literary criticism as ideology : a critique of the new...

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LITERARY CRITICISM AS IDEOLOGY: A CRITIQUE OF THE NEW CRITICISM David M. Wallace B.A., University of British Columbia, 1970 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n the Department English a David M. Wallace 1976 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY July 1977 All rights reserved. This thesis.may not be reproduced i n whole or i n part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author.

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Page 1: Literary criticism as ideology : a critique of the new ...summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/2887/b10673799.pdf · LITERARY CRITICISM AS IDEOLOGY: A CRITIQUE OF THE NEW CRITICISM

LITERARY CRITICISM AS IDEOLOGY:

A CRITIQUE OF THE NEW CRITICISM

David M. Wallace

B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1970

A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

i n the Department

Eng l ish

a David M. Wallace 1976

SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY

Ju ly 1977

A l l r i g h t s reserved. This thesis.may n o t be reproduced i n whole o r i n p a r t , by photocopy o r o ther means, w i thou t permission of the author.

Page 2: Literary criticism as ideology : a critique of the new ...summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/2887/b10673799.pdf · LITERARY CRITICISM AS IDEOLOGY: A CRITIQUE OF THE NEW CRITICISM

APPRC VAL

Name: Qavid M. Wallace

Degree: i h s t e r of A r t s ( ~ n g l i s h )

Title of Thesis: L i t e r a r y Cr i t ic i sm a s Ideology: k Cr i t ique of t h e New Criticism.

Examining Committee :

Chairperson: Pe ter h i t enhuis

Je ra ld Zaslove Senior Supervisor

Evan Alderson

Dan Callahan

John Doheny Associate Professor

Universi ty of B r i t i s h Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. External Examiner

Date Approved : % /97d.

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PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE

I hereby g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o l end

my t h e s i s , p r o j e c t o r ex tended essay ( t h e t i t l e o f wh ich i s shown be low)

t o u s e r s o f t h e Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , and t o make p a r t i a l o r

s i n g l e c o p i e s o n l y f o r such u s e r s o r i n response t o a r e q u e s t f r o m t h e

l i b r a r y o f any o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on

i t s own b e h a l f o r f o r one o f i t s u s e r s . I f u r t h e r ag ree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n

f o r m u l t i p l e c o p y i n g o f t h i s work f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d

by me o r t h e Dean o f Gradua te S t u d i e s . I t i s unde rs tood t h a t c o p y i n g

o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s work f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d

w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .

T i t l e o f T h e s i s / P r o j e c t / E x t e n d e d Essay

Literary Criticism as Ideology: A Critique of the New Criticism

A u t h o r : L

( s i g n a t u r e )

David M. Wallace

( name)

27 July, 1977

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iii

ABSTRACT

T h e r e c a n be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h e New C r i t i c i s m has

d o m i n a t e d l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i n Canada and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r

t h e l a s t t h i r t y y e a r s . How c a n we e x p l a i n t h i s d o m i n a t i o n ? I

h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o answer t h i s q u e s t i o n b y c o n s t r u c t i n g a d i a l e c t i c

b e t w e e n h i s t o r y a n d t h e o r y . T h i s s t u d y has t h e r e f o r e t w o

s e c t i o n s : ( 1 ) an a c c o u n t o f t h e c r i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l o r i g i n s o f

t h e New C r i t i c i s m t h r o u g h an a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e

s t r u c t u r e o f modern b o u r g e o i s c u l t u r e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y M a t t h e w

A r n o l d a n d T.S. E l i o t , t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f modern A m e r i c a n

c a p i t a l i s m ; a n d ( 2 ) an a n a l y s i s o f New C r i t i c a l t h e o r y , r e p r e -

s e n t e d b y J o h n Crowe Ransom, A l l e n T a t e , R o b e r t Penn W a r r e n ,

C l e a n t h B r o o k s a n d W . K . W i m s a t t , and i t s p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s

i n t h e s t u d i e s o f p o e t r y , drama a n d t h e n o v e l . As l i t e r a r y

c $ t i c s , we h a v e l o s t t o u c h w i t h o u r c r i t i c a l h i s t o r y a n d i t i s

t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y t o p r o v i d e s u c h a h i s t o r y .

The m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h has been h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l -

i s m w h i c h a c c o r d i n g l y d e f i n e s t h e New C r i t i c i s m a s a d i a l e c t i c

b e t w e e n t h e c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e a n d t h e m y s t i f i c a t i o n

o f s u b j e c t i v i t y . New C r i t i c i s m i s t h e r e f o r e c o n c e i v e d a s a n

a p p r o p r i a t e i d e o l o g i c a l f o r m o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m b e c a u s e i t

r e f l e c t s t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e o f l a t e c a p i t a l i s m .

I c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e New C r i t i c i s m c a n be

a t t r i b u t e d t o i t s e t h o s o f p r o d u c t i v i t y w h e r e i n t e l l e c t u a l

a c t i v i t y i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a l i e n a t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l l a b o u r . New

C r i t i c i s m i s t h u s a b l e t o ove rcome t h e c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l

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bias against intellectual activity by becoming structurally

identical with non-intellectual labour.

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T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

P A G E

I N T R O D U C T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11. C R I S I S A N D R E A C T I O N : A R N O L D , H U L Y E A N D E L I O T . . . . . . . 1 4

111. T H E M E T H O D O L O G I C A L S O L U T I O N : I . A . R I C H A R D S A N D

T H E P O S I T I V I S T C R I T I Q U E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

I V . NEW C R I T I C A L T H E O R Y : T H E E T H O S O F L I T E R A R Y

C O N S U M E R I S M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6

V . NEW C R I T I C A L P R A C T I C E : P R A C T I C A L C R I T I C I S M A N D

L I T E R A R Y G E N R E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

V I . C O N C L U S I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 1

L I S T O F R E F E R E N C E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 4

B I B L I O G R A P H Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2

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1 . I N T R O D U C T I O N

I n H i s t o r y a n d C l a s s C o n s c i o u s n e s s Geo rge L u k a c s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d m o d e r n t h o u g h t a s a n ' e x a c t i t u d e c o m p l e x ' , t h e

t e n d e n c y t o r e d u c e k n o w l e d g e t o f a c t i c i t y . l B u t t h i s t e n d e n c y ,

L u c a c s a r g u e s , i s assumed t o be " n a t u r a l " i n c a p i t a l i s m b e c a u s e

i t e x p r e s s e s t h e i d e n t i t y o f m a t e r i a l a n d " s p i r i t u a l " p r o d u c t i o n

i n w h i c h t h e f o r m e r i s u l t i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n a t e . Thus i n c o n t r a s t

t o p r e - c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h o u g h t now b e a r

t h e s t a m p o f c o m m o d i t i e s a n d a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e same v a l u e s ,

e x c h a n g e v a l u e s , M o r e o v e r n o t o n l y d o e s k n o w l e d g e t a k e o n t h e

a u r a o f c o m m o d i t i e s , b u t t h e m e n t a l l a b o u r u p o n w h i c h t h i s

p r o d u c t i o n d e p e n d s m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d p a s s i v e a n d t h e r e f o r e

t h e a n t i t h e s i s o f c r e a t i v i t y .

E s s e n t i a l l y L u k a c s ' s c r i t i q u e o f c a p i t a l i s m r e s t s o n t h e

s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t b o u r g e o i s i n t e l l e c t u a l c u l t u r e has n o a c t i v e

o r c r e a t i v e p r i n c i p l e a n d p a s s i v e l y s u b m i t s t o t h e d o m i n a t i o n

o f c a p i t a l o v e r s o c i e t y . I t i s n o t so much t h e i d e a l s o f

r e s e a r c h , t h e p u r s u i t o f " o b j e c t i v e t r u t h " , t h a t i s a t i s s u e

b u t r a t h e r t h e s u b j e c t i v e means b y w h i c h t h o s e i d e a l s a r e t o

be a c h i e v e d . O b j e c t i v i t y o n l y makes c r i t i c a l s e n s e i f u n d e r -

s t o o d a s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h o u g h t a s m e a n i n g f u l s u b -

j e c t i v i t y a n d r e a l i t y a s a n e x p e r i e n c e d p h e n o m e n a l w o r l d .

The c r i t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n o f a n e u t r a l s u b j e c t d e p r i v e s t h e

a c t i v i t y o f r e s e a r c h o f m e a n i n g w h i l e p r e s u p p o s i n g t h a t t h e

o b j e c t s o f r e s e a r c h c a n be a b s t r a c t e d f r o m t h e i r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c

c o n t e x t w i t h o u t damage t o t h e i r b a s i c s u b s t a n c e . B o u r g e o i s

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t h o u g h t c a n be s a i d t o " r e f l e c t " t h e d o m i n a n t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n

i n so f a r a s t h e o b j e c t s o f b o u r g e o i s r e s e a r c h assume a

r f e t i s h i s t i c c h a r a c t e r - - a " f a l s e " a u t o n o m y - - a n d t h e i r r e p r o d u c t -

i o n a s k n o w l e d g e a p p e a r s t o f o l l o w an e c o n o m i c l o g i c w h i c h

a s s u r e s t h e i r c h a r a c t e r a s c o m m o d i t i e s .

Such i s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e New C r i t i c i s m . U n l i k e o t h e r

d i s c i p l i n e s i n t h e h u m a n i t i e s l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s r a d i c a l l y

modern a n d i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e r i s e o f t h e modern u n i v e r s i t y .

F o r m e l y l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m was c o n s i d e r e d e i t h e r t h e doma in

o f w r i t e r s a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r a e s t h e t i c p r a c t i c e o r

i t f u n c t i o n e d w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l r u b r i c o f a e s t h e t i c s . ' B u t a s

J o h n G r o s s has p o i n t e d o u t t h e c r e a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e d e p a r t -

m e n t s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y l e d n o t o n l y t o

t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e b u t a l s o t o t h e n a r r o w i n g

o f aesthetic^.^ As a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f i n q u i r y a b o u t

l i t e r a t u r e t o t h e au tonomous t e x t r e d u c e s t h e n a t u r e o f i n t e l -

l e c t u a l i n q u i r y t o c a r e f u l l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d b o u n d a r i e s w h i c h i n

t u r n become seen a s t h e l i m i t s o f m e a n i n g a n d v a l u e . W h i l e

p r e t e n d i n g t o p r o d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f

p o e t i c l a n g u a g e a n d w h i l e a s s u m i n g t h a t t h i s r e s e a r c h a l s o

i l l u m i n a t e d a s u b j e c t i v e l y t o t a l s t r u c t u r e o f l i t e r a t u r e , t h e

e m p h a s i s on t e x t u a l s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y i m p o s e d r i g i d l i m i t s on

l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r m s o f t h e c u l t u r a l

i m p o r t a n c e o f l i t e r a t u r e . The l o g i c a l o u t c o m e o f t h i s m e t h o d -

o l o g y was t h a t l i t e r a t u r e became an a b s t r a c t i o n , a c o m m o d i t y ,

b e c a u s e i t s - m e a n i n g was no l o n g e r d e p e n d e n t o n a s o c i a l c o n t e x t

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I

' e i t h e r i n t e r m s o f t h e g e n e s i s o f a t e x t o r i n t e r m s o f a

h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d r e a d e r s h i p .

The f o l l o w i n g s t u d y d e f i n e s t h e New C r i t i c i s m a s t h e m o s t

t y p i c a l f o r m o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i n t h e p e r i o d o f A m e r i c a n

e x p a n s i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e e n d o f t h e Second W o r l d War. I t i s

h a r d l y o r i g i n a l t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e f o r m a l i s t m e t h o d o l o g y

o f t h e New C r i t i c i s m i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n c a p a b l e o f g r a s p i n g

l i t e r a t u r e a s a s p e c i f i c f o r m o f c u l t u r e b e c a u s e i t s c l a i m t o

o b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f l i t e r a r y t e x t s i s m e d i a t e d n e i t h e r I

I

I b y t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c d y n a m i c o f l i t e r a t u r e n o r b y t h e i d e o l o g - I i c a l v i e w p o i n t o f t h e c r i t i c . B u t i f t h e t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f I I New C r i t i c i s m c o u l d be e f f e c t e d on a p u r e l y r a t i o n a l b a s i s t h e n

I New C r i t i c i s m w o u l d h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d l o n g a g o . The c r i t i c a l I ' I t i s s u e i s t h e n , What - i s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l e f f i c a c y

o f t h e New C r i t i c i s m ?

The answer t o t h i s p r o b l e m l i e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

I I

b e t w e e n t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e s o f t h e New C r i t i c i s m a n d t h e

e c o n o m i c v a l u e s o f p o s t - w a r A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y . I n a s o c i e t y t h a t I

a c c e p t s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f human p o t e n t i a l i t i e s i n t o m a r k e t - I

a b l e c o m m o d i t i e s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n l y m e a n i n g f u l

s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d s u b j e c t i v i t y a s a mere means f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n

o f c o m m o d i t i e s becomes b l u r r e d . S u b j e c t i v i t y i s r e d u c e d t o an

a b s t r a c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e n o a d e q u a t e f o r m s f o r i t s s o c i a l

e x p r e s s i o n a n d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e s o c i a l a c t i v i t y t a k e s t h e f o r m

" g i v e n " u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m - - r a t i o n a l i z e d e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y . The

New C r i t i c s s i m p l y t o o k f o r g r a n t e d t h a t t h e s u b j e c t i v e r e s p o n s e

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4

t o l i t e r a t u r e c o u l d o n l y b e d i s c u s s e d i n t e r m s o f t h e l a n g u a g e

and t h e t e c h n i q u e o f t h e t e x t a n d t h u s d i s c o v e r e d a r a t i o n a l i z a -

t i o n f o r b a n i s h i n g s u b j e c t i v i t y f r o m c r i t i c i s m .

The d e n i a l o f s u b j e c t i v i t y i n i t s m o s t t r a d i t i o n a l doma in

- - a e s t h e t i c s and c r i t i c a l t h o u g h t - - i s a n a l o g o u s t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e

o f t h e l a b o u r e r . I n b o t h c a s e s t h e s u b j e c t i s a l i e n a t e d f r o m

t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s o c i a l l y u s e f u l o b j e c t s t h e v a l u e o f w h i c h

i s a f u n c t i o n o f m a r k e t f l u c t u a t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s s o c i a l

r e a l i t y becomes more c o m p l i c a t e d a n d d e h u m a n i z e d t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l

I e x p r e s s i o n s o f s u b j e c t i v i t y becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y p o l a r i z e d

b e t w e e n m y s t i c i s m on t h e o n e h a n d a n d " p r o d u c t i v i s m " o n t h e

o t h e r - - w h a t M a r x c a l l s t h e ' f e t i s h i s m o f t h e c o m m o d i t y ' . I t

comes a s no s u r p r i s e t h e n t h a t t h e b o u r g e o i s i d e a l s o f o b j e c t -

I I

i v i t y s h o u l d become i d e n t i f i e d w i t h r a t i o n a l i z e d s y s t e m s s i n c e

t h e r e a l i t y t h a t c o n f r o n t s t h e b o u r g e o i s i s n o t o n l y r a t i o n a l -

i s t i c a l l y i m p e n e t r a b l e b u t i s i t s e l f d e v o i d o f s u b j e c t i v e

m e a n i n g .

B u t i f t h e r e a l i t y has n o s u b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g t h e n w h e r e i s

I m e a n i n g t o b e f o u n d ? The s o l u t i o n , a l b e i t an i n a d e q u a t e o n e , i s

d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e e t h o s o f v a l u e f r e e r e s e a r c h w h e r e t h e o b j e c t s

o f i n q u i r y a r e i s o l a t e d f r o m t h e i r s o c i o - c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t b y

means o f an o b j e c t i v i s t m e t h o d o l o g y w i t h i n t h e s p e c i a l i z e d

d i s c i p l i n e . F u r t h e r m o r e an ego s t r u c t u r e d e v e l o p s w h e r e b y t h e

v a l i d i t y o f r e s e a r c h i s e q u a t e d w i t h p r o d u c t i v i t y per E, w i t h

t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l c o m m o d i t i e s a n d t h e s e a r e i n

t u r n e v a l u a t e d b y t h e i d e o l o g i c a l n e e d s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r

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d i s c i p l i n e . As P h i l i p Rahv h a s n o t e d t h i s f e t i s h o f p r o d u c t i v -

i t y h a s p r o v e d a n t a g o n i s t i c t o g e n u i n e c r e a t i v i t y b e c a u s e t h e

l u r e o f t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t t a k e s p r e c e d e n c e o v e r t h e e x p e r i e n c e

o f i m a g i n a t i v e d i s c o v e r y . 5

To r e c a p i t u l a t e : m o d e r n t h o u g h t i s u n a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h

human p o t e n t i a l i t y f r o m i t s h i s t o r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n b e c a u s e t h e

p r o d u c t i v e i m p e r a t i v e s o f c a p i t a l i s m a r e assumed t o p r e s c r i b e

t h e l i m i t s o f human a c t i v i t y . The d i s m e m b e r m e n t o f t h e p e r s o n -

a l i t y t h a t i s p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f s o c i a l l i f e i n c a p i t a l i s m

u n c o n s c i o u s l y d i r e c t s p e o p l e t o f i n d f o r m s o f i d e n t i t y i n t h e

i m m e d i a t e r e a l i t y r a t h e r t h a n s u f f e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f

g r e a t e r a l i e n a t i o n i n t h e p u r s u i t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s . The i n a b i l -

i t y t o i m a g i n e a p o l i t i c a l t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f c a p i t a l i s m i s a

f u n c t i o n o f a n i d e o l o g y t h a t d e n i e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s o c i a l

o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f h u m a n l y m e a n i n g f u l s u b j e c t i v i t y w h i l e

a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f human o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n s

i n t o c o m m o d i t i e s i s t h e u n i v e r s a l f o r m o f a l l human a c t i v i t y .

