option as they do little to
minimize, remove, or avoid the majority of indirect effects of roads, and because retrofitting is
more costly, both fiscally and environmentally. Integrated planning is regarded as one
important area in which we need to make significant advances in order to design sustainable
transport systems (e.g., Clevenger 2005). Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can help
identify potential problem areas prior to the blueprint stage of road planning (Clevenger et al.
2002; White and Ernst 2003) thereby avoiding construction in ecologically sensitive places.
Selection of mapping datasets is an important consideration in addressing ecological impact due
to scale issues and variation in the level of inclusion of minor roads across datasets (e.g.,
Hawbaker and Radeloff 2004). Landscape-level planning will better enable the retention of
75
ecological function amidst development. Forman and Collinge (1997) define spatial planning,
as “a pattern of ecosystem or land uses that will conserve the bulk of, and the most important
attributes of, biodiversity and natural processes in any region, landscape or major portion
thereof,” and suggest it as an important approach when 10-40% of the natural vegetation has
been removed.
Animals that exhibit spatial patterns of road mortality enable the identification of
crossing hotspots and predictive modeling options that can direct mitigation designs (e.g.,
Ramp et al. 2005). Combining GIS map layers of wildlife habitat and design blueprints can
identify overlap between road design plans and sensitive habitats or species (Clevenger et al.
2002) allowing for the consideration of alternative routes that would reduce roadkill and
increase connectivity. Further, as all members of the wildlife community can not be fully
assessed in the planning and impact assessment phases, target species must be selected. Forman
(1995) suggests a selection of two species: the largest animal that may be using the passages,
and the one that is most sensitive to road barrier effects. Jaeger et al. (2005b) proposes that the
modeling of critical thresholds above which a population is prone to extinction can assist in
setting environmental standards to reduce fragmentation. However, in many instances, the
ecological data necessary to achieve confident modeling results are not available. Further, long-
term planning would ideally incorporate not only current designs but future anthropogenic
change as projected by localized population and development growth estimates.
Dialogues and activities between professional and citizen sectors are arising with
increasing frequency. Training sessions on biological and engineering techniques have been
organized (e.g., Jacobson and Brennan 2006), some of which are focused specifically on
amphibians and reptiles (e.g., Michael N. Marchand pers. comm.). In the Netherlands, the
problem of habitat fragmentation due to transport corridors is being addressed by a Long-Term
Defragmentation Programme (van der Grift 2005) where population viability modeling and
local knowledge serve to prioritize mitigation measures (i.e., locations where wildlife passages
are most urgently required). On a smaller scale, North Carolina DOT and NC State Parks joined
biologists to discuss the impact of a planned road through Gorges State Park on a timber
rattlesnake rookery and a high density of eastern box turtles. The agencies agreed to move the
road over 100 m immediately away from the critical habitat and install culverts and guider
fences (John Sealy pers. comm.). In Vermont, the eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) was
76
thought to be extirpated but was recently discovered along Interstate 91, an event that has
catalyzed collaborative radiotracking and mark-recapture programs between VTrans, FHWA,
Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife, and the Vermont Department of Forest and Parks
(Slesar and Andrews 2006).
Consideration of wildlife ecology and movement corridors during the process of road
planning ultimately reduces construction costs by avoiding costs associated with mitigative
structures, which may total millions of dollars. Developing ecological initiatives in planning
stage is critical; however, this timing is challenging as awareness of projects often emerges
once construction has been initiated, which is beyond the period when designs can be adjusted.
Many European countries have established national policies that require formal ecological
evaluations of potential projects (Seiler and Eriksson 1997). Transportation and environmental
agencies in Switzerland have initiated a defragmentation program that involves the
identification and restoration of areas where road infrastructure bisects critical wildlife habitat
(Trocmé 2006). In the U.S., Florida has been a leader in proactive planning through the
development of an interagency “Efficient Transportation Decision Making Process” (ETDM;
White and Ernst 2003). Ultimately, the success of mitigating the effects of roads on wildlife and
habitats will depend on effective communication and cooperation between government
agencies, engineers, local citizen communities, non-profit organizations, and scientists.
Transportation designs should be based on the needs of the local human populace and
wildlife for a plan that targets the desirable and ecologically-sustainable level of urbanization;
therefore, much of the decision process should be designed and enforced at the local level (e.g.,
FHWA 2004). A steering committee of eight federal agencies, including FHWA, U.S. Army
Corp of Engineers, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, NOAA National Marine Fisheries, Bureau
of Land Management, National Park Service, and U.S. Forest Service, produced a report to
assist in transportation designs at the ecosystem level (Eco-Logical: An Ecosystem Approach to
Developing Infrastructure Projects;
http://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov/ecological/eco_index.asp). Citizen initiation in dealing
with road issues has increased (e.g., Nelson et al. 2006), likely due to an increased awareness
regarding ecological problems associated with roads and the availability of alternatives.
CONCLUSIONS
77
“ The idea of wilderness needs no defense. It only needs more defenders.” -Edward Abbey
Ecologists, engineers, government officials, and the general public are increasingly
aware that roads create ecological disturbance and destruction to wildlife at multiple levels. The
approach in the U.S. has been to alleviate traffic problems by building new roads, an action that
is rarely effective, often generating new traffic instead of dispersing existing volumes (e.g.,
Pfleiderer and Dieterich 1995). Until 2005, when the Bush administration overturned the
Roadless Areas Ruling (enacted in 2001 by President Clinton), national forests were protected
from further road development and retained fairly intact roadless areas, an important aspect that
maintains regional connectivity (Strittholt and Dellasala 2001). Consequently, no U.S. areas
outside of established wilderness are protected on a federal level from this expanding
infrastructure. As in North America, herpetofauna throughout the world have the potential to be
negatively influenced by roads as a consequence of urbanization, either directly from on-road
mortality or indirectly through ecological impacts, particularly increased human accessibility to
both protected and public landscapes.