The a b o v e d i a l e c t i c a l movemen t d e s c r i b e s t h e s t r u c t u r a l

b a s i s o f m o d e r n c o n f o r m i s t t h o u g h t b u t t h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s how

t h e New C r i t i c s d e v e l o p a p a r t i c u l a r i d e o l o g y f o r t h e s t u d y o f

l i t e r a t u r e . T h e r e c a n b e l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t , a t l e a s t i n Canada

a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e Yew C r i t i c i s m h a s d o m i n a t e d t h e

s t u d y o f l i t e r a t u r e f o r t h e l a s t t h i r t y y e a r s . I t i s t r u e

t h a t t h e d e c a d e t h a t w i t n e s s e d t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e w r i t i n g s

o f B l a c k m u r , Ransom a n d T a t e was c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y p o l e m i c s

a g a i n s t e s t a b l i s h e d a p p r o a c h e s t o c r i t i c i s m ( B i o g r a p h i s m ,

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humanism a n d h i s t o r i c i s m ) , b u t b y t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s t h e

t i d e had t u r n e d a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e New

C r i t i c i s m w e r e f a s t b e c o m i n g i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f

a l l l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m .

What w e r e t h e f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s phenomena l

s u c c e s s ? C e r t a i n l y a t o n e l e v e l New C r i t i c i s m i s p e c u l i a r l y

n a t i o n a l a n d i t s r i s e c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f

m o n o p o l y c a p i t a l i s m a n d t h e e c o n o m i c boom o f A m e r i c a n i n d u s t r y . 6

The i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f m o n o p o l y c a p i t a l i s m c a n

h a r d l y b e u n d e r s t a t e d . N o t o n l y was p r o d u c t i v i s m g i v e n a new

l i f e b u t i t was done so i n an a t m o s p h e r e o f c o n f o r m i s m . As t h e

f o l l o w i n g comment b y Ransom makes c l e a r t h i s i d e o l o g y e x t e n d s

w e l l b e y o n d i n d u s t r i a l e t h i c s :

. . . where a r e t h e p r o f e s s o r o f l i t e r a t u r e ? They a r e w a t e r i n g t h e i r own g a r d e n s : e l u c i d a t i n g t h e l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i e s o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p e r i o d s . So a r e t h e i r f a v o r i t e p u p i l s .

I t i s n o t so i n e c o n o m i c s , c h e m i s t r y , s o c i o l o g y a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e . I n t h e s e b r a n c h e s i t i s t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d t h a t t h e c r i t i c i s m o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e i s t h e p r e r o g a t i v e o f t h e men who h a v e had t h e f o r m a l t r a i n i n g i n i t s t h e o r y a n d t e c h n i q u e . 7

T h i s e n t h u s i a s m f o r s k i l l s , a l t h o u g h r a r e l y a s e x p l i c i t l y

s t a t e d , i s a l w a y s i m p l i c i t i n t h e t h e o r y o f p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m .

These r e m a r k s , w r i t t e n i n 1 9 3 8 , m i g h t p e r h a p s be e x c u s e d on

t h e g r o u n d s o f n a i v e t e b u t t h e y c o n t a i n t h e ge rm o f f u t u r e

c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e : t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p r a c t i c a l s k i l l s i s a

f u n c t i o n o f q u a n t i t a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h h a s n o o t h e r

j u s t i f i c a t i o n t h a n t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e .

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T h i s p r o p e n s i t y f o r p r o d u c t i o n i s h o w e v e r o n l y one s i d e

o f t h e i d e o l o g i c a l d y n a m i c o f t h e New C r i t i c i s m ; t h e o t h e r i s

t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f t h e r e a d e r f r o m t h e p r o c e s s o f p r o d u c t i o n .

T h e r e i s n o a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e f o r m a l i s t m e t h o d s o f New C r i t i c i s m ,

w h i c h e m p h a s i z e c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o l a n g u a g e a n d l i t e r a r y

s t r u c t u r e , a r e v a l u a b l e a n d have p r o d u c e d many o r i g i n a l a n d

g e n u i n e i n s i g h t s a b o u t l i t e r a t u r e . The d i f f i c u l t y a r i s e s i n

t h e c e n t r a l a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e 'mode o f e x i s t e n c e o f a

l i t e r a r y w o r k ' i s a

. . . s y s t e m o f no rms o f i d e a l c o n c e p t s w h i c h a r e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e . They m u s t be assumed t o e x i s t i n a c o l l e c t i v e i d e o l o g y , c h a n g i n g w i t h i t , a c c e s s i b l e t h r o u g h i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e , b a s e d on t h e s o u n d - s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s e n t e n c e s . 8

W h i l e i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e ' n o r m s o f i d e a l c o n c e p t s ' a r e o n l y

a c c e s s i b l e t h r o u g h i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s t h i s b y n o means

i m p l i e s t h a t l i t e r a t u r e c a n o n l y be d i s c u s s e d i n t e r m s o f i t s

i n t r i n s i c q u a l i t i e s - - l a n g u a g e a n d s t r u c t u r e . C r i t i c i s m c a n n o t

t a k e f o r g r a n t e d t h e r e a d e r who, a s a componen t o f t h e l i t e r a r y

p r o c e s s , m u s t be i l l u m i n a t e d i n t e r m s o f c o n c r e t e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c

f o r c e s . N o r i s i t l e g i t i m a t e t o assume t h a t l a n g u a g e has a

d e t e r m i n a t e o b j e c t i v i t y - - i t o n l y e x i s t s t h r o u g h t h e r e a d e r .

The f a i l u r e o f t h e New C r i t i c s t o a d d r e s s t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e s e

i s s u e s l e a d s them t o t h e p r e p o s t e r o u s a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e

a b s t r a c t i m m e d i a c y o f t h e t e x t i s i t s e l f an a e s t h e t i c a n d

c u l t u r a l t o t a l i t y .

B u t i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s r e d u c t i o n o f a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e

t o l a n g u a g e a n d s t r u c t u r e t h a t a l l o w s c r i t i c i s m t o p r o l i f e r a t e

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a s t e x t u a l c r i t i c i s m . And, a s I h a v e a r g u e d , a t e x t t h a t i s

a b s t r a c t e d f r o m t h e r e a d e r qua s o c i o - h i s t o r i c s u b j e c t m u s t be

c o n s i d e r e d t o f u n c t i o n a s a c o m m o d i t y . When l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m

becomes t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e a s c o m m o d i t y t h e q u a l i t y

o f r e s e a r c h becomes s a c r i f i c e d t o t h e l o g i c o f c a p i t a l w h i c h i s

n e i t h e r i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f l i t e r a t u r e n o r i n t h e

i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c r i t i c .

The a u t h o r i t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e o f t h e New C r i t i c i s m becomes

c l e a r if we l o o k a t W . K . W i m s a t t ' s e s s a y , " E x p l i c a t i o n a s

C r i t i c i s m " . W i m s a t t b e g i n s b y a r g u i n g t h a t an e x p l i c a t i v e

c r i t i c a l t h e o r y a r i s e s n a t u r a l l y f r o m a h o l i s t i c a e s t h e t i c s :

The s u c c e s s o f e x p l i c a t i o n i n p e r s u a d i n g u s o f l i t e r a r y v a l u e i s a k i n d o f p r a c t i c a l t e s t o f how w e l l a e s t h e t i c t h e o r i e s o f o r d e r a n d w h o l e n e s s do a p p l y t o l i t e r a r y w o r k s . More p r e c i s e l y , a p r a c t i c a l a f f i n i t y b e t w e e n h o l i s m a n d e x p l i c a t i o n a r i s e s b e c a u s e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d w h o l e n e s s a r e m t t e r s o f s t r u c t u r e a n d hence a1 so o f i m p 1 i c a t i o n . 3

B u t w h a t a r e t h e c r i t e r i a o f s u c c e s s ? Do we e v a l u a t e t h e

v a l i d i t y o f a c r i t i c a l t h e o r y s i m p l y on i t s c a p a c i t y t o

g e n e r a t e c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s o r on i t s c a p a c i t y t o i n t e r p r e t

l i t e r a r y w o r k s ? O b v i o u s l y v a l u e , f o r W i m s a t t , i s q u a n t i t a t i v e

s i n c e ' e x p l i c a t i o n ' i s seen t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f

c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s . He makes n o a t t e m p t , f o r e x a m p l e , t o demon-

s t r a t e t h e r e a l t i o n s h i p o f s t r u c t u r e t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l v a l u e o f

t e x t s : s t r u c t u r e i s a s s e r t e d as t h e e s s e n c e o f l i t e r a r y t e x t s

b u t w h a t i s t h e e s s e n c e o f s t r u c t u r e ? F o r W i m s a t t , who w a n t s an

a e s t h e t i c t h e o r y c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h l i n g u i s t i c o r d e r a n d

who1 e n e s s , t h e s e p r o b a b l y s o u n d 1 i k e 1 u d i c r o u s q u e s t i o n s . B u t

t h e i s s u e r e m a i n s even i f W i m s a t t a s k e s t h e q u e s t i o n , How do

we w r i t e a b o u t l i t e r a t u r e ? The f a i l u r e t o p r o v i d e e v e n t e n t a -

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t i v e s o l u t i o n s m e r e l y r e v e a l s t h a t W i m s a t t ' s a c t u a l p u r p o s e i s

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f an e t h o s o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m t h a t i s o n l y

p e r i p h e r a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l f u n c t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e .

G i v e n W i m s a t t ' s i d e o l o g i c a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s i t s h o u l d come

as n o s u r p r i s e t h a t h o l i s m i s t a k e n a s a s u b j e c t i v e t r u t h :

Y e t t h e v a l i d i t y o f p a r t i a l v a l u e a s a g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e i n t e n s i o n w i t h h o l i s m seems o b v i o u s . The w h o l e w i t h w h i c h e x p l i c a t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d i s some- t h i n g e l a s t i c a n d a p p r o x i m a t e .

A l l i n a poem.. .may be a s s i m i l a t e d b y t h e p e c u l i a r p r o c e s s o f a g i v e n poem. P o e t r y i s t h e a r t t h a t m o s t r e a d i l y t r a n s c e n d s t h e s i m p l e p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e a n d i l l u s t r a t s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s t r u c t u r e a n d h a r m o n i o u s t e n s i o n . 70

H o l i s m , t h e p r i n c i p l e o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f t h e p a r t s w i t h t h e

w h o l e , i s assumed t o be s e l f - e v i d e n t t o a n y r e a d e r o f p o e t r y .

W i m s a t t seems a p p a r e n t l y unaware t h a t t h e " a f f e c t i v i s m " he

f i n d s s o a b h o r r e n t i n R i c h a r d s i s h e r e g i v e n an e v e n more

s e v e r e e x p r e s s i o n . T h a t i s , w h i l e c l a i m i n g t o p r o v i d e an

o b j e c t i v e f r a m e w o r k f o r p o e t r y he n e v e r t r a n s c e n d s t h e m o s t

b l a t a n t s u b j e c t i v i s m . L i t e r a t u r e , r a t h e r t h a n p r o v i d i n g a

means f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g human e x p e r i e n c e , i s r e d u c e d t o m e r e

o r n a m e n t a l i s m : t h e r e a d e r i s o n l y a l l o w e d t o c o n t e m p l a t e

b e a u t y a s a t h i n g o u t s i d e o f h i m s e l f . L i t e r a t u r e , l i k e Y e a t s ' s

B y z a n t i n e w o r l d , i s f r o z e n i n t i m e w i t h o u t l i f e o r d e a t h .

The c o r o l l a r y o f h o l i s t i c a e s t h e t i c i s m i s a m e c h a n i s t i c

r e l a t i o n o f t h e p a r t s t o t h e w h o l e . W i m s a t t a r g u e s t h a t t h e

p a r t s h a v e o n l y t w o f o r m s o f d i s c o u r s e - - t h e e x p l i c i t , a

s t a t e m e n t has d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o r e a l i t y , a n d t h e i m p l i c i t ,

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a s t a t e m e n t t h a t c o h e r e s t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f r e a l i t y . P o e t i c

d i s c o u r s e , b y c r e a t i n g a h a r m o n i o u s t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e

fo rms , e x p r e s s e s an e x t r a d i m e n s i o n o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o r

e x p l i c i t n e s s , t h e s y m b o l i c o r t h e a n a l o g i c a l . J u s t a s i t i s

t h e f u n c t i o n o f p o e t i c d i s c o u r s e t o t r a n s c e n t t h e p o l a r i t i e s

o f e x p l i c i t a n d i m p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t s , so i t i s t h e f u n c t i o n o f

c r i t i c i s m t o e x p l i c a t e t h a t t r a n s c e n d e n c e . F o r W i m s a t t e x p l i c -

a t i o n a s c r i t i c i s m i s d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b e c a u s e

i t shows w h a t a poem l i t e r a l l y means, and v a l u e , b e c a u s e a

poem i s n o t a poem if t h e p o l a r i t i e s a r e u n b a l a n c e d . W i m s a t t

i s q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t t h a t

a c t u a l d i s v a l u e i n p o e t r y a r i s e s when some a b s t r a c t l y t r u e o r c o r r e c t a t t i t u d e i s b l u r r e d

a r b l e d i n s y m b o l i c o r s t y l i s t i c i n c o h e r e n c i e s , o r Or 7 more f l a g r a n t l y ) when some f a l s e a s s e r t i o n o r a t t i t u d e i s i n v e s t e d w i t h s p e c i o u s f o r m s o f c o h e r e n c e . . . . O r a g a i n , a poem c a n be g i v e n a n i l l u s i o n o f d e p t h t h r o u g h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a p p a r e n t l y r e a l b u t c t u a l l y p h a n t a s m a l o r i r r e l e v a n t s y m b o l s . 1 ?

However W i m s a t t ' s v i e w t h a t e x p l i c a t i o n , e v e n i n i t s w i d e s t

s e n s e , c a n b o t h e v a l u a t e a l i t e r a r y t e x t a n d p r o v i d e a m e t h o d

f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t s m e a n i n g i s s e r i o u s l y i n a d e q u a t e . A t e x t

o n l y p o s s e s s e s an a b s t r a c t i m m e d i a c y a n d c a n o n l y b e t r a n s -

f o r m e d i n t o l i t e r a t u r e t h r o u g h t h e m e d i a t i o n o f t h e r e a d e r who

i s n o t a s i m p l e r e p o s i t o r y f o r ' o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d s t r u c t u r e ' . T h i s

c u l t u r a l d i a l e c t i c b e t w e e n r e a d e r a n d t e x t d e t e r m i n e s t h e v a l u e

o f t h e poem a n d e x p l a i n s why D o n n e ' s p o e t r y s h o u l d s u d d e n l y

be " d i s c o v e r e d " by a g e n e r a t i o n i n d e s p e r a t e s e a r c h f o r an

a u t h o r i t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n t h a t c o u l d d i s s o l v e i t s e x i s t e n t i a l

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A n g s t .

What t h e n i s t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e r e a d e r f o r W i m s a t t ?

W i m s a t t e x p l a i n s t h a t

t h e end-means r e l a t i o n i n l i t e r a t u r e ( s o f a r a s t h e e n d i s o u t s i d e t h e means) i s a r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n u s t h e r e a d e r s a n d t h e poem, t h e means o f w h i c h t h e p o e t may i n d e e d be a i m i n g a t u s . I n s i d e t h e poem 1 2 t h e r e a r e n o e n d s a n d means, o n l y w h o l e s a n d p a r t s .

F o r W i m s a t t t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e t e x t i s b e y o n d c h a l l e n g e b u t

who, i f n o t t h e r e a d e r , d e t e r m i n e s t h a t a u t h o r i t y ? W i m s a t t i s

t r a p p e d i n a c i r c u l a r e p i s t e m o l o g y - - w h i c h comes f i r s t , t h e

r e a d e r o r t h e t e x t ? By c h o o s i n g t o b r e a k t h e c i r c l e b y d e p r i v -

i n g t h e t e x t o f c u l t u r a l v a l u e a n d t h e r e a d e r o f a c t i v e

c o n s c i o u s n e s s W i m s a t t r e v e a l s e x p l i c a t i o n t o be a n e x p r e s s i o n

o f a n i m p o v e r i s h e d c u l t u r e , a c u l t u r e t h a t can no l o n g e r

a c h i e v e s u b l i m a t i o n t h r o u g h a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e .

B u t i t i s p e r h a p s i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f l i t e r a r y v a l u e

t h a t W i m s a t t i s m o s t r e v e a l i n g . He w r i t e s :

... v a l u e s a r e c o n t i n u o u s w i t h a n d e m b o d i e d i n e x p e r i e n c e , i n t h e f a c t s a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e f a c t s . . . . F u r t h e r m o r e , s i n c e v a l u e i s a n i n d e f i n i t e l y f l e x i b l e a n d a n a l o g i c a l c o n c e p t , c o - e x t e n s i v e w i t h f o r m a n d b e i n g , a s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i s a l w a y s t h e same-- t h e r e i s no e x c u s e f o r i n t r u d i n g s p e c i a l t e r m s o f a p p r e c i a t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n i n t o o u r e l u c i d a t i v e c r i t i c i s m . V a l u e i s a l w a y s i m p l i c i t a n d i n d e f i n a b l e . I t l o o k s a f t e r i t s e l f . 1 3

W i m s a t t ' s c a v a l i e r r e j e c t i o n o f ' s p e c i a l t e r m s o f a p p r e c i a t i o n

a n d e v a l u a t i o n ' c a n o n l y be f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f t h e

c r i t i c a l " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s " f o r c e d on t h e t e x t a n d t h e r e a d e r .

S i n c e t h e t e x t has been d e p r i v e d o f c u l t u r a l v a l u e a n d t h e

r e a d e r has become t h e e x p l i c a t i o n i s t c r i t i c , t h e n e e d f o r a

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t h e o r y of v a l u e - i s sumsumed @ t h e t h e o r y o f m e t h o d w h i c h - --

i t s e l f a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a n e u t e r e d t e x t . - - l4 TO p u t i t more

s c h e m a t i c a l l y : t h e " d e - c u l t u r e d " t e x t i s t h e n e g a t i o n o f a

t h e o r y o f v a l u e a n d t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n o f a t h e o r y o f u n d i f f e r e n t -

i a t e d l i t e r a r y f a r m s w h i l e t h e r a t i o n a l i z e d r e a d e r i s t h e s i n e

qua n o n o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l " r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n " . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

s i n c e t h e f a i l u r e t o d e v e l o p a t h e o r y o f l i t e r a r y v a l u e i m p l i e s

t h e i d e n t i t y o f r a t i o n a l i z e d r e s e a r c h a n d t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f

l i t e r a r y fo rms, so r e s e a r c h i s c a t e g o r i z e d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y i n

t h e same m e a s u r e a s l i t e r a t u r e i s c a t e g o r i z e d f o r m a l i s t i c a l l y . 15

The e f f e c t o f t h e New C r i t i c a l p r o j e c t i s t o n e g a t e t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e a s t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s

e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i d e a l s o f a c u l t u r e a n d a c r i t i q u e o f t h e

i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c h i e v i n g t h o s e i d e a l s w i t h i n i m m e d i a t e

c u l t u r a l f o r m s . L i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , on t h e o t h e r hand, b y

f i n d i n g n o o t h e r r a t i o n a l e t h a n t h e e x p l i c a t i o n o f t e x t s , i s

u n a b l e t o d e v e l o p a s c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y b e c a u s e i t c h o o s e s t o

f o l l o w t h e l o g i c o f c a p i t a l a n d becomes r a t i o n a l i z e d l a b o u r .

Y e t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r f o r m o f i n t e l l e c t u a l l a b o u r c a n n o t b e

i s o l a t e d f r o m t h e g e n e r a l f o r m o f modern b o u r g e o i s c u l t u r e .

As W a l t e r B e n j a m i n has p o i n t e d o u t t h e e f f e c t o f a consumer

s o c i e t y i s t o r e d u c e a l l c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e v a l u e s o f

t h e m a r k e t w h i c h p r e s u p p o s e s t h e i g n o r a n c e o f t h e b u y e r . 1 6

F u r t h e r , b e c a u s e t h i s i g n o r a n c e can n e v e r b e a d m i t t e d an

e x a g g e r a t e d i d e o l o g y o f t a s t e d e v e l o p s w h i c h , b e c a u s e i t i s

a " r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n " , d e f i e s r a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s .

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I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t u d y o f t h e New C r i t i c i s m I w i l l

c o n t e n d t h a t t h e c r i t i q u e o f V i c t o r i a n c u l t u r e t h a t i s i n i t i a t e d

b y M a t t h e w A r n o l d a n d f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d i n t o a c r i t i q u e o f

h u m a n i s t c u l t u r e b y T . S . E l i o t p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i c t e l e o l o g y

o f t h e New C r i t i c s . A t t h e same t i m e h o w e v e r , I t h i n k t h e New

C r i t i c i s m i s e s s e n t i a l l y d i s c o n t i n u o u s w i t h t h i s movement

b e c a u s e i t f o r s a k e s t h e p r o b l e m o f c u l t u r e , so c e n t r a l t o A r n o l d

a n d E l i o t , f o r t h e p r o b l e m o f s c i e n c e . The e f f e c t o f t h i s

d e v e l o p m e n t i s t w o - f o l d : ( 1 ) l i t e r a r y a e s t h e t i c s i s t r a n s f o r m e d

i n t o an e t h i c s o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m ; a n d ( 2 ) t h e n o t i o n o f

c u l t u r e i s t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m t h e a l i e n a t e d s u b j e c t i v i t y o f t h e

i n d i v i d u a l t o t h e a b s t r a c t t e x t . T h i s p r o c e s s makes u s e o f

t h e p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m o f I . A . R i c h a r d s , b u t i t s r e a l d e t e r m i n -

a n t i s t h e i n t r u s i o n o f m o n o p o l y c a p i t a l i n t o N o r t h A m e r i c a n

i n t e l l e c t u a l 1 i f e .

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11. C R I S I S AND REACTION: ARNOLD, HUME A.ND ELIOT

L i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s h a v e o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o M a t t h e w

A r n o l d a s t h e f a t h e r o f modern l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . ' T h i s

j u d g m e n t , h o w e v e r , becomes p r o b l e m a t i c b e c a u s e t h e m a j o r

p r o p o n e n t s o f modern l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , n a m e l y T . S . E l i o t

a n d J o h n Crowe Ransom, h a v e u n e q u i v o c a l l y condemned A r n o l d as

a V i c t o r i a n m o r a l i s t . I t w o u l d n o t be v e r y f r u i t f u l t h e r e f o r e

t o t r a c e t h e l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e s o f A r n o l d o n h i s f o l l o w e r s

who f o r t h e m o s t p a r t a r e n o t " A r n o l d i a n s " . I t h e r e f o r e

p r o p o s e a more p r o d u c t i v e t a c t i c w h i c h i s t o a r g u e t h a t A r n o l d

i n i t i a t e d an i d e o l o g i c a l p rogramme f o r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m .

A l t h o u g h t h e i d e o l o g i c a l n e e d s o f V i c t o r i a n c a p i t a l i s m a r e

q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e o f A m e r i c a n m o n o p o l y c a p i t a l i s m

t h e f u n c t i o n o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m has s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e m a i n e d

t h e same; t h a t i s , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m c o n t i n u e s t o c o n t r i b u t e

t o t h e i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e o v e r c a p i t a l i s t

s o c i e t y .

B e f o r e e n t e r i n g i n t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f o r m o f A r n o l d ' s

i d e o l o g i c a l p rogramme i t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o c l a r i f y t h e

c r i t i c a l u s e o f " i d e o l o g y " . To b e g i n w i t h i d e o l o g y m u s t n o t

be c o n f u s e d w i t h p r o p a g a n d a ; t h e f o r m e r i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e

f o r m a n d t h e l a t t e r w i t h t h e c o n t e n t o f k n o w l e d g e :

What m o s t s h a r p l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s a p r o p a g a n d i s t i c f r o m an i d e o l o g i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a - t i o n o f t h e f a c t s i s p r e c i s e l y t h a t i t s f a l s i f i c a - t i o n a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e t r u t h i s a l w a y s c o n s c i o u s a n d i n t e n t i o n a l . I d e o l o g y , on t h e o t h e r

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hand , i s m e r e d e c e p t i o n - - n e v e r s i m p l y l i e s a n d d e c e i t . I t o b s c u r e s t r u t h i n o r d e r n o t so much t o m i s l e a d o t h e r s a s t o m a i n t a i n a n d i n c r e a s e t h e s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e o f t h o e who e x p r e s s a n d b e n e f i t f r o m s u c h a d e c e p t i o n . 5 The i m p o r t a n c e o f i d e o l o g y i s n o t t h a t i t r e n d e r s a l l

t h o u g h t h i s t o r i c a l l y r e l a t i v e , a s P o p p e r , Kuhn and t h e

s o c i o l o g i s t s o f k n o w l e d g e w o u l d h a v e i t , b u t r a t h e r t h a t a l l

t h o u g h t i s r o o t e d i n h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . I d e o l o g y s h o u l d

t h e r e f o r e be c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l

s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d s o c i a l o b j e c t i v i t y w h i c h A r n o l d H a u s e r

d e s c r i b e s a s f o l l o w s :

O b v i o u s l y , man c r e a t e s i d e o l o g i e s , b u t n o t w i t h o u t c e r t a i n p r e c o n d i t i o n s ; a n d i t i s i n t h e s e p r e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t l i e s t h e c l e a r e s t d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e s u p r a - i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r o f i d e o l o g y , i t s s o c i a l o b j e c t i v i t y a n d a u t o n o m y . Men do n o t c r e a t e i d e o l o g i e s o u t o f an a r b i t r a r y whim. O t h e r w i s e i d e o l o g i e s w o u l d b e n o t h i n g b u t f a b r i c a t i o n , f i g m e n t s o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , o r p o e t i c f a n c i e s . However , a l t h o u g h i t c o n s t a n t l y r e c u r s , t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n men a s a n i d e o l o g y - c r e a t i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l s u b j e c t a n d man a s i d e o l o g i c a l l y c r e a t e d s o c i o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i s n o t i r r e c o n c i l i a b l e . I t m e r e l y e x p r e s s e s m a n ' s d u a l i d e n t i t y , h i s i n d i v i d u a l a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r , w h i c h i s t h e b a s i s o f t h e d i a l e c t i c a l e s s e n c e o f h i s w h o l e l i f e . The c r i t i c i s m t o w h i c h he s u b j e c t s h i s i d e o l o g y i s a s i n c a p a b l e o f t r a n s c e n d i n g t h e i d e o l o g i c a l dependence o f h i s own t h o u g h t a s t h e f a c t t h a t h i s own t h o u g h t has a s o c i a l b a s i s c a n p r e v e n t h i m f r o m c o m i n g i n t o , a n d r e m a i n i n g i n c o n f l i c t w i t h , h i s s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t !

The s e c o n d m a j o r p o i n t a b o u t i d e o l o g y c o n c e r n s t h e

p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e ' s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t ' a n d u n d e r

c a p i t a l i s m t h i s i n e v i t a b l y means t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h o u g h t

t o t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e . More p a r t i c u l a r l y , i t i s t h e f u n c t i o n

o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s t o m a i n t a i n t h e ' h e g e m o n y ' ( t o u s e G r a m s c i ' s

t e r m ) o f t h e r u l i n g c l a s s w i t h i n t h e c u l t u r a l s p h e r e o f s o c i e t y .

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G r a m s c i e x p l a i n s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e

d o m i n a n t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n a s f o l l o w s :

E v e r y s o c i a l c l a s s , c o m i n g i n t o e x i s t e n c e on t h e o r i g i n a l b a s i s o f a n e s s e n t i a l f u n c t i o n i n t h e w o r l d o f e c o n o m i c p r o d u c t i o n , c r e a t e s w i t h i t s e l f , o r g a n i c a l l y , one o r m o r e g r o u p s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s who g i v e i t h o m o g e n e i t y a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f i t s f u n c t i o n n o t o n l y i n t h e e c o n o m i c f i e l d , b u t i n t h e s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l f i e l d a s w e l l : t h e c a p i t a l i s t e n t r e p r e n e u r c r e a t e s w i t h h i m s e l f t h e i n d u s t r i a l t e c h n i c i a n , t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i s , t h e o r g a n i z e r o f a new c u l t u r e , o f a new l a w , e t c . 1

G r a m s c i ' s a r g u m e n t r e s t s on t h e f a c t t h a t , w h i l e i n t e l l e c t u a l s

c o n s t i t u t e a s p e c i a l i z e d s o c i a l g r o u p , t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

t h e ' w o r l d o f p r o d u c t i o n ' i s m e d i a t e d b y t h e ' w h o l e s o c i a l

f a b r i c . . . a n d b y t h e c o m p l e x o f t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e o f w h i c h

t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s a r e i n f a c t " o f f i c i a l s " ' .5 The c r i t i c a l

f u n c t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i a n i s t h e r e f o r e t o d e t e r m i n e

i n w h a t s e n s e t h o u g h t r e f l e c t s t h e p r e v a i l i n g c l a s s s t r u c t u r e

o f s o c i e t y and, i n t h e c a s e o f b o u r g e o i s t h o u g h t , t h e i d e o l o g -

i c a l means b y w h i c h t h a t s t r u c t u r e i s m a i n t a i n e d .

The b a s i c s t r u c t u r e o f A r n o l d ' s i d e o l o g i c a l p r o j e c t i s

m o s t c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d i n C u l t u r e a n d A n a r c h y , h i s b e s t known

w o r k . S i n c e t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n E n g l a n d h a d been t h e s t a g e

f o r a s e r i e s o f m i l i t a n t w o r k i n g c l a s s s o c i a l movements w i t h

C h a r t i s m p l a y i n g t h e l e a d i n g r o l e . And, i n v i e w o f t h e u p h e a v a l s

i n E u r o p e i n 1 8 4 8 a n d t h e d i s t u r b a n c e s i n I r e l a n d , i t was

n a t u r a l t h a t t h e E n g l i s h b o u r g e o i s i e s h o u l d r e g a r d r e v o l u t i o n

a s a v e r y r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y . A t t h e same t i m e E n g l a n d was

b e g i n n i n g t o l o s e i t s i n d u s t r i a l d o m i n a n c e o v e r E u r o p e . I n

s h o r t , E n g l i s h c a p i t a l i s m was u n d e r g o i n g i t s f i r s t m a j o r c r i s i s .

I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h e E n g l i s h b a u r g e o i s i e h a d t o

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c o n s o l i d a t e i t s power a n d t h i s mean t m i n i m i z i n g t h e c o n f l i c t

b e t w e e n t h e l a n d e d a n d m e r c h a n t b o u r g e o i s i e and t h e i n d u s t r i a l

b o u r g e o i s i e . T h i s a l l i a n c e i s a t t h e c e n t r e o f C u l t u r e - a n d

A n a r c h y a n d i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n H e l l e n i s m

a n d H e b r a i s m .

The c o n s c i o u s m o t i v e f o r C u l t u r e a n d A n a r c h y i s n o t t h e

f e a r o f r e v o l u t i o n b u t r a t h e r t h e f e a r t h a t s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e

i s d i s a p p e a r i n g f r o m b o u r g e o i s c u l t u r e . T h i s f e e l i n g i s h a r d l y

u n i q u e t o A r n o l d b u t i s s h a r e d b y m o s t i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f t h e

age. However f o r t h e b o u r g e o i s i n t e l l e c t u a l t h i s a n x i e t y

becomes a c r i s e -- de f o i b e c a u s e i t c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n h i s

l o y a l t y t o c a p i t a l i s m and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e s o c i a l v a l u e s o f

h i s own c l a s s . A r n o l d c h o o s e s t o d e f e n d t h e i n d u s t r i a l

b o u r g e o i s i e o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t i t c r e a t e d a p r o s p e r o u s s o c i e t y ,

b u t c r i t i c i z e s i t f o r i t s u t i l i t a r i a n z e a l w h i c h t r i v i a l i z e d

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e n a t i o n a l s p i r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n w h i c h was

t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e a r i s t o c r a c y .