Knowledge pertaining to road effects on herpetofauna no longer consists only of on-
road mortality. The range, quantity and, potentially, the severity, of indirect impacts of roads
and urban development on amphibians and reptiles far exceed those incurred from direct
mortality of wildlife. Huge gaps exist in our knowledge of secondary environmental effects on
wildlife. Further, designing controlled and replicated experiments in urban and suburban
settings is challenging, due to the complex spatial mosaic and political divisions of ownership
and occupancy (Felson and Pickett 2005). We encourage scientists to accept the challenge and
proceed with the understanding of the complexity of road impacts and the seemingly
immeasurable amount of variation inherent in diagnosing the problem and developing the
solution.
Post-construction mitigation measures are being developed globally. Since the
construction of the first amphibian tunnels in 1969 near Zurich, Switzerland (Puky 2004), many
structures have become viable alternative approaches for reducing direct effects of roads for
some amphibian and reptile species (Jochimsen et al. 2004). However, the minimization of
indirect effects, such as pollution, cannot be accomplished with mitigation structures.
78
Additionally, few studies adequately monitor the effectiveness of road-crossing structures in
restoring connectivity (but see Clevenger and McGuire 2001; Dodd et al. 2004), which is most
often the purpose of construction.
Sanderson and colleagues (2002) warn if the shift to more sustainable development
regimes does not occur soon, our option will switch from preservation to restoration resulting in
solutions that are more costly, time consuming, and are more difficult as evidenced by
development trends in Europe. Long-term and large scale effects are often omitted from
environmental impact assessments prior to, during, or after the road construction process (e.g.,
Angermeier et al. 2004). The scope of environmental impact assessments is often skewed for
several reasons. First, species loss is usually only considered as “take” in the road construction
phase and is not addressed as an issue due to subsequent direct and secondary effects in post-
construction eras (Angermeier et al. 2004). Secondly, state implementations of the National
Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) have interpreted the instruction to document road
impacts as “road construction impacts” and do not assess effects occurring after construction is
completed (Angermeier et al. 2004), the phase when the highest number, most severe, and least
understood impacts occur. In light of the many indirect effects that have been identified, and
many more that remain to be documented, proactive transportation planning, public education,
and communication among professional sectors of society are the most effective way to
minimize and mitigate road impacts and the only effective mechanism for avoidance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We first and foremost thank the Federal Highway Administration for their financial
support in gathering this information and for an increasing interest in the effects of roads on
herps. Report preparation was aided by Federal Highway Administration Cooperative
Agreement DTFH61-04-H-00036 between the University of Georgia and U.S. Department of
Transportation and by the Environmental Remediation Sciences Division of the Office of
Biological and Environmental Research, U.S. Department of Energy through Financial
Assistance Award no. DE-FC09-96SR18546 to the University of Georgia Research Foundation.
We thank Stephen Spear for providing comments on the manuscript and assistance with
graphics, and we thank David Steen for a review of the final manuscript. We thank the Partners
in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC) for facilitating the delivery of this information
79
to a wider audience. Lastly, we thank all of the scientists and members of society that are
gaining ground on the understanding of road impacts on herpetofauna.
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TABLES AND FIGURES TABLE 1. Categories of movement by individuals and factors that must be assessed when considering movement phenomena. Adapted from Table 16.2 in Gibbons (1990), Smithsonian Institution Press (with permission).
Category Purpose Primary benefits potentially
gained by moving Intrapopulational
(short-range) Feeding Basking
Growth: lipid storage Increased mobility due to body
temperature increase; reduction of external parasites; enhanced digestion
Courtship and mating (adults only) Hiding, dormancy
Reproductive success Escape from predators of
environmental extremes Extrapopulational Seasonal
(long-range) Seeking food resources Nesting (adult females) Mate seeking (adult males) Migration (hibernation; estivation) Travel from nest by juveniles Departure from unsuitable habitat
Growth; lipid storage Direct increase in fitness Direct increase in fitness Survival Initiation of growth Survival
Note: Movement for each purpose needs to be placed in the contexts of daily seasonal timing.
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TABLE 2. Published road studies documenting herpetofaunal road mortality along with major findings of study. * denotes that species were specified beyond suborder listings. “Opportunistic” indicates that data were collected incidentally in a non-standardized format.
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
HERPETOFAUNA 1,121 31
Amphibians
Anurans 358* 9
Reptiles
Crocodilians 7* 1
Squamates
Snakes 143* 12
Lizards 1* 1
Aresco 2005b Lake Jackson, Florida
Testudines 612* 8
? 1.3 2-4 times daily
This highway serves an impassable barrier to turtles and projects the highest roadkill proportion
of turtles at 100%; Female and juvenile turtles were disproportionately killed due to roadside nesting behaviors; Female turtles were more
susceptible to road mortality during non-drought years; Turtle movement (and mortality rates) corresponded with the water level in the lake;
Aquatic species had the highest mortality rates.
VERTEBRATES 32,502 100
MAMMALS 302* 21
BIRDS 1302* 62
HERPETOFAUNA 30, 898* 17
Amphibians
Anurans 30,034* 7
Reptiles
Squamates
Snakes 148* 5
Ashley and Robinson 1996
Lake Erie, Ontario
Testudines 716* 5
2,549 3.56 Standardized; 3 times per
week; 4 years
Amphibian and reptile mortality varied seasonally according to life history phenology with unimodal peaks for most species; Amphibian mortality was associated with roadside vegetation, while turtle mortality was associated with open water; 85.4%
of amphibian roadkills were young of the year leopard frogs.
Beck 1938 Paynes Prairie, Florida
Snakes 588 1
? NA Opportunistic;
6 trips Describes habitat relationships of species observed
on roads.