A r n o l d does n o t f o r m u l a t e t h i s c o n f l i c t i n t e r m s o f

c l a s s b u t r a t h e r a s a p s y c h o l o g i c a l d u a l i t y w i t h i n t h e

b o u r g e o i s i e . More i m p o r t a n t l y , C u l t u r e a n d A n a r c h y o n l y t a k e s

on i d e o l o g i c a l v a l u e b e c a u s e i t i s a p s y c h o l o g i s t i c a b s t r a c t -

i o n o f a h i s t o r i c a l l y g e n u i n e c o n f l i c t . A r n o l d d i s t i n g u i s h e s

b e t w e e n H e b r a i s m a n d H e l l e n i s m a s f o l l o w s :

B u t w h i l e H e b r a i s m s e i z e s upon c e r t a i n p l a i n , c a p i t a l i n t i m a t i o n s o f t h e u n i v e r s a l o r d e r and r i v e t s i t s e l f , o n e may s a y , w i t h t h e u n e q u a l l e d g r a n d e u r o f e a r n e s t n e s s a n d i n t e n s i t y i n t h e s t u d y

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a n d o b s e r v a n c e o f them, t h e b e n t o f H e l l e n i s m i s t o f o l l o w , w i t h f l e x i b l e a c t i v i t y , t h e w h o l e p l a y o f u n i v e r s a l o r d e r , t o be a p p r e h e n s i v e o f m i s s i n g any p a r t o f i t , o f s a c r i f i c i n g one p a r t t o a n o t h e r , t o s l i p away f r o m r e s t i n g i n t h i s o r t h a t i n t i m a t i o n o f i t , however c a p i t a l . An un - c l o u d e d c l e a r n e s s , an un impeded p l a y o f t h o u g h t , i s w h a t t h i s b e n t a r r i v e s a t . The g o v e r n i n g i d e a o f H e l l e n i s m i s t h e s p o n t a n e i t y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; t h a t o f H e b r a i s m , s t r i c t n e s s of - c 0 n s c i e n c e . b

The H e b r a i s t i c i d e a l c a n be l o o s e l y e q u a t e d w i t h b o u r g e o i s

m o r a l i t y w h i c h f i n d s i t s t r u e f o r m i n p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y a n d

i n t h e p u r s u i t o f sensuous m a t e r i a l i t y , t h e ' u n e q u a l l e d

g r a n d e u r o f e a r n e s t n e s s ' ; b u t t h e i d e a l i s n o t i n t r o s p e c t i v e

a n d hence c a n n o t p r o d u c e an a e s t h e t i c c u l t u r e . H e l l e n i s m ,

by c o n t r a s t , i s t h e e s s e n c e o f a e s t h e t i c c u l t u r e b e c a u s e i t does

n o t r e c o g n i z e a n y p r a c t i c a l l i m i t s ; i t i s ' a n un impeded p l a y

o f t h o u g h t ' . However whereas H e b r a i s m c a n f o r m t h e b a s i s o f

b o t h a s o c i e t y and a c u l t u r e , a l b e i t i n an i m p o v e r i s h e d f o r m ,

H e l l e n i s m m u s t r e j e c t a l l h i s t o r i c a l f o r m s b e c a u s e i t i s t h e

e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e au tonomous and f r e e m i n d . B u t i t s h o u l d b e

c l e a r t h a t A r n o l d ' s r a d i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f c u l t u r e f r o m s o c i e t y

r e f l e c t s h i s i d e o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e t o c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y b e c a u s e

t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e H e l l e n i s t s u b j e c t ( i . e . t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c

man o f l e i s u r e ) i s n o t o n l y a c o n s e q u e n c e o f c a p i t a l i s t

d e v e l o p m e n t b u t i s a1 so e s s e n t i a l t o t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t . W i t h o u t

d o u b t A r n o l d ' s a p p e a l t o H e l l e n i s m i s p o l i t i c a l l y n a i v e , b u t

i d e o l o g i c a l l y i t c r e a t e s t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t a b a s i s f o r s o l i d a r -

i t y and c r e a t i v i t y can be f o u n d w i t h i n t h e b o u r g e o i s i e . The

b a s i s f o r A r n o l d ' s c u l t u r a l c r i t i q u e i s n o t , even i n i d e a l i s t

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t e r m s , a n e g a t i o n o f b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y b u t i s i n s t e a d an

e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s p a r t i a l i t y t o t h a t s o c i e t y . What A r n o l d w a n t s

i s a b o u r g e o i s s o c i a l r e a l i t y t h a t r e c o g n i z e s t h e n e c e s s i t y o f

p u r e s p e c u l a t i o n ; i n n u c e , A r n o l d w a n t s a s o c i e t y t h a t c a n -- a c c e p t h i m a s a u s e f u l s o c i a l t y p e . 7

When A r n o l d i n t e r p r e t s t h e c o n c r e t e f o r c e s o f h i s t o r y

as m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a n a t u r a l p s y c h o l o g y , t h e ' s t r i c t n e s s

o f c o n s c i e n c e ' , he t h e r e f o r e d e c e i v e s h i s r e a d e r s , a s w e l l a s

h i m s e l f , i n t o t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e c o r r e c t i v e t o t h e d e - s p i r i t u a l -

i z a t i o n o f t h e s e l f i s t o be f o u n d n o t i n h i s t o r y b u t i n a

c o m p l e m e n t a r y p s y c h o l o g y , t h e ' s p o n t a n e i t y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' .

A r n o l d i s t h e r e f o r e a b l e t o p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r a r e n e w e d

f a i t h i n c a p i t a l i s m w i t h a m y t h o l o g y o f n a t u r a l h i s t o r y

w i t h o u t a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s o f c a p i t a l i s m .

B u t a l t h o u g h A r n o l d c a n m y s t i f y t h e c r i s i s he c a n n o t make

i t d i s a p p e a r a n d i t r e t u r n s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o ways . F i r s t l y ,

h i s d u a l i s t i c f o r m u l a t i o n o f s u b , j e c t i v i t y qua H e l l e n i s m l e a d s

t o m y s t i c i s m b e c a u s e i t has no c o n c r e t e f o r m s o f e x p r e s s i o n .

S e c o n d l y , h i s p r a c t i c a l m e t h o d o f ' d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s ' , w h i c h

i s i n t e n d e d t o j o i n p a r t i a l i t y and o b j e c t i v i t y , i s f o r c e d

t o i d e n t i f y " h i g h " c u l t u r e w i t h a t r a n s c e n d e n t f o r m o f t h e

b o u r g e o i s S t a t e . I n e f f e c t t h e S t a t e becomes t h e r e a l p o i n t

o f d e p a r t u r e f o r c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g y o r , w h a t amoun ts t o t h e

same t h i n g , C u l t u r e becomes an i d e o l o g i c a l a p p a r a t u s o f t h e

S t a t e . C o n s i d e r A r n o l d ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s :

I t i s o f t h e l a s t i m p o r t a n c e t h a t E n g l i s h c r i t i c i s m s h o u l d c l e a r l y d i s c e r n w h a t r u l e f o r

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i t s c o u r s e , i n o r d e r t o a v a i l i t s e l f o f t h e f i e l d now o p e n i n g t o i t , a n d t o p r o d u c e f r u i t f o r t h e f u t u r e , i t o u g h t t o t a k e . The r u l e may be summed up i n one w o r d - - d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s . And how i s c r i t i c i s m t o show d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s ? By k e e p i n g a l o o f f r o m w h a t i s c a l l e d t h e " p r a c t i c a l v i e w o f t h i n g s " ; b y r e s o l u t e l y f o l l o w - i n g t h e l a w o f i t s own n a t u r e , w h i c h i s t o be a f r e e p l a y o f t h e m i n d on a l l t h e s u b j e c t s w h i c h i t t o u c h e s . By s t e a d i l y r e f u s i n g t o l e n d i t s e l f t o a n y o f t h o s e u l t e r i o r , p o l i t i c a l , p r a c t i c a l c o n - s i d e r a t i o n s a b o u t i d e a s , w h i c h p l e n t y o f p e o p l e w i l l be s u r e t o a t t a c h t o them, w h i c h p e r h a p s o u g h t t o be a t t a c h e d t o them, w h i c h i n t h i s c o u n t r y a t a n y r a t e a r e c e r t a i n t o be a t t a c h e d t o t h e m q u i t e s u f f i c i e n t l y , b u t w h i c h c r i t i c i s m has c e r t a i n l y n o t h i n g t o do w i t h . I t s b u s i n e s s i s , a s I have s a i d , s i m p l y t o know t h e b e s t t h a t i s known a n d t h o u g h t i n t h e w o r l d , a n d b y i n i t s t u r n m a k i n g t h i s known, t o c r e a t e a c u r r e n t o f t r u e a n d f r e s h i d e a s . I t s b u s i n e s s i s t o do t h i s w i t h i n f l e x i b l e h o n e s t y , w i t h dre a b i l i t y ; b u t i t s b u s i n e s s i s t o do no more, a n d t o l e a v e a l o n e a l l q u e s t i o n s o f p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d ap - p l i c a t i o n s , q u e s t i o n s w h i c h w i l l n e v e r f a i l t o have due p r o m i n e n c e g i v e n t o them.8

T h i s p a s s a g e t a k e n f r o m "The F u n c t i o n o f C r i t i c i s m " ( 1 8 6 4 ) ,

p r o v i d e s an e s s e n t i a l l i n k i n A r n o l d ' s t h o u g h t be tween h i s

p r e s c r i p t i o n s f o r t h e ' g r a n d s t y l e ' i n "On T r a n s l a t i n g Homer"

( 1 8 6 1 ) t o h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f C u l t u r e w i t h t h e S t a t e i n

C u l t u r e and A n a r c h y ( 1 8 6 9 ) . The common i n f o r m i n g p r i c i p l e

o f t h e s e w r i t i n g s , w h a t A r n o l d c a l l s t h e ' s t y l e ' , i s t h e

d i s t i n c t i o n be tween p r i v a t e ( i . e . e t e r n a l l y human) s p i r i t -

u a l i t y a n d p u b l i c ( i . e . h i s t o r i c a l l y m u t a b l e ) i d e o l o g y .

A r n o l d ' s c r i t i q u e o f E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f Homer, p a r t i c u l a r l y

Newman's r e s t s on t h e f a c t t h a t E n g l i s h i d e o l o g y r e c o g n i z e s

no d i s t i n c t i o n ; i t p u b l i c i z e s t h e p r i v a t e . The ' g r a n d s t y l e '

t h e r e f o r e o p p o s e s t h e p r a c t i c a l d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f c u l t u r e

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which reduces spiritualization to an unproblematical and

immediate empiricism. In Marcuse's terms, Arnold is defending

an 'affirmative culture' in which the limitless happiness of

the soul cannot be measured by the standards of practical

necessity. 9

When Arnold talks of 'criticism' and 'disinterestedness'

he is trying to formulate a critical language for discussing

Culture without resorting to the language of 'ulterior, political

and practical considerations' - - a language that can discuss

Culture without compromising the dualistic formulation of

human nature. To put the matter more succinctly, he wants

the unity of aesthetics and culture and the disunity of culture

and political society. Only by recognizing this duality can

we hope to resolve the apparent dichotomies in Arnold's

writings--the humanist man of letters of "The Study of Poetry"

and the pragmatic imperialist who argued against political

freedom in Ireland. l o For Arnold, Culture is the truth of

eternal spirituality that can only be validated by the march

of bourgeois progress. In spite of his attempt to overcome

the active and objectifying principle of Hebraism Arnold was

unable to evade the social dialectic of Victorian capitalism.

In "The Study of Poetry" this dialectic co-opts Arnold's

idealistic poetics: in order to establish the autonomy of

culture Arnold is forced to rely on the empiricism of capital-

ist society. That is, the touchstone theory of poetry is

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n o t h i n g e l s e b u t t h e a e s t h e t i c e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i d e o l o g y o f

p r o g r e s s w h e r e f a c t s a r e assumed t o s p e a k f o r t h e m s e l v e s .

A r n o l d b e g i n s , i n n o c e n t l y enough, b y r e c a p i t u l a t i n g t h e

b a s i c p r e m i s e o f p o e t r y ( a n d c u l t u r e ) as t h e e t e r n a l n e e d t o

f e e d a n d c l o t h e t h e human m i n d :

We s h o u l d c o n c e i v e o f p o e t r y w o r t h i l y , a n d more h i g h l y t h a n i t has been t h e c u s t o m t o c o n c e i v e o f i t . We s h o u l d c o n c e i v e o f i t a s c a p a b l e o f h i g h e r u s e s , a n d c a l l e d t o h i g h e r d e s t i n i e s , t h a n t h o s e w h i c h i n g e n e r a l men have assumed h i t h e r t o . More and more m a n k i n d w i l l d i s c o v e r t h a t we h a v e t o t u r n t o p o e t r y t o i n t e r 1 i f e f o r us , t o c o n s o l e , t o s u s t a i n u s . net

P o e t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n i s t h e remedy f o r t h e c u l t u r a l l y i m p o v e r i s h -

e d m i n d ; i t i s t h e means b y w h i c h t h e au tonomous s u b j e c t i v i t y

o f m a n k i n d c a n be c o n f i r m e d . P o e t r y i s t h e r e f o r e a s k e d t o

assume t h e f u n c t i o n t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s s i g n e d t o r e l i g i o n a n d

p h i l o s o p h y :

. . . o u r r e l i g i o n , p a r a d i n g e v i d e n c e s s u c h a s t h o s e on w h i c h t h e p o p u l a r m i n d r e l i e s now; o u r p h i l o s o p h y , p l u m i n g i t s e l f on r e a s o n i n g s a b o u t c a u s a t i o n a n d f i n i t e a n d i n f i n i t e b e i n g ; w h a t a r e t h e y b u t t h e shadows a n d dreams and f a l s e shows o f k n o w l e d g e ? 1 2

B u t how i s p o e t r y t o s u c c e e d w h e r e r e l i g i o n and p h i l o s o p h y

have f a i l e d ? More i m p o r t a n t l y , how w i l l t h e r e a d i n g p u b l i c

r e c o g n i z e t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d s p i r i t u a l power o f p o e t r y ? The

a n s w e r , c l a i m s A r n o l d , l i e s i n t h e e r e c t i o n o f a d e q u a t e

s t a n d a r d s o f c r i t i c i s m :

B u t i f we c o n c e i v e t h u s h i g h l y o f t h e d e s t i n i e s o f p o e t r y , we m u s t a l s o s e t o u r s t a n d a r d s f o r p o e t r y h i g h , s i n c e p o e t r y , t o be c a p a b l e o f f u l f i l l i n g s u c h h i g h d e s t i n i e s , m u s t be a p o e t r y o f a h i g h o r d e r o f e x c e l l e n c e . We m u s t a c c u s t o m o u r s l v e s t o a h i g h e r s t a n d a r d and t o a s t r i c t j u d g m e n t . 7 3

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H e b r a i s t i c c u l t u r e p r o d u c e d two f o r m s o f c r i t i c i s m : t h e

' h i s t o r i c ' and t h e ' p e r s o n a l ' . A r n o l d a r g u e s t h a t b o t h s h a r e

i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e a l l f o rms o f Heb ra i sm. The

' h i s t o r i c ' j u d g e s p o e t r y o n l y i n t e rms o f t h e ' d e v e l o p m e n t o f

a n a t i o n ' s l a n g u a g e ' and i s hence l i a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e v a l u e

by t h e s t a n d a r d s o f n a t i o n a l c h a u v i n i s m ; t h e ' p e r s o n a l ' e s t i m a t e ,

on t h e o t h e r hand, l a c k s any f o r m of o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a b u t

j u d g e s p o e t r y by momentary ' a f f i n i t i e s , l i k i n g s and c i r c u m -

s t a n c e s ' . I n b o t h cases t h e r e i s a s e r i o u s l a c k o f c r i t i c a l

s t a n d a r d s w i t h t h e consequence t h a t E n g l i s h p o e t r y t e n d s t o be

o v e r - r a t e d .

I n c o n t r a s t , A r n o l d p roposes t h a t t h e European c l a s s i c s

( e . g . Homer, Dan te , Shakespeare ) be t h e s t a n d a r d s f rom w h i c h

t o j u d g e E n g l i s h p o e t r y . O n l y by r e c o g n i z i n g t h e t r u e

p o t e n t i a l i t y o f p o e t r y , A r n o l d a r g u e s , can a g e n u i n e b u t

n a t i o n a l p o e t r y be a c h i e v e d :

So h i g h i s t h a t b e n e f i t [ o f r e a d i n g t h e c l a s s i c s ] , t h e b e n e f i t o f c l e a r l y f e e l i n g and o f d e e p l y e n j o y i n g t h e r e a l l y e x c e l l e n t , t h e t r u l y c l a s s i c i n p o e t r y , t h a t we do w e l l , I say, t o s e t i t f i x e d l y i n o u r m inds as o u r o b j e c t i n s t u d y i n g p o e t s and p o e t r y , and t o make t h e d e s i r e o f a t t a i n i n g i t t h e one p r i n c i p l e t o wh i ch , as t h e I n t i m a t i o n says, wha teve we may r e a d o r come t o know, we a l w a y s r e t u r n . F 4

A r n o l d t h e n p roceeds t o p r e s e n t us w i t h a s e r i e s o f

q u o t a t i o n s f r o m t h e c l a s s i c s whose power he assumes t o be s e l f -

e v i d e n t t o a l l r e a d e r s . F u r t h e r m o r e , he r e f u s e s any a t t e m p t

a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n wh i ch , he c l a i m s , w o u l d o n l y compromise t h e

s u b s t a n c e o f p o e t i c t r u t h , b e a u t y and s e r i o u s n e s s :

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The c h a r a c t e r s o f a h i g h q u a l i t y o f p o e t r y a r e w h a t i s e x p r e s s e d t h e r e . They a r e f a r b e t t e r r e c o g n i z e d b y b e i n g f e l t i n t h e v e r s e o f t h e m a s t e r , t h a n b y b e i n g p e r u s e d i n t h e p r o s e o f t h e c r i t i c . N e v e r t h e l e s s if we a r e u r g e n t l y p r e s s e d t o g i v e some c r i t i c a l a c c o u n t o f them, we may s a f e l y , p e r h a p s , v e n t u r e o n l a y i n g down, n o t i n d e e d how a n d why t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r i s e , b u t w h e r e a n d i n wha t t h e y a r i s e . They a r e i n t h e m a t t e r a n d s u b s t a n c e o f t h e p o e t r y , a n d t h e y a r e i n i t s manner a n d s t y l e . B o t h o f t h e s e , t h e s u b s t a n c e and t h e m a t t e r on t h e one hand, t h e s t y l e a n d manner on t h e o t h e r , h a v e a mark , an a c c e n t , o f h i g h b e a u t y , w o r t h , a n d power . B u t i f we a r e a s k e d t o d e f i n e t h i s mark and a c c e n t i n t h e a b s t r a c t , o u r answer m u s t b e : No, f o r we s h o u l d t h e r e b y be d a r k e n i n g t h e q u e s t i o n , n o t c l e a r i n g i t . The mark and a c c e n t a r e a s g i v e n b y t h e s u b s t a n c e and m a t t e r o f t h a t p o e t r y , b y t h e s t y l e a n d manner o f t h a t p o e t r y , and o g a l l o t h e r p o e t r y w h i c h i s a k i n t o i t i n q u a l i t y . l

B u t t h e power o f p o e t r y c a n n o t m e r e l y be r e l e g a t e d t o a e s t h e t i c

p l a t i t u d e s . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y so f o r t h e V i c t o r i a 1 1 r e a d i n g

p u b l i c who needed t o know more c o n c r e t e l y t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y

r e l e v a n c e o f c l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ; t h e y n e e d e d t o know wha t

D a n t e ' s p o e t r y had t o do w i t h t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e s . A r n o l d

n o t o n l y r e f u s e s t o d e a l w i t h t h e s e i s s u e s b u t b y q u o t i n g

i s o l a t e d p a s s a g e s ( ' t o u c h s t o n e s ' ) he i m p l i e s t h a t a e s t h e t i c

e x p e r i e n c e i s a f u n c t i o n o f l a n g u a g e , a l b e i t e v o c a t i v e

l a n g u a g e - - i t i s n o t s o m e t h i n g t h a t c a n be " e x p l a i n e d " . I n

e f f e c t , b y s e p a r a t i n g p o e t i c m e a n i n g f r o m p u b l i c m e a n i n g

A r n o l d r e n o u n c e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c r i t i c a l l y d i s c u s s i n g and

i n t e r p r e t i n g p o e t r y . F o r S h a k e s p e a r e a n drama i s n o t m e r e l y

t h e a e s t h e t i c i z i n g o f l a n g u a g e ; i t i s a l s o t h e d r a m a t i z a t i o n

o f s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s w h i c h r e m a i n a s v a l i d , m u t a t i s m u t a n d i ,

f o r t h e V i c t o r i a n a s f o r t h e E l i z a b e t h a n a u d i e n c e . The c r i t i c a l

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issue is to discover in what way the function of a literary

work alters historically, but since such a task inevitably

involves the social consciousness of the reader it is ideolog-

ically inappropriate. The appeal to the eternal empiricism

of textual meaning is indirectly an appeal to the eternal

empiricism of capitalist prosperity and, as a consequence, the

development of a historical hermeneutic for literature must be

seen as a threat to the "psychological" foundation of capitalism.

Arnold's touchstone theory is the cornerstone of the

conformist literary criticism of the twentieth century. What

makes Arnold problematic for the modernists is not his empiricism

but his unity of aesthetics and culture which is inseparable

from the historical structure of Victorian capitalism.

It was the voice of T.E. Hulme that ushered in the modern-

ist reaction to Victorian liberalism through a critique of

Romanticism which is nothing other than an attack on the

humanistic values of the nineteenth century. Hulme's critique,

however, is not merely a negation of Romanticism for the

modern age but a negation that does not recognize any

historical boundaries. But because Hulme still shares in the

liberalist tradition of identifying the principles of a

society with the character of its art he is only the forerunner

of a new type of intellectual. What makes Hulme discontinuous

with liberalism is that society has become an abstraction; it has

lost the concrete image expressed by Arnold as Hebraism.

Culture is no longer the precondition o f art forms because the

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model of perfectability has passed away frommanand back into

the absolute deity. It is no longer a question, as in Arnold,

of the possible autonomy of human spirituality but of the

irrelevance of human history in the determination of art forms.

"Classicism" replaces the autonomous aesthetic ideals based on

culture with an autonomous art based on visionary mysticism.

Art, for Hulme, may suggest certain organizational principles

for society but it is a society intended to defy historical

logic. Classicism becomes "ought-ridden" because it wants to

negate bourgeois culture without resorting to the historical

forms that gave it birth.

But what had happened to bourgeois culture between

Arnold and Hulme? Why had the ideology of progress proved so

utterly inadequate for the subjective needs of the Edwardian

bourgeoisie? Partly the answer can be found in the inherent

contradictions of Arnold's psychologism, so that "Hellenism",

far from protecting individual spirituality had actually

precipitated its destruction by denying it access to empirical

forms of experience. Secondly, the "Hebraistic" assumptions

of an organic social unity had proved illusory not only because

the "natural" forms of working class expression were not

identical with bourgeois Hebraism but also because British

capitalism was suffering from French, German and American

competition. And, as one writer puts it, territorial expansion

is a poor substitute for economic productivity. l 6 Consequently

the ideology of progress was effectively weakened without any

a1 ternatives clearly visible on the horizon.

Hulme's critique of Romanticism, the expression of this

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n e g a t i v i t y , r e s t s o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t man i s ' a n e x t r a -

o r d i n a r i l y f i x e d and l i m i t e d a n i m a l whose n a t u r e i s a b s o l u t e l y

c o n s t a n t ' . Man i s an i n s t i n c t u a l a n i m a l who c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e

t h e fo rms o f e x p e r i e n c e b u t o n l y t h e c o n t e n t ; and t h i s i s an

a b s o l u t e t r u t h t h a t embraces a r t , p o l i t i c s and s e x u a l i t y . M o s t

i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e i s seen a s a f u n d a m e n t a l

f e a t u r e o f a11 human n a t u r e . R e g a r d i n g t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f

c l a s s i c i s m a n d m a t e r i a l i s m Hulme makes t h e f o l l o w i n g comment:

I t w o u l d b e a m i s t a k e t o i d e n t i f y t h e c l a s s i c a l v i e w w i t h t h a t o f m a t e r i a l i s m . On t h e c o n t r a r y , i t i s a b s o l u t e l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e n o r m a l r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e . I s h o u l d p u t i t t h i s way: t h a t p a r t o f t h e f i x e d n a t u r e o f man i s t h e b e l i e f i n t h e D e i t y . I t s h o u l d be as f i x e d and t r u e f o r e v e r y man as t h e b e l i e f i n t h e e x i s t - e n c e o f m a t t e r a n d i n t h e o b j e c t i v e w o r l d . I t i s p a r a l l e l t o a p p e t i t e , t h e i n f Q i n c t o f s e x , and a l l o t h e r f i x e d q u a n t i t i e s .

T a k i n g c l a s s i c i s m as h i s p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e Hulme i s a b l e

t o d e v e l o p t h e c e n t r a l theme o f modern i sm, t h e d i a l e c t i c o f

t r a g e d y and o r d e r . Hulme d e f i n e s t h e t r a g i c e x p e r i e n c e as

. . . t h e c l o s i n g o f a l l r o a d s . . . a n d t h e r e a l i z a - t i o n o f t h e t r a g i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f l i f e . . . . Such a r e a l i z a t i o n has f o r m e d t h e b a s i s o f a l l g r e a t r e l i g i o n s , a n d i s m o s t c o n v e n i e n t l y remembered b y t h e symbol o f t h e w h e e l . T h i s symbo l o f t h e f u t i l i t y o f e x i s t e n c e i s a b s o l u t e l y l o s t t o t h e modern w o r l d ,

nOrl 8 an i t be r e c e o v e r e d w i t h o u t g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y .

H i s t o r y has shown t h a t as human i d e a l s become more removed

f r o m a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e , i n d i v i d u a l s l o s e s i g h t n o t o n l y o f

t h e i r own needs b u t o f human n a t u r e i n g e n e r a l . T h i s l a c k o f

f a i t h i n s o c i a l p r o g r e s s h a s t h e t w o - f o l d e f f e c t o f c o n f o r m i t y

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t o t h e s t a t u s quo w h i c h c o m b i n e s w i t h an i d e a l i z a t i o n o f p a s t

e p o c h s . The p a s s i n g o f t h e age o f p r o s p e r i t y h a d l e f t a r e s i d u e

o f e m p t y i d e a l s a n d H u l m e ' s r e s p o n s e was t o e q u a t e e m p t i n e s s

w i t h i d e a l s per s e : h e i s t h e m o d e r n i s t g u r u o f w h a t L u k a c s - c a l l s t h e ' c u l t o f i m m e d i a c y ' , a1 b e i t i n i t s n e g a t i v e f o r m . Hu lme

a c c u r a t e l y r e c o g n i z e s t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d c h a r a c t e r o f c o n t e m p o r a r y

e x i s t e n c e b u t , r a t h e r t h a n a n a l y z i n g i t s s o c i o - h i s t o r i c c a u s e s ,

he t a k e s t h e i m p o v e r i s h m e n t t o be o n t o l o g i c a l b e c a u s e h i s t o r y

i s d e t e r m i n e d n o t b y men b u t b y a sup ra -human W i l l . Hu lme

a r g u e s t h a t i t i s a f a l l a c y t o b e l i e v e , a s d i d R o m a n t i c

c a p i t a l i s m , t h a t t h e human i s c o n t i n u o u s w i t h t h e d i v i n e a n d

he t h e r e f o r e i d e a l i z e s t h e R e n a i s s a n c e when men w e r e men a n d

gods w e r e gods . The a u t h o r i t a r i a n symbo l o f t h e whee l t h e r e -

f o r e t a k e s on a h e i g h t e n e d r e l e v a n c e f o r t h e m o d e r n i s t s ;

b e c a u s e if t h e c o n t e n t o f human e x p e r i e n c e i s a b s t r a c t - -

e x p e r i e n c e i s seen a s c y c l i c a l a n d t h e r e f o r e h i s t o r i c a l l y

m e a n i n g l e s s - - t h e n t h e f o r m s o f human e x p e r i e n c e o n l y become

c o n c r e t e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e e x t e r n a l l y i m p o s e d . The w h e e l ,

t h e r e f o r e , p r o v i d e s an i d e o l o g y f o r u n c r i t i c a l l y a c c e p t i n g

i m p o v e r i s h e d e x p e r i e n c e gua human e x p e r i e n c e w h i l e p l a c i n g

t h e f o r m s o f human e x p e r i e n c e b e y o n d human u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

B u t if t h e a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e o f human h i s t o r y i s assumed

t o b e i n h e r e n t l y f u t i l e , w h a t t h e n a r e t h e s o l u t i o n s ? H u l m e ' s

a n s w e r i s u n e q u i v o c a l - - s u b m i t t o o r d e r :

A man i s e s s e n t i a l l y bad, he c a n o n l y a c c o m p l i s h a n y t h i n g o f v a l u e b y d i s c i p l i n e - - e t h i c a l a n d

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p o l i t i c a l . O r d e r i s t h u s n o t m e r e l y n e g a t i u e , b u t c r e a t i a n d l i b e r a t i n g . I n s t i t u t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y . 3%

a n d a g a i n :

Man i s an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y f i x e d a n d 1 i m i t e d a n i m a l whose n a t u r e i s a b s o l u t e l y c o n s t a n t . I t i s o n l y b y t r a d i t i o n a n d o r g a n i z a t i t h a t a n y t h i n g d e c e n t c a n be g o t o u t o f h im . 9?

However t h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f o r d e r becomes p r o b l e m a t i c a l b e c a u s e

i t i s n o t e m p i r i c a l l y g i v e n b u t m u s t be r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e same

i m a g i n a t i o n t h a t i s c o n s t a n t l y q u e s t i o n i n g t h e o b j e c t i v e

c h a r a c t e r o f o r d e r . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s how i s t r a g e d y t o

become m e a n i n g f u l i f i t i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h c o n f o r m i t y ?

Y e t a l t h o u g h t h e i d e n t i t y o f t r a g e d y a n d o r d e r has

q u e s t i o n a b l e c u l t u r a l v a l u e i t i s n o n e t h e l e s s t h e f o r m a l

b a s i s o f a h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e a e s t h e t i c s , n a m e l y m o d e r n i s m .

B u t d e s p i t e m o d e r n i s m ' s r e c o r d o f p r o d u c t i v i t y i t has n o t been

a b l e t o ove rcome t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e a r t i s t i c i m p e r a t i v e

o f a c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d a m e r e l y i n h e r i t e d s p o n t a n e i t y

( i . e . n a t u r a l i s m ) . F o r i f t h e ' g r e a t a i m [ o f a r t ] i s a c c u r a t e ,

p r e c i s e a n d d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n b z Z a n d i f i t ' i s e s s e n t i a l

t o p r o v e t h a t b e a u t y may be f o u n d i n s m a l l , d r y t h i n g s ' 2 3 t h e n

how c a n t h e a r t i s t be c o n s i d e r e d " c r e a t i v e " ? F u r t h e r m o r e t h i s

i m p a s s e i s n o t t r a n s c e n d e d b y e q u a t i n g c r e a t i v i t y , a s Hu lme

does, w i t h a p r a c t i c a l f a c i l i t y i n a p a r t i c u l a r medium. The

p r o b l e m r e m a i n s b e c a u s e t h e f o r m s o f n a t u r e a n d l a n g u a g e a r e

g i v e n ; t h e y do n o t r e q u i r e a c r e a t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s f o r t h e i r

e x i s t e n c e . The a r t i s t becomes a p r o d u c e r o f l i t e r a r y f o r m s

w h i c h a r e d e t e r m i n e d n o t b y t h e a r t i s t b u t b y t h e s o c i e t y t h a t

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g a v e b i r t h t o t h o s e f o r m s , n a m e l y c a p i t a l i s m . I n e f f e c t , a r t

t a k e s on t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a " c o m m o d i t y " b e c a u s e i t s v a l u e i s

no l o n g e r one o f " u t i l i t y " b u t i s d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e s p h e r e o f

" e x c h a n g e " . 2 4 I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e f u n c t i o n o f a r t now becomes

t h e l e g i t i m a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l no rms o f c a p i t a l i s m . A r t l o s e s

i t s u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r n o t b e c a u s e i t has become e c l e c t i c a n d

e s o t e r i c b u t b e c a u s e i t has become i n t r o v e r t e d , b e c a u s e t h e

p r o b l e m o f a r t has become a p r o b l e m o f m e t h o d , a p r o b l e m o f

t e c h n o 1 o g y .

B u t f o r m o d e r n i s m Hu lme i s b u t a v o i c e i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s ,

i t i s E l i o t who i s i t s t r u e M e s s i a h . D i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e

c u l t u r a l m i l i e u o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s E l i o t n o n e t h e l e s s comes t o

E n g l a n d w i t h t h e m i s s i o n o f t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e w a s t e l a n d o f

l i b e r a l humanism i n t o a n e o - c l a s s i c a l m e t r o p o l i s . T e r r y

E a g l e t o n has a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d t h i s momentous e v e n t as

f o l l o w s :

... E l i o t came t o E u r o p e w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c m i s s i o n o f r e v i v i n g a n d r e d e f i n i n g t h e o r g a n i c u n i t y o f i t s c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s , a n d r e i n s e r t i n g a c u l t u r a l l y p r o v i n c i a l E n g l a n d i n t o t h a t i d e a l i s t t o t a l i t y . He was, i n d e e d , t o become h i m s e l f t h e f o c a l - p o i n t o f t h e ' E u r o p e a n m i n d ' , t h a t r i c h l y e v o l v e d , u n r u p t u r e d e n t i t y m y s t i c a l l y i n h e r e n t i n i t s c o m p l e x s i m u l t a n e i t y i n e v e r y a r t i s t n o u r i s h e d b y i t . E n g l i s h l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e , s t i l l i n t h e g r i p o f i d e o l o g i c a l l y e x h a u s t e d f o r m s o f l i b e r a l humanism a n d l a t e R o m a n t i c i s m , was t o b e r a d i c a l l y r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n t o a c l a s s i c i s m w h i c h w o u l d e r a d i c a t e t h e l a s t v e s t i g e s o f ' W h i g g i s m ' ( p r o t e s t a n t i s m , l i b e r a l i s m , R o m a n t i c i s m , humanism) i n t h e name o f a h i g h e r c o r p o r a t e i d e o - l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n d e f i n e d b y t h e s u r r e n d e r o f ' p e r s o n a l i t ' t o o r d e r , r e a s o n , a u t h o r i t y a n d t r a d i t i o n . 2 i!

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As E a g l e t o n ' s comments make c l e a r t h e E n g l i s h 1 i t e r a r y b o u r g e o i s i e

was i n d e s p e r a t e n e e d o f a new B i b l e and i t was t h e r e f o r e w i t h

j u b i l a t i o n t h a t t h e y g r e e t e d t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f E l i o t ' s S a c r e d

Wood i n 1 9 2 0 . Once t h i s t e x t had been s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h t h e

p u b l i c a t i o n o f " t h e M e t a p h y s i c a l P o e t s " ( 1 9 2 1 ) a n d " T h e F u n c t i o n

o f C r i t i c i s m " ( 1 9 2 3 ) a new t h e o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e w o u l d emerge

w h i c h w o u l d f i n d i t s g r e a t e s t a p o s t l e s i n t h e S c r u t i n e e r s a n d

t h e New C r i t i c s .