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Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
Bernardino and Dalrymple 1992
Everglades National Park, Florida
Snakes 856* 16
1,288 11.5 Standardized;
25 months
Relationship between mortality and seasonal fluctuation of water levels; Significant correlation
between traffic volume and mortality.
VERTEBRATES 1078 24
MAMMALS 375 9
BIRDS 14 7
Snakes 39* 1
Boarman and Sazaki 1996; William Boarman unpubl. data
California
Testudines 35* 1
? 28.8 Standardized;
3 years
Desert tortoise activity was significantly reduced in habitats within 0.8 km from the highway;
Significantly more subadult carcasses were encountered on roads than by chance.
Brito and Álvares 2004
Northern Portugal
Snakes 91* 2
? NA Opportunistic;
8 years
Adult males comprised the majority of roadkill observations; Mortality varied seasonally across sex and age classes and was associated with movement
patterns.
Bugbee 1945 Western Kansas
Snakes 57 8+
416 NA Opportunistic;
1 day
Some snakes not detected because they crawl off the road and die; More snakes were observed dead
on gravel than dirt roads.
Campbell 1953, 1956
New Mexico
Snakes 305 5
68,008 variable Opportunistic;
3 years
Road mortality was associated with climatic conditions such as precipitation; Mortality was
bimodal with peaks in spring and late summer; The author provides estimates for road mortality across
the entirety of New Mexico.
126
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
Anurans 1162* 8 12.96 1.44 Carpenter and Delzell 1951
Michigan
Urodeles 2* 2
9 standardized evening
surveys; 2 years
Ratios of species observations differed between road and field surveys; Author suggests that male spring peepers (Pseudacris crucifer) migrate en
masse, which resulted in a mortality pulse of 506 individuals on one evening; Mortality peaks varied
across species and corresponded with spring migrations and breeding movements; More than 75% of all individuals observed were discovered
dead.
VERTEBRATES 858
MAMMALS 313* 14
BIRDS 316* 36
Amphibians
Anurans 45* 1
Clevenger et al. 2001; Clevenger et al. 2003
Southwestern Alberta
Urodeles 185* 1
65,253 248.1 Standardized;
554 days
All salamanders were encountered in 9 days and concentrated along a 1.05 km section of the survey route; Mortality events were correlated with heavy rainfall and warm weather; Movements across the
road were primarily in one direction.
VERTEBRATES 819
MAMMALS 617*
BIRDS 151*
HERPETOFAUNA 48
Amphibians
Anurans 21
Reptiles
Squamates
Snakes 17
Dickerson 1939 Eastern and Southwestern US
Testudines 10
120,000 NA Opportunistic;
62 travel days; 3 years
Number of roadkills was three times greater west of the Mississippi than east of it; Mortality
associated with roadside habitat and distance to cover; Peaks in roadkills associated with climatic conditions and varied seasonally; Snake mortality
greater on paved roads compared to gravel.
127
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
Snakes 239* 19
Lizards 16 Dodd et al. 1989
Northwestern Alabama
Testudines 160* >1
19,041 variable Opportunistic;
5 months
Road observations were significantly correlated with the total distance traveled, the amount of rainfall, and season; There was no correlation between traffic volume and number of DOR
individuals.
HERPETOFAUNA
Amphibians
Anurans ?* 5
Urodeles 275* 2
Reptiles
Squamates
Duellman 1954 Michigan
Snakes 1* 1
~17.5 3.5 Opportunistic;
30 hours
Author suggests mortality pulse was triggered by autumn rains; Salamander movement appeared
random.
Enge and Wood 2002
Florida
Snakes 213* 18
6132 6 Standardized;
1022 days
93% of individuals observed were DOR; Relative abundance of species differed between road
transects and trapping arrays; Correlation between mortality and ruderal habitat; Neonates comprised 80% of all road-killed individuals from September-
December.
Ervin et al. 2001 Southern California
Amphibians 490
? ? 14 months; 254 surveys
Mortality rates were correlated with rainfall, road type, and traffic volume.
128
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
Fahrig et al. 1995
Ontario
Anurans 1,856 2
506 140 Standardized;
6 evenings
Road observations were negatively correlated with traffic intensity; The proportion of dead individuals
was positively correlated with traffic intensity; Anuran density in roadside ponds was negatively
correlated with traffic intensity.
Squamates 92 17
Snakes 85* 16 Fitch 1949
Western Louisiana
Lizards 7* 1
8480 ~128 Opportunistic; 54 surveys; 4
months
18 species known to occur in study area were not observed during road surveys; Author lists habitat
associations with species road records.
Fowle 1996 Western Montana
Testudines 205* 1
302.4 7.2 Standardized; 3
times/week
Adult males comprised 43% of road casualties; Seasonal patterns of mortality varied by sex and
age.
Franz and Scudder 1977
Paynes Prairie, Florida
Snakes 1770* 12
6638 6 Opportunistic;
58 months
Roadkill aggregations were associated with standing water in roadside ditches; Over 90% of the
individuals encountered were DOR; Casualties varied seasonally across species.
Haxton 2000 Central Ontario
Testudines 86 1
? NA Opportunistic; 60 surveys; 3
years
Mortality peaked during the nesting season; Females comprised the majority of observations; Concentrations of carcasses were documented on
highways adjacent to or bisecting wetlands.
129
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
Anurans Many 1 Hellman and Telford 1956
Paynes Prairie, Florida
Snakes 239+* 5
3.2 3.2 Opportunistic;
1 evening
93% of the individuals observed DOR were mudsnakes (Farancia abacura); This mortality
event occurred during heavy rainfall associated with a hurricane.
VERTEBRATES 577 16
MAMMALS 168* 14
Amphibians 409* 1
Hodson 1966 Britain
Reptiles 2* 1
? 3.2 At least once
daily for 3 years The greatest number of frog mortalities was
documented during March and April.
Jochimsen 2006a
Idaho
Snakes 272* 4
12,261 183 Standardized; 67 surveys; 2
years
Gopher snakes comprised 76% of DOR specimens; 93% of all specimens were DOR; Peaks in mortality
varied by sex and age class and were associated with movement; Roadkill aggregations were
associated with landscape features; Adult males comprised the majority of observations.
Jochimsen 2006a
Idaho
Snakes 59* 3
746 10 Standardized; 12 surveys; 4
months
Very few snakes cross roads successfully, even at low traffic volumes; Five vehicles over a 3-hr
period killed 56% of the individuals attempting to cross roads.
Snakes 1562* 37 Klauber 1939
San Diego County, CA
Lizards ~273* 1
83,845 variable Opportunistic
Includes description of seasonal and climatic factors that may influence snake occurrence on roads;
Author provides habitat descriptions associated with road observations; Mortality levels were correlated
with traffic density.
130
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
VERTEBRATES 2,030
MAMMALS 736
BIRDS 320
HERPETOFAUNA
Amphibians 427
Kline and Swann 1998
Saguaro National Park
Reptiles 374
? Variable
Opportunistic, weekly
standardized, and 4 short
transects (for toads); 3 years
Mortality rates peaked during the summer months; Mortality was episodic for amphibians and
associated with rain events; Road casualties were higher along paved roads compared to dirt.
Krivda 1993 Manitoba
Snakes 42* 1
48 NA Opportunistic;
1 day Mortality was attributed to placement of the road
between nesting and denning area.
VERTEBRATES 2,266 96
MAMMALS 979* 27
BIRDS 600* 56
HERPETOFAUNA
Amphibians
Anurans 466* 5
Urodeles 196* 4
Reptiles
Lodé 2000 Western France
Squamates 25* 4
2250.6 68.2 Once weekly;
33 weeks
Seasonal variation in mortality; Species abundance in the study area differed from roadkill composition; Exponential curvilinear relationship between traffic and roadkills; Relationship between road mortality and road embankment; Mortality was significantly
lower along road sections with fauna passages.
VERTEBRATES 1,035
MAMMALS 559 16
BIRDS 114
Main and Allen 2002
Southwest Florida
HERPETOFAUNA 155
11,088 48 Standardized; 231 surveys
Road mortality was not correlated with traffic speed or volume but varied by land use; Mortality of herpetofauna varied seasonally in response to
precipitation, and availability of standing water in roadside ditches.
131
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
Anurans 3185* 6 Mazerolle 2004 Kouchibouguac National Park, Canada
Urodeles 254* 4
740 20 Standardized; 37 surveys; 8
years
A greater percentage of anurans were discovered DOR compared to urodeles; Pulses of mortality
varied across species; The author did not detect a population decline of amphibians over the 8 years,
despite high numbers of traffic casualties; Correlations of mortality with traffic intensity
varied by species.
VERTEBRATES 6723 > 100
MAMMALS 2723* 29
BIRDS 1580* 56
HERPETOFAUNA
Amphibians 1181
Anurans 1082 >3
Urodeles 99* 1
Reptiles 1224
Squamates
Snakes 868* 6
Lizards 95* 1
McClure 1951 Nebraska
Testudines 269* 4
120,024 NA Opportunistic;
3 years
Toads and gopher snakes comprised the highest percentage of road-killed individuals; Mortalities were correlated with season; Highest losses were documented along paved roads and adjacent to
cultivated soils.
Mendelson and Jennings 1992
Arizona and New Mexico
Snakes 174* 23
6261 112 Standardized;
106 trips
Species abundance has shifted over the past 30 years, most likely due to habitat changes in the
region.
Palis 1994 Florida
Anurans 55 1
? 0.3 Opportunistic;
1 evening
Individuals were all recent metamorphs emigrating from an adjacent pond; 43% of individuals were
DOR.
132
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
Palis 1994 Florida
Anurans 55 1
? 0.3 Opportunistic;
1 evening
Individuals were all recent metamorphs emigrating from an adjacent pond; 43% of
individuals were DOR.
VERTEBRATES 79 8+
MAMMALS 40* 5
Reptiles 39
Crocodilians 19
Squamates
Snakes 17
Pinowski 2005 Venezuela
Lizards 3
2860 572 Standardized;
5 surveys
Road mortality was greatest within forest habitat adjacent to a river; The majority of fatalities
occurred following the rainy season; The majority of caiman (Caiman crocodilus)
carcasses were juveniles.
Rodda 1990 Venezuela
Lizards 65 1
15,000 NA 1,000 km /
month; 1 year
Males comprised 78% of the road mortalities; Females were primarily killed during the nesting season, while deaths of males peaked during the
mating season.
Rosen and Lowe 1994
Organ Pipe National Monument, Arizona
Snakes 264* 20
15,527 44.1 Standardized; 4
years
3 species accounted for 40.5% of total casualties; Seasonal peaks in mortality and high mortality rates coincided with monsoons; Computational model estimates snake mortality at 13.5 / km /
year for the study area.
VERTEBRATES 1239*
HERPETOFAUNA
Amphibians
Anurans ~400* >2
Urodeles 1* 1
Reptiles 8
Squamates
Snakes 35* 5
Scott 1938 Iowa
Testudines 24* 3
4,711 NA Opportunistic;
1.5 years
Average of 0.429 animals killed/mi of rural paved highway; Author reports a direct
correlation of roadkills with weather and roadside cover; Carcasses remained identifiable for an
average of 4 days.
133
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
Shine and Mason 2004
Central Manitoba
Snakes 129* 1
? ? Opportunistic;
September
Road-killed snakes were smaller on average than individuals captured at dens; Adult females
experienced the lowest risk of road mortality; Road mortality was more conspicuous during fall
migrations back to hibernacula rather than during spring egress; Road mortality was concentrated near
water bodies.