E l i o t a r g u e s t h a t i n - The S a c r e d Wood h e i s p r i m a r i l y

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e ' i n t e g r i t y o f p o e t r y ' so a s n o t t o c o n f u s e

i t w i t h c u l t u r e a s t h e V i c t o r i a n s had done. 2 6 R a t h e r , he sees

p o e t r y a s a u n i q u e f o r m o f e x p e r i e n c e :

We c a n o n l y s a y t h a t poem, i n some s e n s e , h a s i t s own l i f e ; t h a t i t s p a r t s f o r m s o m e t h i n g q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m a b o d y o f n e a t l y o r d e r e d b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a ; t h a t t h e f e e l i n g , o r e m o t i o n , o r v i s i o n , r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e poem i s s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e f e e n g o r e m o t i o n o r v i s i o n i n t h e m i n d o f t h e p o e t . $ j

The a b o v e v i e w w i l l p r o v e t o be s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f t h e New C r i t i c i s m b u t a t t h i s p o i n t i n my a r g u m e n t i t i s

o n l y i m p o r t a n t t o p o i n t o u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n E l i o t a n d

Hulme r e g a r d i n g t h e p o e t i c o b j e c t . F o r Hu lme t h e s u b s t a n c e

of p o e t r y c a n b e r e d u c e d t o t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d , b u t f o r E l i o t

t h i s s u b s t a n c e i s b a t h e d i n a m y s t i c a l a u r a . I n s h o r t , E l i o t

t r a n s f o r m s t h e c o m m o d i t y a s a means o f e x c h a n g e t o a c o m m o d i t y

w h i c h h i d e s e x c h a n g e r e l a t i o n s ; t h a t i s , he f e t i s h i z e s t h e

c o m m o d i t y .

B u t E l . i o t 8 s a d v a n c e b e y o n d Hu lme was n o t c o n f i n e d t o

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p o e t i c s . He a l s o s u g g e s t e d how h i s p o e t i c s c o u l d b e p u t i n t o

c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e :

I t i s p a r t o f t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e c r i t i c t o p r e s e r v e t r a d i t i o n - - w h e r e a g o o d t r a d i t i o n e x i s t s . I t i s p a r t o f h i s b u s i n e s s t o see l i t e r a t u r e s t e a d i l y a n d t o see i t w h o l e ; a n d t h i s i s e m i n e n t l y t o s e e i t not a s c o n s e c r a t e d b y t i m e , b u t t o see i t b e y o n d t i m e ; t o see t h e b e s t w o r k o f o u r t i m e a n d t h e b e s t w o r k o f t w e n t y - f i v e h u n d r e d y e a r s a g o w i t h t h e same e y e s . 28

Y e t i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y b e t w e e n p o e t i c s a n d c r i t i c a l

p r a c t i c e c a n o n l y be p o s i t e d . B u t how c o u l d i t b e o t h e r w i s e ?

F o r if t h e e s s e n c e o f p o e t r y d o e s n o t r e s i d e i n h i s t o r i c a l

e x p e r i e n c e t h e n c r i t i c i s m c a n n o t m e d i a t e b e t w e e n p o e t i c s and a

p o e t i c o b j e c t b e c a u s e i t s t a s k i s n o t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

p o e t i c s b u t s i m p l y i t s l e g i t i m a t i o n . I t comes a s n o s u r p r i s e

t h e n t h a t E l i o t s h o u l d w a n t t o b a n i s h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o t h e

r e a l m o f t h e ' p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t f a c t s t h a t t h e r e a d e r

i s n o t assumed t o k n o w ' . 2 9

T h a t E l i o t i s c o n c e r n e d n o t w i t h w h a t l i t e r a t u r e - i s b u t

w i t h w h a t i t o u g h t t o b e i s nowhere more e v i d e n t t h a n i n h i s

a n a l y s i s o f H a m l e t . E l i o t ' s f u n d a m e n t a l o b j e c t i o n t o t h e p l a y

i s t h a t i t l a c k s a f o r m a l p r i n c i p l e a p p r o p r i a t e t o i t s e m p i r i c a l

c o n t e n t . E l i o t b e g i n s b y a r g u i n g t h a t

S h a k e s p e a r e ' s H a m l e t , so f a r a s i t i s S h a k e s p e a r e ' s , i s a p l a y d e a l i n g w i t h t h e e f f e c t o f a m o t h e r ' s g u i l t upon h e r son , a n d t h a t S h a k e s p e a r e was u n a b l e t o impose t h i s m o t i v e s u c c e s s f u l l y upon t h e " i n t r c t a b l e " m a t e r i a l o f t h e o l d p l a y [The S p a n i s h T r a g e d y 1 . 3 ~

F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y i t i s e n o u g h t o p o i n t o u t t h a t

E l i o t ' s a n a l y s i s s u f f e r s f r o m t w o f a l l a c i e s - - h i s f a i l u r e t o

a d e q u a t e l y i d e n t i f y t h e c o n t e n t a n d h i s t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n

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t h a t f o r m i s s i m p l y a n o b j e c t i v e ' c o r r e l a t i v e ' t o c o n t e n t .

To assume t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f Denmark f u n c t i o n s

s i m p l y a s a c o n t e x t f o r t h e s o c i a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n f l i c t s

o f t h e m a j o r c h a r a c t e r s i s t o m i s u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n t e n t i o n o f

t h e p l a y . H a m l e t i s e s s e n t i a l l y an e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p b e t w e e n t h e S t a t e a n d s o c i e t y i n a p e r i o d o f c r i s i s . F o r

S h a k e s p e a r e t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s t w o l e v e l s . F i r s t l y , t h e

p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t s ( ' a m o t h e r ' s g u i l t upon h e r s o n ' ) w i t h i n t h e

S t a t e h a v e t h e i r o r i g i n s n o t i n t h e s p h e r e o f d i v i n i t y b u t i n

t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , t h a t i s , k i n g s a r e n o t o n l y m o r t a l b u t

e q u a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e a n x i e t i e s o f o t h e r m o r t a l s . S e c o n d l y ,

a s t a t e t h a t i s c o r r u p t e d b y human a n x i e t i e s ( g r e e d , j e a l o u s y )

l o s e s i t s p o l i t i c a l l e g i t i m a c y f o r d i r e c t i n g s o c i e t y . I m p l i c i t

i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e S t a t e a n d s o c i e t y i s t h e c o n -

t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l n e e d s a n d p o l i t i c a l n e c e s s i t i e s .

T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n f o r m s t h e b a s i s o f H a m l e t ' s t r a g i c d i l e m m a :

i f h e succumbs t o " o r d i n a r y " human i n s t i n c t s he c a l l s t h e

e x i s t i n g S t a t e i n t o q u e s t i o n b u t if he s u p p o r t s t h e e x i s t i n g

S t a t e he c a l l s h i s human i n s t i n c t s i n t o q u e s t i o n .

E l i o t c a n n o t see t h i s a n d h i s m e c h a n i s t i c schema, h i s

n o t i o n o f an ' o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e ' , d e p r i v e s l i t e r a t u r e o f

an a c t i v e a n d c r e a t i v e p r i n c i p l e b y i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h e fo rms

o f l i t e r a t u r e m u s t f o l l o w p r e - c o n c e i v e d a n d r a t i o n a l i z e d

p a t t e r n s . T h i s h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l c o n c e p t o f E l i o t ' s n e e d s

f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n . E l i o t e x p l a i n s i t a s f o l l o w s :

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The o n l y way o f e x p r e s s i n g e m o t i o n i n t h e f o r m o f a r t i s f i n d i n g an " o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e " ; i n o t h e r w o r d s , a s e t o f o b j e c t s , a s i t u a t i o n , a c h a i n o f e v e n t s w h i c h s h a l l be t h e f o r m u l a o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r e m o t i o n ; s u c h t h a t when t h e e x t e r n a l f a c t s , w h i c h m u s t t e r m i n a t e i n s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e , a r e g i v e n , t h e e m o t i o n i s i m m e d i a t e l y g i v e n , t h e e m o t i o n i s i m m e d i a t e l y e v o k e d . 31

S i n c e f o r E l i o t t h e o r i g i n o f a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n l i e s i n t h e

f i x e d o n t o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f " t h i n g s " , a r t has n o i m p e r a t i v e

t o i n t e r p r e t s o c i a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . B u t , a s E l i o t ' s

c r i t i q u e o f H a m l e t shows, t h i s i s u l t i m a t e l y n o t a q u e s t i o n o f

e p i s t e m o l o g y b u t one o f v a l u e , s i n c e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t has a more

d i r e c t s o c i a l f o r m i s i n f e r i o r i n q u a l i t y t o a r t t h a t c o n f i r m s

t h e e t e r n a l t r u t h o f r e i f i c a t i o n .

P a r a l l e l t o t h e p r o b l e m a t i c o f f o r m i s t h e p r o b l e m a t i c

o f c o n t e n t ; n a m e l y , w h a t i s t h e e m o t i o n t h a t i s o b j e c t i f i e d i n

' s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e ' ? E l i o t a t t e m p t s t o answer t h i s q u e s t i o n

i n "The M e t a p h y s i c a l P o e t s " . He b e g i n s b y d i s c a r d i n g t h e

s t a n d a r d d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e M e t a p h y s i c a l movement w h i c h , h e

a r g u e s , h a v e f a i l e d t o come t o t e r m s w i t h t h e d i v e r s i t y o f a

movement t h a t i n c l u d e s Donne, J o n s o n a n d Crashaw. E l i o t b e l i e v e s

t h a t t h e c e n t r a l a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e o f t h i s movement i s t h e

' c o n t r a s t o f i d e a s ' b y w h i c h t h e ' h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f m a t e r i a l [ i s ]

c o m p e l l e d i n t o u n i t y b y t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p o e t ' s m i n d [ w h i c h ]

i s o m n i p r e s e n t i n p o e t r y ' . 32 More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h i s p r i n c i p l e

can be seen a s t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n a s i m p l e l a n g u a g e and a

compl i c a t e d s y n t a x :

I t i s t o be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e s e i d e a s i s a s a r u l e s i m p l e and p u r e ; i n t h e v e r s e

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o f George H e r b e r t t h i s s i m p l i c i t y i s c a r r i e d a s f a r as i t c a n g o - - a s i m p l i c i t y e m u l a t e d w i t h o u t s u c c e s s b y numerous modern p o e t s . The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s e n t e n c e s , o n t h e o t h e r hand , i s s o m e t i m e s f a r f r o m s i m p l e , b u t t h i s i s n o t a v i c e ; i t i s a f i d e l i t y t o t h o u g h t a n d f e e l i n g . The e f f e c t , a t i t s b e s t , i s f a r l e s s a r t i f i c i a l t h a n t h a t o f an ode b y G r a y . And a s t h i s f i d e l i t y i n d u c e s v a r i e t y o f t h o u h t a n d f e e l i n g , s o i t i n d u c e s v a r i e t y o f m u s i c . 3 3

T h i s f u s i o n o f ' t h o u g h t a n d f e e l i n g ' i s w h a t E l i o t c a l l s

' s e n s i b i l i t y ' , t h e a b i l i t y t o f e e l a t h o u g h t a s ' i m m e d i a t e l y a s

t h e o d o u r o f a r o s e ' . E l i o t c o l l a p s e s a l l e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e

i n t o s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e and t h e r e b y j u s t i f i e s h i s f a i l u r e t o

d i s c o v e r a s o c i a l b a s i s f o r a e s t h e t i c s . R a t h e r , a e s t h e t i c s

becomes r e l i g i o n w h i c h o n l y o p e n s i t s d o o r s t o t h e c o n v e r t e d .

I t comes a s no s u r p r i s e t h e n t h a t t h e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n

t h a t E l i o t w a n t s t o r e a f f i r m i s a r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n w h i c h

b e g i n s t o d i s i n t e g r a t e w i t h M i l t o n , t h e p o e t o f t h e P u r i t a n

R e v o l u t i o n :

The p o e t s o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e s u c c e s s o r s o f t h e d r a m a t i s t s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h , p o s s e s s e d a mechan ism o f s e n s i b i l i t y w h i c h c o u l d d e v o u r a n y k i n d o f e x p e r i e n c e . They a r e s i m p l e , a r t i f i c i a l , d i f f i c u l t , o r f a n t a s t i c , a s t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s w e r e ; no l e s s n o r more t h a n D a n t e , G u i d o , C a l v a c a n t i , G u i n i c e l l i , o r C i n o . I n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a d i s a s s o c i a t i o n o f s e n s i b i l i t y s e t i n , f r o m w h i c h we h a v e n e v e r r e c o v e r e d ; a n d t h i s d i s a s s o c i a t i o n , a s i s n a t u r a l , was a g g r a v a t e d b y t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e t w o m o s t p o w e r f u l p o e t s o f t h e c e n t u r y , M i l t o n a n d D r y d e n . Each o f t h e s e men p e r f o r m e d c e r t a i n p o e t i c f u n c t i o n s so m a g n i f i c e n t l y w e l l t h a t t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e f f e c t c o n c e a l e d t h e a b s e n c e o f o t h e r s . The l a n g u a g e w e n t o n a n d i n some r e s p e c t s i m p r o v e d ; t h e b e s t v e r s e o f C o l l i n s , G r a y , J o h n s o n , and e v e n G o l d s m i t h s a t i s f i e s some o f o u r f a s t i d i o u s demands b e t t e r t h a n t h a t o f Donne o r M a r v e l 1 o r K i n g . B u t w h i l e t h e l a n g u a g e became m o r e r e f i n e d , t h e f e e l i n g became m o r e c r u d e . 34

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T h i s ' d i s a s s o c i a t i o n o f s e n s i b i l i t y ' c u l m i n a t e s i n t h e a n t i -

a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m o f R o m a n t i c i s m when p o e t s ' r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t

t h e r a t i o c i n a t i v e , t h e d e s r i p t i v e ; t h e y t h o u g h t and f e l t b y f i t s ,

u n b a l a n c e d ; t h e y r e f l e c t e d ' 35 (i t a l i c s m i n e ) . O f c o u r s e t h e

q u e s t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y ( o r o r d e r ) - - t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r

b o t h t h e R o m a n t i c s and t h e M e t a p h y s i c a l s - - i s more t h a n an

a e s t h e t i c p r o b l e m f o r i t i s r o o t e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s o c i o -

p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s . The R o m a n t i c movement, m o r e o v e r , i s o n l y

t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f f r e e d o m as an a r t i s t i c p r i n c i p l e - - i t s g e n e s i s

i s t o be f o u n d n o t i n M i l t o n b u t i n t h e p o l i t i c a l l y c o n s c i o u s

E l i z a b e t h a n and Jacobean d r a m a t i s t s :

. . . t h e e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n E n g l a n d was a t i m e o f r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n a t t i t u d e s . Then a s n e v e r b e f o r e m a n ' s i n b o r n f reedom, h i s n a t u r a l s t a t e o f e q u a l i t y , h i s r i g h t t o r e b e l a g a i n s t t y r a n t s , w e r e c a n v a s s e d as v i t a l i s s u e s . O f a l l f o r m s t h e t h e a t r e was t h e m o s t p u b l i c a n d t h e m o s t r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e s p i r i t o f t h e age . . . . O n l y f o r t y y e a r s a f t e r t h e s t a g e r e v o l t s o f H a m l e t a n d t h e r e v e n g e p l a y s , C h a r l e s I a n d h i s c o u r t were d r i v e n f r o m London . The s o n s o f t h e a p p r e n t i c e s who h i s s e d W e b s t e r ' s Dukes a n d C a r d i n a l s on t h e s t a g e d e f e a t e d t h e c a v a l i e r a r m i e s i n t h e f i e l d . B u s s y ' s a f f i r m a t i o n s o f 'man i n h i s n a t i v e n o b l e s s e ' became t h e g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e L e v e l l e r s . B u t i f Jacobean t r a g e d y was a sound- i n g b o a r d f o r t h e i d e a s o f a new age o f p r o t e s t , t h e s e i d e a s t h e m s e l v e s s p r a n g f r o m a l i b e r t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n t h a t d e s e r v e s t o be b e t t e r known.36

The M e t a p h y s i c a l s a r e n o t t h e r e f o r e t h e b e a r e r s o f a n un-

b r o k e n t r a d i t i o n t h a t s t r e t c h e s b a c k t o D a n t e b u t a r e i n r e -

a c t i o n t o t h e d o m i n a n t t r a d i t i o n s i n c e S h a k e s p e a r e . On t h e

o t h e r hand, t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h e M e t a p h y s i c a l s and

t h e M o d e r n i s t s t o r a d i c a l l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s a r e s t r i k i n g l y

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s i m i l a r . B o t h movements r e a c t e d t o t h e d r a m a t i c s o c i a l a n d

p o l i t i c a l changes o f t h e i r e r a s w i t h a r a d i c a l l y s o c i a l

a e s t h e t i c s , an a e s t h e t i c s w h i c h g i v e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f f o r m t h e

p r e d o m i n a n t f u n c t i o n w i t h i n t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s . E l i o t i s un -

e q u i v o c a l o n t h i s p o i n t :

I t i s n o t a p e r m a n e n t n e c e s s i t y t h a t p o e t s s h o u l d be i n t e r e s t e d i n p h i l o s o p h y , o r i n a n y o t h e r s u b j e c t . We c a n o n l y s a y t h a t i t a p p e a r s l i k e l y t h a t p o e t s i n o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n , a s i t e x i s t s a t p r e s e n t , m u s t be d i f f i c u l t . Our c i v i l i z a t i o n comprehends g r e a t v a r i e t y a n d c o m p l e x i t y , a n d t h i s v a r i e t y and c o m p l e x i t y , p l a y i n g upon a r e f i n e d s e n s i b i l i t y , m u s t become more a n d more c o m p r e h e n s i v e , more a l l u s i v e , more i n d i r e c t , i n o r d e r t o f o r c e t o d i s l o c a t e if n e c e s s a r y , l a n g u a g e i n t o i t s m e a n i n g . 3 7

I n E l i o t ' s p o e t i c s t h e r e i s a f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e s e n s u a l l y o b j e c t i v e f o r m o f p o e t r y t h a t i s a f -

f i r m a t i v e o f t h e c o m m o d i t y f o r m o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s

( i . e . t h e a b s t r a c t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s be tween t h i n g s ) , and t h e

s u b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t o f p o e t r y t h a t i s o p e n l y c r i t i c a l o f c a p i t a l -

i s t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ( a t l e a s t i n so f a r a s t h e l a t t e r i s t h e

c o m p l i c i t a g e n t o f t h e ' d i s a s s o c i a t i o n o f s e n s i b i l i t y ' ) . E l i o t ' s

a t t e m p t t o ove rcome t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n t h r o u g h a t h e o r y o f t h e

i m p e r s o n a l i t y o f f o r m o n l y e x a c e r b a t e s t h e p r o b l e m :

P o e t r y i s n o t a t u r n i n g l o o s e o f e m o t i o n , b u t a n e s c a p e f r o m e m o t i o n ; i t i s n o t t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y . B u t , o f c o u r s e , o n l y t h o s e who have p e r s o n a l i t y and e m o t i o n g s k n o w wha t i t means t o w a n t t o e s c a p e t h e s e t h i n g s .