VERTEBRATES 3,366 78
MAMMALS 72* 7
BIRDS 265*
Anurans 1333* 5
Reptiles 1696* 25
Crocodilians 29* 1
Squamates
Snakes 1292* 15
Lizards 1 1
Smith and Dodd 2003
Paynes Prairie, Florida
Testudines 374* 9
336 3.2 Standardized; 3 times / week for
52 weeks
Majority of vertebrate roadkills were anurans and snakes; Seasonal patterns of road mortality varied across taxa; Observations of snakes and anurans
were related to local weather conditions; No correlation between traffic volume and road mortality rate; This study reports the highest
mortality rate of snakes at 1.854 individuals / km surveyed.
Sullivan 2000 San Joaquin Valley, California
Snakes 236* 10
4,198 18 Standardized;
51 surveys
54% of the snakes were discovered DOR; Juveniles comprised the majority of road records; The number of snakes encountered on roads was higher during surveys conducted in the 1990's compared to the
1970's.
Sullivan 1981b San Joaquin Valley, California
Snakes 153* 11
4,424 18 Standardized;
80 surveys 59% of the snakes were discovered DOR.
134
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
Tucker 1995 West Central Illinois
Snakes 108 12
3,402 54 Standardized;
63 surveys over 21 days
76% of the individuals were observed on 5 days (associated with flood event); 95% of all
individuals were discovered DOR; Mortality was correlated with daily high and low temperatures
and river stage; A time lag of movement in response to weather conditions was detected; PCA
indicated that temperature is the best overall predictor of snake movements.
van Gelder 1973 Netherlands
Anurans 122* 1
126 1.5 Standardized; 84 evenings
Low traffic densities were associated with high levels of road mortality (10 cars/hr killed 30% of the individuals encountered during the survey).
HERPETOFAUNA 384* 30
Amphibians 311* 6
Anurans 284* 4
Caecilians 27* 2
Reptiles 73* 24
Squamates
Snakes 53* 14
Vijayakumar et al. 2001
India
Lizards 12* 6
170.7
Four segments totaling
9.5
Standardized; Daily over one
month
Lizards that live beneath forest litter comprised 45% of the road-killed specimens; Amphibian
observations were correlated with rainfall; Road-killed amphibians were associated with coffee plantations, while reptiles were associated with
forests.
135
Study Location Taxa Number of Road-killed Individuals
Number of
Species
Total Km
Traveled
Transect Distance
(km)
Survey Type and Duration Major Findings
VERTEBRATES 286
MAMMALS 187*
BIRDS 49*
HERPETOFAUNA 50
Amphibians
Anurans 16
Urodeles
Reptiles 34
Squamates
Snakes 7*
Wilkins and Schmidly 1980
Southeastern Texas
Testudines 27*
1,768 47.2 25 to 50 times Seasonal trend in mortality, with roadkills of all
vertebrate taxa peaking in spring; No variation of herpetafauna mortality with traffic volume.
Wood and Herlands 1997
Southern New Jersey
Testudines 4,020 1
? 27 6 years
Authors predict an inevitable population crash, due to high levels of mortality experienced by females and hatchlings; Female turtles use road shoulder as nesting habitat; Road placement is important - high
mortality may occur when sensitive habitats are bisected; Authors organized public awareness
events.
136
TABLE 3. Factors and corresponding citations that provide supporting documentation of how a particular variable can potentially influence the frequency and abundance of road-killed amphibians and reptiles.
FACTOR REFERENCE Road placement (roadkill aggregation) Jochimsen 2006b Titus 2006 Langen et al. in press Speed limit Cristoffer 1991 Obliteration of carcasses Clevenger et al. 2001 Hels and Buchwald 2001 Smith and Dodd 2003 Traffic Density Fahrig et al. 1995 Mazerolle 2004 Abiotic conditions KMA unpubl. data Scavengers Kline and Swann 1998 Smith and Dodd 2003 Antworth et al. 2005 Observer error Klauber 1931 Boarman and Sazaki 1996 Mazerolle 2004 Sampling technique Enge and Wood 2002 Langen et al. in press Injured individuals leave road Dodd et al. 1989 Jochimsen 2006a Survey timing Duever 1967 Kevin Messenger unpubl. data Passing vehicles displace carcasses Jochimsen 2006a Environmental variation Ashley and Robinson 1996
137
TABLE 4. Summary and evaluation of post-construction mitigation projects that target amphibians and reptiles. In instances where project descriptions are not published, websites are included. Non-target species are denoted by italicized text. Statistically significant results are indicated by asterisks.
Study or Website Location Taxa Description of
Mitigation Project Evaluation Technique
Road Mortality Reduced
Connectivity Restored
www.carcnet.ca; Shine Mason 2001
Canada red-sided garter snake
Installation of 2 reptile tunnels (polymer concrete) with slotted grates and fencing (1994); Expansion of fencing and 4 additional pipes (1995)
Direct monitoring of tunnel use; Observational experiments
Yes Yes
Amphibian Culverts in Albany County (www.wildlifecrossings.info)
New York Anurans Urodeles
Installation of 2 concrete amphibian tunnels with box openings and wooden barrier walls (1999)
Road surveys Yes Yes
Pipe Culvert at Davis (www.wildlifecrossings.info)
California western toad
1 amphibian tunnel installed during constructional disturbance of a drainage pond
No rigorous efforts ? No
Shawnee National Forest (www.wildlifecrossings.info)
Illinois
timber rattlesnake black rat snake eastern box turtle ground skink marbled salamander
3 slotted culverts with hardware cloth fencing
Surveys ? Inconclusive
138
Study Location Taxa Description of Mitigation Project Evaluation Technique Road Mortality
Reduced Connectivity
Restored
Aresco 2005b Florida
Anurans (10 species); Urodeles (2 species); Crocodilians; Lizards (6 species); Snakes (15 species); Testudines (10 species)
700 m of vinyl fencing connected to a metal drainage culvert (3.5 m in diameter x 46.6 m long) that connects 2 lakes fragmented by U.S. Highway 27
Road surveys pre- and post-construction of the fencing (2 - 4 times daily over ~4 years); Mark-recapture of testudines; Observational surveys of tracks within culvert; Calculated probability of road mortality during attempted crossing for testudines
Testudines = Yes* Others = Reduced overall,
but most were able to climb the temporary fence
Yes
Ascensão and Mira 2006 Portugal Lizards Snakes
This study assessed the extent to which vertebrates used existing drainage culverts along 2 road sections (46 km total length) for passage beneath roads.
Crossing rates were estimated using marble dust placed within culvert entrances over 816 sampling days.
?
Somewhat; Herpetofauna
comprised 4.4% of
successful crossings
Boarman and Sazaki 1996; Boarman et al. 1998; Boarman and Sazaki 2006
California desert tortoise Lizards Snakes
Caltrans installed 24-km of barrier fencing along both sides of State Highway 58. In addition, 24 culverts and 3 bridges designed to transport runoff were connected to fencing via funnels (1992).
Comparison of roadkill records along fenced and unfenced sections of highway (3 yrs); Sand traps placed at culvert entrances; Installation of ARS at culvert entrances; Marked tortoises with PIT tags; Population surveys within a 1.9 km plot (every 4 yrs).
Yes* Yes
139
Study Location Taxa Description of Mitigation Project Evaluation Technique Road Mortality
Reduced Connectivity
Restored
Dodd et. al 2004 Florida
Anurans Crocodilians Snakes Testudines
Florida DOT constructed an Ecopassage that included the installation of a concrete wall with overhanging lip to connect 8 existing concrete box culverts, and 4 new cylindrical culverts (1996).
Roadkill surveys (pedestrian) pre- (1 yr) and post-construction (1 yr); Placement of 4 to 10 funnel traps within each culvert (7,580 trap nights); Sand track station in 1 culvert; Infrared cameras and monitors in 2 culverts. Track station and cameras were monitored 5 days/wk.
Yes Yes
Foster and Humphrey 1995; Land and Lotz 1996
Florida Crocodilians
Following the upgrading of State Road 84 (Alligator Alley) to Interstate 75, 24 wildlife underpasses with fencing were installed along a 64-km stretch of highway to minimize impacts on Florida panthers.
Installed game counters and cameras in 4 passages
Yes Yes
Guyot and Clobert 1997 France Hermann's tortoise
Physical removal of individuals pre-construction of new highway; lnstallation of 1 reptile tunnel and 2 culverts with fencing
Road surveys (4 yrs post-construction); Mark-recapture
Yes Yes
140
Study Location Taxa Description of Mitigation Project Evaluation Technique Road Mortality
Reduced Connectivity
Restored
Hoffman 2003 Vermont leopard frogs and other wetland species
Installation of silt fences (1000 ft in length)
Road surveys conducted on a weekly basis for 4 months along fenced and unfenced sections of highway
Yes No
Jackson and Tyning 1989 Massachusetts spotted salamanders 2 amphibian tunnels, with slotted openings, and fencing (1987)
Mark-recapture of individuals that encountered fencing
Yes Yes
Jenkins 1996 Texas Houston toads Modification of existing drainage culverts through the addition of steel guiding walls
Road surveys
Only in the vicinity of project placement, with roadkill aggregations at the barrier endpoints
No
Mata et al. 2005 Spain Anurans Lizards Snakes
This study assessed the extent to which vertebrates used 82 passages including drainage culverts (circular - 1.8 m in diameter), fauna tunnels (box - 2 x 2 m), underpasses and overpasses that were incorporated into the construction of a motorway (1998).
Marble dust track beds surveyed for 3 months to identify species using passages, and camera traps installed in 47 structures to estimate relative proportions of species using passages
? Yes
141
Study or Website Location Taxa Description of Mitigation Project Evaluation Technique Road Mortality
Reduced Connectivity
Restored
Norman et al. 1998 New South Wales
Anurans Lizards (3 species) Snakes
This study monitored the use of 3 existing underpasses to make recommendations for the proposed construction of 16 new underpasses.
10 months of monitoring with photographic equipment, sand track beds, and road surveys
? Yes
Samanns and Zacharias 2003 New York spotted turtles Jefferson salamander
Mitigation plan to compensate for road construction includes 3 box culverts (4 ft x 4 ft) in conjunction with concrete fencing (avg. 50 m in length) and 2 wildlife cons pans/culverts (12 ft x 7 ft).
Surveys using coverboards placed within culverts; Pitfall traps; Track beds
To be determined To be
determined
142
TABLE 5. Summary of factors that influence effectiveness of mitigation structures for amphibians and reptiles that would ideally be taken into consideration when targeting post-construction mitigation plans. Table adapted from Jochimsen et al. (2004).
Structure Characteristics Effect Taxonomic Groups Tested References
Ambient light
Maintenance of natural light via grates will assist in guiding animals through passages and provides places to bask. Duration of crossing time for amphibians through tunnels decreased with the addition of artificial lighting. Shafts or holes included in the design create optimal conditions.
Amphibians: frogs, toads, and salamanders Reptiles: lizards and snakes
Brehm 1989 Jackson 1996 Jackson 1999 Puky 2004
Construction material Design and materials should be durable and require minimal maintenance; smooth concrete works well.
Amphibians Eriksson et al. 2000 Smith and Dodd 2003
Dimensions - length
Microhabitat conditions in shorter tunnels may be less variable thereby reducing mortality risk for ectotherms, and increasing likelihood of successful passage. In a comparative study, crossing rates of reptiles were greater in culverts shorter in length. Research also suggests that amphibians prefer the shortest path possible.