E l i o t , o f c o u r s e , r e f u s e s t o e x p l a i n why anyone w o u l d w a n t t o

escape f r o m e m o t i o n b u t h i s p r e s c r i p t i o n s can , I t h i n k , b e t a k e n

a s s y m p t o m a t i c o f a d e s p e r a t e age when e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e i s

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painful experience. Ultimately Eliot is unable to come to grips

with literary reception. His terms of poetic appreciation--

'personality', 'emotion' and 'sensibility1--are empty abstract-

ions which resist concrete application and as such are of little

use in the analysis of the material content of poetry.

Eliot's failure to resolve the tension between the form

and content of poetry threatens the validity of his poetic

ontology. Consider, for example, the following statement on

tradition and appreciation:

... a poet's significance, his appreciation is the appreciation of his relation to the dead poets and artists. You cannot value him alone; you must set him, for comparison and contrast, among the dead. I mean this as a prin iple of aesthetic, not merely historical criticism. 59

There can of course be no serious critical argument against

relating individual works of art to a historic and aesthetic

totality but first the particular aesthetic value of an

individual work of art must be demonstrated; otherwise it does

not matter what works of art form the basis of an 'ideal order'.

But the determination of value can only proceed from the

development of a literary hermeneutic otherwise the constitution

of an 'ideal order' becomes a function of personal predilection.

For Eliot, however, the development of a hermeneutic would

destroy the very foundations of his aesthetics because sensory

experience is not translatable into a critical language or

method--it is an end in itself. Herein lies the basic problem

in Eliot, for how can the lack of a theory of value be reconciled

with the prescriptions for the "objective" forms of literature?

But the weaknesses of Eliot's aesthetics become strengths

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when v i e w e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f b o u r g e o i s i d e o l o g y . F o r

w h i l e s u g g e s t i n g how p o e t r y c a n be r a t i o n a l i z e d t h r o u g h c r i t i c a l

p r a c t i c e , E l i o t ' s s e n s i b i l i t y m a i n t a i n s t h e i l l u s i o n o f t h e

i n a l i e n a b i l i t y o f b o u r g e o i s i n d i v i d u a l i s m a s t h e n a t u r a l f o r m

o f s u b j e c t i v i t y . U l t i m a t e l y t h e f r a g i l e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n

s u b j e c t i v i t y and o b j e c t i v i t y becomes h y p o s t a s i s e d i n t o an

o n t o l o g i c a l t e n s i o n w h e r e s u b j e c t i v i t y i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e

m y s t e r y o f human n a t u r e a n d o b j e c t i v i t y w i t h t h e e m p i r i c i s m

o f f a c t s . L i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s t h u s r a i s e d t o t h e s t a t u s o f a

s c i e n c e t h a t i s j u s t i f i e d on r e l i g i o u s g r o u n d s . E l i o t w r i t e s :

C o m p a r i s o n a n d a l a l y s i s ... a r e t h e c h i e f t o o l s o f t h e c r i t i c . I t i s o b v i o u s i n d e e d t h a t t h e y - a r e t o o l s , t o b e h a n d l e d w i t h c a r e , a n d n o t e m p l o y e d i n an i n q u i r y i n t o t h e number o f t i m e s g i r a f f e s a r e m e n t i o n e d i n t h e E n g l i s h n o v e l . They a r e n o t u s e d w i t h c o n s p i c u o u s s u c c e s s b y many c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s . You m u s t know w h a t t o com- p a r e a n d w h a t t o a n a l y s e . . . . C o m p a r i s o n a n d a n a l y s i s n e e d o n l y t h e c a d a v e r s on t h e t a b l e ; b u t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a l w a y s p r o d u c i n g p a r t s o f t h e body f r o m i t s p o c k e t s , a n d f i x i n g them i n p l a c e . And a n y book any e s s a y , any n o t e i n N o t e s a n d Q u e r i e s , w h i c h p r o d u c e s a f a c t e v e n o f t h e l o w e s t o r d e r a b o u t a w o r k o f a r t i s a b e t t e r p i e c e o f w o r k t h a n n i n e - t e n t h s o f 4 b h e m o s t p r e t e n t i o u s j o u r n a l i s m , i n j o u r n a l s o r i n b o o k s .

E l i o t may c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e i r r e l e v a n c e o f g i r a f f e s t o l i t e r a r y

c r i t i c i s m b u t he does n o t s u g g e s t a n y c o n c r e t e c o r r e c t ~ i v e s :

w h a t a r e t h e e v a l u a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h ' f a c t s e v e n

o f t h e l o w e s t o r d e r ' f r o m i r r e l e v a n t f a c t s ? E l i o t ' s a p p e a l t o

good t a s t e i s a p o o r s u b s t i t u t e f o r a f o r m u l a t i o n o f c i r i t c a l

r e s t r a i n t s , b e c a u s e i f a ' c r e a t i o n , a w o r k o f a r t , i s a u t o t e l i c ' ,

t h e n any f a c t i s l e g i t i m a t e f o r c r i t i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p .

E l i o t ' s s t a t e m e n t t h a t c r i t i c i s m i s t h e ' e l u c i d a t i o n o f

w o r k s o f a r t and t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f t a s t e ' i s t h e r e f o r e an

amb iguous l e g a c y f o r t h e New C r i t i c s b e c a u s e a l t h o u g h ' e l u c i -

d a t i o n ' c a n b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a t h e o r y o f e x p l i c a t i o n , n o t h i n g

can be done w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f t a s t e . I n s t e a d t h e New C r i t i c s

m u s t c o n s u l t t h e p r a c t i c a l l i t e r a r y p s y c h o l o g y o f I . A . R i c h a r d s

whose d e r i v a t i v e b e h a v i o u r i s m p r o v i d e s a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l com-

p l e m e n t t o p o s i t i v i s t i c e x p l i c a t i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e c r e a t e s t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c r i t i c a l s y s t e m .

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111. THE METHODOLOGICAL SOLUTION: 1.A.RICHARDS AND THE

POSITrV IST CRITIQUE

I n o r d e r t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e f u n c t i o n o f I. A . R i c h a r d s ' s

w o r k i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f New C r i t i c a l t h e o r y , i t m u s t f i r s t

be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t he i s o n l y a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l and n o t a

s u b s t a n t i v e comp lemen t t o E l i o t . I t i s n o t w h a t R i c h a r d s h a s

t o s a y a b o u t l i t e r a t u r e t h a t c o u n t s b u t how he s a y s i t . George

Watson h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t w o u l d be a m i s t a k e t o assume

t h a t R i c h a r d s and E l i o t s h a r e d t h e same i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n :

The m o s t e l e m e n t a r y m i s t a k e one c o u l d make a b o u t t h e c r i t i c i s m o f I. A . R i c h a r d s - - i t i s a l s o one o f t h e c o m m o n e s t - - i s t o suppose t h a t he p i o n e e r e d a s c h o o l o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c i s m o f w h i c h E l i o t i s a member. The d a t e a l o n e f o r b i d s s u c h a n o t i o n : E l i o t i s t h e o l d e r man b y f i v e y e a r s , a n d h i s f i r s t , a n d b e s t , c r i t i c a l w o r k , The S a c r e d Wood ( l 9 2 O ) , a p p e a r e d b e f o r e R i c h a r d s a d pub1 i s h e d a t a l l . R i c h a r d s i s s i m p l y t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l t h e o r i s t o f t h e e a r l i e r c e n t u r y a s E l i o t i s t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l o f t h e d e s c r i p t i v e c r i t i c s ; and , as so o f t e n , p r a c t i c e a n t i c i p a t e s t h e o r y . 1

F u r t h e r m o r e , R i c h a r d s ' s s u b s t a n t i v e c r i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s - -

c o m m u n i c a t i o n , e v a l u a t i o n , p s y c h o l o g y - - t h r e a t e n t h e s e l f -

r e f e r e n t i a l i t y o f New C r i t i c a l p o e t i c s a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e

c o n s p i c u o u s l y n e g a t e d .

To c l a r i f y t h e p a r t i c u l a r needs t h a t New C r i t i c i s m

s o u g h t t o g r a t i f y i n R i c h a r d s i t w o u l d be h e l p f u l t o c o n s i d e r

J o h n Crowe Ransom's c r i t i q u e o f E l i o t i n -- The New C r i t i c i s m .

Ransom b e g i n s b y s t a t i n g h i s f u n d a m e n t a l s y m p a t h y w i t h E l i o t ' s

c r i t i c o - a e s t h e t i c p r o j e c t :

One o f t h e b e s t t h i n g s i n h i s i n f l u e n c e h a s been h i s h a b i t o f c o n s i d e r i n g a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t a s

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i n d e p e n d e n t o f r e l i g i o u s e f f e c t , o r m o r a l , o r p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l ; as an end t h a t i s b e y o n d a n d n o t c o - o r d i n a t e w i t h t h e s e . 2

Ransom goes on t o a r g u e t h a t E l i o t w i t h h i s a u t o t e l i c v i e w

o f l i t e r a t u r e n o t o n l y p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s o f New C r i t i c i s m

b u t endows i t w i t h h i s t o r i c a l l e g i t i m a c y :

I t i s l i k e l y t h a t we h a v e had n o b e t t e r c r i t i c t h a n E l i o t . And i f E l i o t i s one o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s o f a new c r i t i c i s m , i t i s b e c a u s e t h e new c r i t i c i s m i s i n p a r t t h e r e c o v e r y o f o l d c r i t i c i s m . 3

However , i n s p i t e o f h i s s y m p a t h i e s f o r E l i o t , i n

p a r t i c u l a r f o r h i s s u g g e s t i o n s f o r o b j e c t i f y i n g t h e t e x t

( t h e ' o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e ' ) and f o r c r e a t i n g a l i t e r a r y

' t r a d i t i o n ' a s a c o n t e x t f o r t h a t o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n , Ransom

f i n d s t w o e s s e n t i a l weaknesses i n E l i o t . The f i r s t c o n c e r n s

w h a t Ransom c a l l s E l i o t ' s ' t h e o r e t i c a l i n n o c e n c e ' :

T h e r e i s i n E l i o t an i m m e d i a t e c r i t i c a l s e n s e w h i c h i s e x p e r t a n d i n f a l l i b l e , b u t i t c o n s i s t s w i t h a t h e o r e t i c a l i n n o c e n c e . B e h i n d i t i s no g r e a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l h a b i t , n o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l w i l l , t o p u s h i t t h r o u g h t o d e f i n i t i o n . 4

Ransom f e e l s t h a t E l i o t ' s w o r t h a s a c r i t i c comes f r o m h i s

i n t u i t i v e g r a s p o f l i t e r a t u r e b u t , he a r g u e s , t h i s l e a d s

t o i n c o n s i s t e n c y a n d u l t i m a t e l y t o a k i n d o f s u p e r f i c i a l i t y .

What E l i o t l a c k s i s a s y s t e m a t i c c r i t i c a l t h e o r y t h a t c o u l d

v a l i d a t e h i s p e r c e p t i o n s by e x t e n d i n g them i n t o a c o h e r e n t

a e s t h e t i c t o t a l i t y . As an examp le Ransom c i t e s t h e c o n f l i c t

i n E l i o t i s w r i t i n g s b e t w e e n t r a d i t i o n and i n n o v a t i o n :

I t h i n k E l i o t i s u r i n g t h e p o e t , u n d e r a p r e t t y m e t a p h o r o f a r a t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l o r H e g e l i a n k i n d , n o t t o make h i s poem t o o new; if he w i l l c o n f o r m c l o s e l y w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n , t h e t r a d i t i o n i n t u r n

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w i l l c o n d e s c e n d t o c o n f o r m a l i t t l e w i t h h i m . What i s n o t s u g g e s t e d t o t h e p o e t i s t h a t he m i g h t u s e h i s own head and make an a e s t h e t i c j u d g m e n t o f t h e new t h i n g he i s d o i n g . 5

The s e c o n d weakness t h a t Ransom f i n d s i n E l i o t i n h i s

e l i t i s m , h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o d e a l w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s

o f c r i t i c i s m :

E l i o t i s one o f t h e f o c i o f a d i s t i n g u i s h e d g r o u p o f l i t e r a r y men w i t h whose s e n t i m e n t s I h a v e a l w a y s h a d c o m p l e t e s y m p a t h y : I am c o n v i n c e d o f t h e i r r i g h t n e s s , b u t n o t o f wha t I s h o u l d c a l l t h e i r r i g h t e o u s n e s s ; f o r t h e y do n o t p r o p o s e t o h a v e commerce w i t h t h e w o r l d . 6

T h i s i s a r e v e a l i n g s t a t e m e n t f o r Ransom s i n c e i t r e v e a l s h i s

p r e o c c u p a t i o n s w i t h t h e " d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n " o f c r i t i c i s m as a

c o n t r a d i c t o r y p a r a d i g m w h i c h a c c e p t s t h e s u b s t a n c e o f E l i o t ' s

n e g a t i o n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i o - a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s b u t r e j e c t s

t h e f o r m b y w h i c h t h e y a r e n e g a t e d . I n o t h e r w o r d s , Ransom

r e c o g n i z e s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r " c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n " * a s mass

m a n i p u l a t i o n i n E l i o t ' s c r i t i c i s m a l t h o u g h E l i o t c o n s t a n t l y

t h w a r t s t h e p o t e n t i a l b y a p p e a l i n g t o an i n n a t e t h e o r y o f

i n t u i t i o n a n d t h u s makes ' s e n s i b i l i t y ' u n a t t a i n a b l e b y

e x p e r i e n c e . F u r t h e r , and c o r r e c t l y , Ransom f e e l s t h a t t h e c o n -

t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n ' r i g h t n e s s ' and ' r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' t h r e a t e n s

E l i o t ' s " s y s t e m " w i t h a p r a c t i c a l n i h i l i s m so t h a t h i s a c h i e v e -

m e n t s - - t h e ' o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e ' a n d h i s h e r m e t i c i s t

a e s t h e t i c s - - a r e r e n d e r e d i m p o t e n t . Ransom w r i t e s :

" F e e l i n g s " a n d " e m o t i o n s " a r e t h e j a r g o n o f p o e t i c t h e o r y w i t h t h e new c r i t i c s , a n d w i t h t h e b e s t ones

*I u s e t h e t e r m " c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n " t o d e n o t e t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h an o b j e c t o f u t i l i t y ( e . g . l i t e r a t u r e ) i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o an o b j e c t o f exchange , a c o m m o d i t y . F o r a f u l l e r d i s - c u s s i o n see p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r .

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i t i s E l i o t ' s u s a g e w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e s a n c t i o n . The h a l f c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t r e s u l t s i s p a i n f u l t o t h e humb le r e a d e r a n d s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e i s some- t h i n g e s o t e r i c i n t h e v o c a t i o n o f c r i t i c i s m , and t h a t E l i o t i s i n i t i a t e d b u t t h e humb le r e a d e r i s n 0 t . 7

I n e f f e c t , t h e u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l i m p o r t a t i o n o f E l i o t i n t o

New C r i t i c a l t h e o r y i s i n p r a c t i c e a t h r e a t t o i t s i d e o l o g i c a l

e f f i c a c y . Ransom's s o l u t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f New C r i t i c i s m :

r a t h e r t h a n q u e s t i o n i n g E l i o t ' s m y s t i c a l i d e a l i s m , he m e r e l y

s u p e r i m p o s e s a p a r t i c u l a r l y p r a c t i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y on t h a t

m y s t i c i s m :

One o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h i s a r g u m e n t [ e m o t i o n s a n d f e e l i n g s ] t o t h e o r y i s t h e a e s t h e t i c t r u t h t h a t t h e e m o t i o n we h a v e f o r t h e a r t i s t i c o b j e c t c a n n o t be t h e same a s t h e e m o t i o n we m i g h t h a v e had f o r t h e n a t u r a l o r o r i g i n a l o b j e c t ; we h a v e o f t e n r e c e i v e d t h a t t r u t h t h r o u g h t h e d o c t r i n e o f " p s y c h i c d i s t a n c e " , o r o f a r t i s t i c " d e t a c h m e n t " , o r e v e n o f a r t a s " i m i t a t i o n " . B u t i n wha t l i e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e e m o t i o n s ? And w h a t i s a " t r a n s - m u t e d " e m o t i o n ? I t h i n k i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o t a l k c l e a r l y a b o u t t h e s e m a t t e r s u n t i l we d r o p t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f e m o t i o n s a n d t a l k a b o u t t h e r e s p e c t - i v e c o g n i t i v e o b j e c t s , o r t h e c o g n i t i v e s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h i d e n t i f y them. *

Ransom's s o l u t i o n , t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d u a l i s m o f ' l o g i c a l

s t r u c t u r e ' and ' i r r e l e v a n t t e x t u r e ' , n e e d n o t c o n c e r n u s h e r e .