Amphibians Reptiles: lizards and snakes
Ascensão and Mira 2006 Jackson 1996 Puky 2004
Dimensions - openness within structure
Two-directional tunnels with large cross-sections represent a most suitable solution. Amphibians accepted a tunnel of 0.2 m in diameter and 0.4 m in total height. A greater proportion of toads used large tunnels (diameter 1 m; length 15mm). Snakes and lizards demonstrated a higher crossing rate in culverts and underpasses 2 m wide. Increased width (> 1 m in diameter) may appeal to a wider variety of species. Viaducts and large overpasses may provide greater connectivity and maintain natural surroundings. More expansive passages may accommodate a greater number of species.
Amphibians: spadefoot, common toad, common frog, moor frog, edible frog, crested newt, smooth newt Reptiles: lizard and snake
Brehm 1989 Dexel 1989 Jackson 1999 Jackson and Griffin 2000 Rodríguez et al. 1996 Veenbaas and Brandjes 1999 Yanes et al. 1995
Hydrology
Design features at tunnel entrances should divert runoff to prevent flooding. Modifications such as shelving, floating docks, or bank areas within culverts will provide dry retreat sites during periods of high water and may expand likelihood of passage use to a greater range of species. Passages should be constructed above the water table to prevent flooding. Presence of flowing water may deter some amphibian species.
Amphibians: toads and spotted salamanders Reptiles: snakes
Eriksson et al. 2000 Jackson 1999 Jackson and Tyning 1989 Jackson and Griffin 2000 Jenkins 1996 Puky 2004 Rosell et al. 1997 Veenbaaas and Brandjes 1999
143
Structure Characteristics Effect Taxonomic Groups Tested References
Landscape context
Wetlands near culvert entrance may enhance connectivity and enhance habitat value. However, some studies documented an increase in predator concentration. Placement within vicinity of a range of habitat types is likely to increase the diversity of species using the passage. Should be considered to meet biological requirements of target species, because preferences vary. Crossing rates of reptiles were higher in culverts distantly located from urban areas, yet in one study, this only had a minimal effect.
Amphibians Reptiles: lizards and snakes
Ascensão and Mira 2006 Bekker 1998 Dodd et al. 2004 Eriksson et al. 2000 Little et al. 2002 Mata et al. 2004 Norman et al. 1998 Puky 2004 Vos and Chardon 1994
Moisture
Effects of moisture on olfactory cues within passages need to be investigated. Maintenance of damp conditions within tunnels, via slots or grates is important. Abiotic conditions beneath large open passages such as bridges and viaducts may be too dry for amphibians.
Amphibians: anurans and urodeles
Brehm 1989 Jackson 1996 Jackson 1999
Noise Vehicular noise may cause amphibians to hesitate, but does not substantially interrupt migration. The effect on reptiles is not understood.
Amphibians: frogs and toads
Langton 1989
Placement
Many studies suggest placement is the key to mitigation success. The axis of the passage should be aligned towards breeding areas with placement in reference to traditional routes. Proximity of passages to breeding habitat is important. Structure usage is determined by location with respect to habitat. Maintaining the integrity of habitat adjacent to passage is critical. Reptiles preferred culverts with openings near the pavement edge. Distance between passages is a key characteristic in determining success and should be considered from a biological viewpoint in regards to migration radii of target species.
Amphibians: spadefoot, common toad, common frog, moor frog, edible frog, crested newt, smooth newt, Reptiles: lizard and snake
Ascensão and Mira 2006 Brehm 1989 Foster and Humphrey 1995 Jenkins 1996 Podloucky 1989 Puky 2004 Rodríguez et al. 1996 Roof and Wooding 1996 Rosell et al. 1997
Substrate
Retaining or replicating natural stream conditions within culverts may increase use by animals that use streams as migration corridors. Appropriate substrate (flat rocks) can provide cover. Use of dry substrate should be avoided. Anurans preferred tunnels lined with soil as opposed to bare surface. Researchers recommend that thin layers of detritus and leafy substrate be undisturbed to maintain scent trails. Deep layers of silt may build up over time and need to be removed.
Amphibians: anurans and urodeles
www.wildlifecrossings.info Dodd et al. 2004 Eriksson et al. 2000 Jackson 1996 Lesbarrères et al. 2004 Yanes et al. 1995
144
Structure Characteristics Effect Taxonomic Groups Tested References
Temperature Temperature disparities within small passages may cause hesitation. Larger underpasses and grating may increase airflow and maintain ambient conditions.
Amphibians Reptiles: snakes
CARCET website Brehm 1989 Jackson 1999 Langton 1989
Type of opening
Open-bottom arches and box culverts are preferred designs to maintain natural substrates. In one study, reptiles crossed more frequently through circular openings, while amphibians preferred square. However, in another study both amphibians and reptiles selectively used circular and adapted culverts. Vertical entry shafts should be avoided due to high mortality rates documented for amphibians
Amphibians Reptiles
Dexel 1989 Jackson 1996 Jackson 1999 Eriksson et al. 2000 Mata et al. 2005 Rosell et al. 1997
Vegetative cover
The presence of vegetative cover surrounding a passage entrance is favored by some species and may play at least a minor role in selection. Plantings parallel to the road will obscure view, offer refuge, and guide animals to passage opening.
Amphibians Reptiles: lizards and snakes
Eriksson et al. 2000 Mata et al. 2004 Rodríguez et al. 1996
Fencing
Increases passage efficacy. Most efficient during immigration to breeding ponds than emigration. Limited use with animals that exhibit high road avoidance. Fencing installed at angles < 65 degrees can be trespassed by amphibians - optimal height 45-60 cm buried to a depth of 10 cm. Overhanging lip may deter individuals from trespass; however some species may still be successful (hylid frogs). Aggregations of road casualties may be present at barrier endpoints, which may be prevented by extending fence ends out perpendicularly. Joints that connect fencing to passage should be sealed to prevent injury. Flexible material should not be used for construction materials, as it facilitates injury or trespass and requires increased maintenance. Monitoring needed to identify gaps (resulting from erosion, digging mammals, or washouts), and overhanging vegetation. Predation risk may be increased.
Amphibians: anurans and urodeles Reptiles: testudines and snakes
Aresco 2005b Arntzen et al. 1995 Boarman and Sazaki 1996 Brehm 1989 Dodd et al. 2004 Eriksson et al. 2000 Jaeger and Fahrig 2004 Guyot and Clobert 1997 Jenkins 1996 Puky 2004 Roof and Wooding 1996 Ryser and Grossenbacher 1989 Stuart et al. 2001
145
FIG. 1. Major roads and trails in the United States from data available as a Geological Information Systems (GIS) shapefile at www.geocomm.com created with ESRI ARC/INFO (version 7.0.4) published by the U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, 1997. This shapefile was originally digitized by the National Mapping Division based on the sectional maps contained in "The National Atlas of the United States of America" published by the USGS in 1970, with updates based on the National Highway Planning Network database published by Federal Highway Administration. Contact person: Bruce Wright, U.S. Geological Survey, 521 National Center, Reston, VA, 20192.
146
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1900-1910
1911-1920
1921-1930
1931-1940
1941-1950
1951-1960
1961-1970
1971-1980
1981-1990
1991-2000
2001-inpress
Year
No
. o
f st
ud
ies
FIG. 2. The number of published studies represented within this document that involve herpetofauna and road issues displayed in 10-year increments. Literature includes publications specifically on herpetofauna and road issues, vertebrate studies on roads that include herpetofauna, and herpetofaunal research that includes roads. Note that the final decade (2001-2010) includes only 6 years, yet greatly surpasses the publication rate on roads in previous decades.
147
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
Frogs
Turtle
s
Snake
sBird
s
Mam
mals
nu
mb
er o
f d
ead
ind
ivid
ual
s
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Frogs Snakes Mammals
nu
mb
er o
f d
ead
ind
ivid
ual
s
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Salam
ander
s
Frogs
Snake
sBird
s
Mam
mals
nu
mb
er o
f d
ead
ind
ivid
ual
s
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Frogs
Snake
s
Turtle
sBird
s
Mam
mals
nu
mb
er o
f d
ead
ind
ivid
ual
s
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Frogs
Croco
dilians
Turtle
s
Snake
sBird
s
Mam
mals
nu
mb
er o
f d
ead
ind
ivid
ual
s
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Frogs Turtles Snakes Birds M ammals
nu
mb
er o
f d
ead
ind
ivid
ual
s
A. Ashley and Robinson 1996 (n = 32,502)
B. McClure 1951 (n = 6,723)
C. Lodé 2000
(n = 2,266)
D. Smith and Dodd 2003 (n = 3,365)
E. Hodson 1966
(n = 577)
F. Wilkins and Schmidly 1980
(n = 286)
148
FIG. 3. Comparison of road mortality among different vertebrate groups. Each graph represents a separate study (n= total number across all groups). (A) 3.6 km survey route in Long Point, Ontario (2,549 total km traveled). (B) incidental driving in Nebraska (123,200 total km traveled). (C) 68.2 km survey route in western France (2,250.6 total km traveled). (D) 3.2 km survey route in Paynes Prairie, Florida (336 total km traveled). (E) 3.2 km survey route in Corby, England (2,336 total km traveled). (F) 47.2 km survey route in southeastern Texas (1,768 total km traveled).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Salam
ander
s
Anurans
Turtles
Croco
dilians
Lizard
s
Snakes
Taxa
Num
ber
of s
tudi
es
FIG. 4. The approximate number of studies (by taxa) documenting direct road mortality of amphibians and reptiles. Figure taken from Jochimsen et al. (2004).
149
1.86
0.66
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Klaube
r (19
39-C
oast)
Klaube
r (19
39-D
esert
)Fi
tch (1
949)
Campb
ell (1
953)
Sull i
van
(1981
b)
Dodd e
t al.
(1989
)
Bernar
dino a
nd D
alrym
ple (
1992
)
Men
delso
n an
d Je
nning
s (19
92)
Rosen
and L
owe (
1994
)
Ashley
and R
obin
son (
1996
)
Sull i
van
(2000
)
Enge a
nd W
ood (
2002
)
Main
and
Allen (
2002
)
Smith
and D
odd
(2003
)
Joch
imse
n (20
06a)
Study
Sna
ke m
ort
alit
y / k
m tr
ave
led
FIG. 5. Relationship between numbers of snakes found dead on the road (DOR) and distance traveled from 14 separate surveys taken at different times and locations in the United States. References for each survey are given on x-axis. Figure taken from Jochimsen (2006a).
150
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Klaube
r (19
39-C
oast)
Klaube
r (19
39-D
esert)
Fitch
(194
9)
Sulliv
an (1
981b
)
Dodd
et al
. (19
89)
Bernar
dino
and D
alrym
ple (1
992)
Mend
elson
and
Jennin
gs (1
992)
Rosen
and
Low
e (1
994)
Sulliv
an (2
000)
Enge a
nd W
ood (
2002
)
Smith
and
Dodd
(200
3)
Joch
imse
n (20
06a)
Andre
ws and
Gibb
ons (i
n pre
ss)
Study
% o
f sn
ake
s di
sco
vere
d D
OR
FIG. 6. Proportion of snakes that were dead on the road (DOR) of total (alive and dead) found in 14 separate surveys at different times and locations. References for each survey are given on x-axis. Figure adapted from Jochimsen (2006a).