What i s i m p o r t a n t i s Ransom's d e s i r e f o r a n e u t r a l o b j e c t i v i s t

l a n g u a g e t h a t i s n o t i n a n y s e r i o u s sense c r i t i c a l o r i n t e r -

p r e t a t i v e ; i t i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o q u e s t i o n t h e m y s t i c a l

s u b s t a n c e o f E l i o t ' s ' s e n s i b i l i t y ' b u t m e r e l y t o endow i t

w i t h a d e s c r i p t i v e a u r a .

Ransom s i m p l y assumes a m a t e r i a l i t y i n l a n g u a g e t h a t

can t r a n s c e n d t h e i n s u b s t a n t i a l i t y o f c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a n d

t h a t t h i s i s t h e h i s t o r i c a l l e s s o n o f s c i e n c e :

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B u t t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s a y i n g " h y p o t h e s i s " and s a y i n g " r e v e l a t i o n " . P r o b a b l y t h e b e t t e r t h i n g we have g a i n e d f r o m o u r p r o g r e s s i n s c i e n c e h a s n o t some s u b s t a n t i v e o r m a t e r i a l b e n e f i t , b u t a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l one. We know how we a r e t h i n k i n g when we t h i n k ; we can t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y , and w i t h t h e i n t e n t n o t t o d e c e i v e o t h e r s . 9

O f c o u r s e i f s c i e n c e a l w a y s o p e r a t e d on t h i s p r i n c i p l e i t

c o u l d n o t have a d v a n c e d b e y o n d i t s i n i t i a l p r e m i s s e s s i n c e

u n d e r Ransom's d e f i n i t i o n t r u t h i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h m e t h o d .

Max H o r k h e i m e r h a s o b s e r v e d a s i m i l a r p r o c e s s among p o s i t i v i s t

p h i l o s o p h e r s who c l a i m t h a t

t h e i r own i n s i g h t s a r e s c i e n t i f i c , h o l d i n g t h a t t h e i r own c o g n i t i o n o f s c i e n c e i s b a s e d upon t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f s c i e n c e ; t h a t i s , t h e y c l a i m t h a t t h e y t r e a t s c i e n c e i n t h e same way a s s c i e n c e t r e a t s i t s own o b j e c t s b y e x p e r i m e n t a l l y v e r i f i a b l e o b s e r v a t i o n . B u t t h e c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n i s : How i s i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e wha t j u s t l y may b e c a l l e d s c i e n c e a n d t r u t h , if t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n i t s e l f p r e s u p p o s e s t h e m e t h o d s o f a c h i e v i n g s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h ? The same v i c i o u s c i r c l e i s i n v o l v e d i n a n y j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d b y t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f s c i e n c e : How i s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f o b s e r v a t i o n i t s e l f t o be j u s t i f i e d ? When a j u s t i f i c a t i o n i s r e q u e s t e d , when someone a s k s why o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h e p r o p e r g u a r a n t e e o f t r u t h , t h e p o s i t i v i s t s s i m p l y a p p e a l t o o b s e r v a t i o n a g a i n . B u t t h e i r e y e s a r e c l o s e d . I n s t e a d o f i n t e r r u p t - i n g t h e m a c h i n e - l i k e f u n c t i o n i n g o f r e s e a r c h , t h e mechan isms o f f a c t - f i n d i n g , v e r i f i c a t i o n , c l a s s i f i c a - t i o n e t c e t e r a , and r e f l e c t i n g on t h e i r m e a n i n g a n d r e l a t i o n t o t r u t h , t h e p o s i t i v i s t s r e i t e r a t e t h a t s c i e n c e p r o c e e d s b y o b s e r v a t i o n a n d d e s c r i b e c i r c u m s t a n t i a l l y how i t f u n c t i o n s . 1 0

I t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e d e c e p t i o n t h a t H o r k h e i m e r n o t i c e s i n

p o s i t i v i s t p h i l o s o p h y t h a t i s l a c k i n g i n E l i o t , a n d Ransom

c l e a r l y r e a l i z e s t h a t i f New C r i t i c i s m i s t o become an

i d e o l o g i c a l l y p e r s u a s i v e movement i t m u s t a d o p t a m e t h o d o l o g y

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t h a t i s o n t o l o g i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m

w i t h o u t d e p a r t i n g f r o m t h e modern fo rms o f mass m a n i p u l a t i o n

t h a t h a d been s u c c e s s f u l l y e f f e c t e d i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e a n d

p h i l o s o p h y .

B u t w h e r e c o u l d Ransom d i s c o v e r a s o l u t i o n t o t h i s

d i l e m m a ? A l t h o u g h , as I h a v e e a r l i e r s u g g e s t e d , t h e r e a r e

e m p i r i c i s t u n d e r p i n n i n g s i n t h e c r i t i c i s m o f A r n o l d a n d E l i o t ,

t h e y a r e m e r e l y u n d e r p i n n i n g s a n d n o t c o n s c i o u s i n f o r m i n g

p r i n c i p l e s . When Ransom i s f o r c e d t o c o n s u l t I. A. R i c h a r d s

i t i s w i t h some m i s g i v i n g , s i n c e i n The W o r l d ' s Body ( 1 9 3 8 )

he h a d been c o n t e n t t o r e j e c t R i c h a r d s a s a p s y c h o l o g i s t :

[ R i c h a r d s ] . . . i s n o t t h e man t o l e t . . . [ m e a n i n g ] r e s i d e i n t h e o b j e c t e x p e r i e n c e d , he has t o h a v e t h e c o m p l e x i t y i n t h e head o f t h e s u b j e c t e x p e r i e n c i n g ; t h a t i s , i t i s n o t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t o n a t u r e b u t t o m i n d . T h i s i s a b i t r a r y a n d u n n a t u r a l ; i t i s a p s y c h o l o g i s m . 17

E s s e n t i a l l y t h i s c r i t i q u e r e m a i n s u n m o d i f i e d b u t Ransom i s

now a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p a u c i t y o f t h e

m o d e r n i s t c r i t i c i s m w i t h w h i c h h e s y m p a t h i z e s r e q u i r e s t h a t

a d i s t i n c t i o n be made b e t w e e n t h e f o r m a l m e t h o d o f R i c h a r d s ' s

p s y c h o l o g i s m and t h e e x p e r i e n t i a l c o n t e n t o f t h a t p s y c h o l o g i s m .

However , a s t h e a l m o s t t o t a l a b s e n c e o f c r i t i c a l w r i t i n g

c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e s , R i c h a r d s r e m a i n s t h e s k e l e t o n i n t h e New

C r i t i c a l c l o s e t . George Watson has s u c c i n c t l y commented o n

t h i s h i s t o r i c a l i r o n y :

R i c h a r d s ' s c l a i m t o have p i o n e e r e d t h e A n g l o - A m e r i c a n New C r i t i c i s m o f t h e t h i r t i e s and f o r t i e s i s u n a s s a i l a b l e . He p r o v i d e d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l

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f o u n d a t i o n s on w h i c h t h e t e c h n i q u e o f v e r b a l a n a l y s i s was b u i l t . The f a c t , o n t h e w h o l e , h a s p r o v e d an e m b a r r a s s m e n t t o t h e New C r i t i c s ; R i c h a r d s ' s t h e o r i e s a r e a p p a l l i n g l y v u l n e r a b l e , a n d have been u n d e r e x p e r t f i r e f r o m p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d p s y c h o l o g i s t s f o r many y e a r s ; a n d f u r t h e r , h i s own b o o k s s i n c e t h e t w e n t i e s h a v e g r o w n i n c r e a s i n g l y e c c e n t r i c . He i s one o f t h o s e u n f o r t u n a t e t h i n k e r s whose l a t e r w o r k s t e n d t o d i s c r e d i t n o t o n l y t h e m s ~ $ v e s a n d t h e i r a u t h o r , b u t e a r l i e r b o o k s a s w e l l .

Thus s i n c e R i c h a r d s ' s i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e New C r i t i c s i s o f a

h i g h l y p a r t i c u l a r i z e d k i n d I w i l l p r i m a r i l y c o n f i n e my d i s -

c u s s i o n t o Ransom's c r i t i q u e o f R i c h a r d s i n -- The New C r i t i c i s m .

However b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g t o t h i s c r i t i q u e a b r i e f o u t l i n e o f

R i c h a r d s ' s a e s t h e t i c s w i l l be n e c e s s a r y .

R i c h a r d s a s a p s y c h o l o g i s t p r e m i s s e s h i s a e s t h e t i c s on

t h e b a s i s t h a t a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e i s c o n t i n u o u s w i t h o t h e r

human e x p e r i e n c e s . T h i s c o n t i n u i t y , R i c h a r d s a r g u e s , c o n s i s t s

i n t h e f a c t t h a t a l l human e x p e r i e n c e i s t h e s t r i v i n g t o

s a t i s f y i m p u l s e s t h r o u g h e c o n o m i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . R i c h a r d s

m a i n t a i n s , t h a t i m p u l s e s a r e a c t i v a t e d b y s t i m u l i w h i c h

d e t e r m i n e t h e f o r m o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e . A e s t h e t i c o r p o e t i c

e x p e r i e n c e i s t h u s d e f i n e d b y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r s t i m u l i

and i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m mass f o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b y t h e

e v a l u a t i v e c a t e g o r y o f ' s t o c k r e s p o n s e s ' . A r t , f o r R i c h a r d s ,

i s a c o n c e n t r a t e d f o r m o f a c t i o n ; i t c a n n o t be s a t i s f i e d w i t h

t h e u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f e v e n t s b u t m u s t f o r m a l l y

c o h e r e t o s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s i s t h e b a s i s o f R i c h a r d s ' s

t h e o r y o f o r g a n i c u n i t y i n p o e t r y w h e r e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

i m p u l s e s c a n be m o s t f u l l y r e a l i z e d . I t i s a s h o r t s t e p t o go

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f r o m t h e m i n d o f t h e r e a d e r ( P r i n c i p l e s - o f L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m )

t o t h e poem a s s t i m u l u s ( P r a c t i c a l C r i t i c i s m ) w h i c h i s i n t u r n

b r o k e n down i n t o i t s componen t p a r t s - - ' t e n o r i , ' v e h i c l e ' ,

' i r o n y ' , e t c . a s t h e f o r m a l c a t e g o r i e s o f v e r b a l a n a l y s i s . I n

one way R i c h a r d s ' s m e t h o d i s r a d i c a l l y f o r m i s t i c i n S t e p h e n

P e p p e r ' s s e n s e o f n o r m a t i v e c o n f o r m i t y ; 1 3 t h a t i s , t h e m e t h o d

c o n t a i n s n o s p e c i f i c p r i n c i p l e s f o r c h a l l e n g i n g t h e m a t e r i a l i t y

o f t h e t e x t . T h i s i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a b e h a v i o u r i s t i c mode l

w h e r e t h e d u a l i s m o f s t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n s e e f f e c t i v e l y e x i l e s

a n y g e n u i n e l y e v a l u a t i v e c r i t e r i a : t h e r e i s n o mechan ism

w i t h i n t h e mode1 f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e g e n e s i s o f r e s p o n s e , i t i s

l o c k e d i n t o t h e c i r c l e o f s t i m u l u s . T h i s d i f f i c u l t y i s f u r t h e r

e x a c e r b a t e d i n " t r a d i t i o n a l " l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m w h e r e a t h e o r y

o f l i t e r a r y c r e a t i v i t y i s assumed t o be t h e same a s a t h e o r y o f

l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , l a c k i n g a t h e o r y o f l i t e r a r y

f o r m s , R i c h a r d s a n d t h e New C r i t i c s a r e u n a b l e t o d i s c o v e r a n y

o b j e c t f o r c r i t i c i s m -- o t h e r t h a n m e t h o d o l o g y .

C o n s i d e r t h e n Ransom's c r i t i q u e o f R i c h a r d s . He b e g i n s

b y a c c e p t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f R i c h a r d s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

New C r i t i c i s m a n d i n a f o o t n o t e a p o l o g i s e s f o r h i s e a r l i e r a b u s e

o f h i m :

I u s e d t o a b u s e M r . R i c h a r d s a s a c r i t i c w a l k i n g i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l d a r k n e s s , a n d t o w a n t t o d i s m i s s h i m . F o r e x a m p l e . I have w r i t t e n t o o c r u d e l y a b o u t h i m i n one o f t h e s e s s a y s i n The W o r l d ' s Bod "

t h o u g h I do n o t t h i n k t h a t s ~ t a n t i a l l y ~ i a l l r e c a n t f r o m my a r g u m e n t t h e r e . B u t a g r e a t many y o u n g g r a d u a t e a n d e v e n u n d e r g r a d u a t e t h i n k e r s w i t h whom I have had d e a l i n g s have d e f e n d e d h i m ,

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a n d l e t me know t h e y w e r e h i s men. I c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e m e r i t s i n R i c h a r d s I h a d n o t a l l o w e d f o r , a n d I h a v e been l e d t o make a more t h o r o u g h a p p r a i s a l . I r e m a r k now t h a t I t h ' k he has done i n f i n i t e l y more good t h a n harm. 11

From t h i s n o t e we can e x p e c t t h r e e m o t i f s i n Ransom's e s s a y :

( 1 ) a r e j e c t i o n o f R i c h a r d s ' s p s y c h o l o g i s m b e c a u s e i t c o n t r a -

d i c t s t h e a u t o t e l i c t h e o r y o f l i t e r a t u r e ; ( 2 ) a v a l i d i f i c a t i o n

o f R i c h a r d s ' s m e t h o d o l o g y b e c a u s e i t c r e a t e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

o f p r a c t i c a l l y d i s c u s s i n g l i t e r a t u r e w h i l e a f f i r m i n g a l i t e r a r y

o n t o l o g y ; and ( 3 ) a p r o l e g o m e n o u s o u t l i n e o f New C r i t i c a l

t h e o r y a s a s y n t h e s i s o f p o s i t i v i s t m e t h o d a n d c o m m o d i f i e d

a e s t h e t i c i s m .

We c a n b e s t u n d e r s t a n d Ransom's c r i t i q u e by c o n s i d e r i n g

h i s a n a l o g y o f p o e t r y w i t h t h e d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e :

A poem i s a d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e , h o p i n g n o t t o be c o m p l e t e l y i n e f f e c t i v e , n o t t o f a i l i n g l o r i o u s l y i n t h e b u s i n e s s o f a s t a t e , b y r e a s o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s c r u p l e t h r o u g h w h i c h i t r e s t r a i n s i t s e l f f a i t h f u l l y f r o m a r e a l l y i m p e r i o u s d e g r e e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t w a n t s i t s c i t i z e n s t o r e t a i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s a n d e n j o y t h e i r n a t u r a l i n t e r e s t s . B u t a s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e i s a t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e . I t s members a r e n o t r e g a r d e d a s c i t i z e n s , a n d have n o t i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t s t o a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i r own, b u t a r e o n l y f u n c t i o n s d e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g as t h e s t a t e ma need them t o c o n t r i b u t e t o i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . 1 J

Ransom c o n s i d e r s t h a t p o e t r y i s p r i m a r i l y c o g n i t i v e i n f u n c t i o n

i n t h e same sense t h a t t h e d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e i s p r i m a r i l y

e c o n o m i c i n f u n c t i o n . Freedom i s t h e r e f o r e c o n t i n g e n t on

t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e , on t h e

a b i l i t y o f k n o w l e d g e a n d c a p i t a l t o s a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f

o n t o l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t y . The s u p r a - r a t i o n a l i t y o f s c i e n t i f i c

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d i s c o u r s e , o n t h e o t h e r hand, i s t o t a l i t a r i a n s i n c e t h e

o n t o l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t i e s c a n n e v e r be s a t i s f i e d . However

Ransom's d u a l i s m i s i l l u s o r y s i n c e t h e e c o n o m i c s y s t e m h a s n o

c o n c e r n s w i t h human f r e e d o m b u t o n l y w i t h e c o n o m i c f r e e d o m ;

t h a t i s , c i t i z e n s o n l y ' r e t a i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s a n d e n j o y

t h e i r n a t u r a l i n t e r e s t s ' i f t h e y a r e e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h e c o n o m i c

c a t e g o r i e s . T h i s i s e q u a l l y t r u e o f k n o w l e d g e i n p o e t r y , a t

l e a s t a s f a r a s Ransom d e f i n e s i t , b e c a u s e p o e t i c f r e e d o m o r

' l o c a l t e x t u r e ' i s bound b y t h e n e e d s o f r e i f i e d k n o w l e d g e .

F u r t h e r , j u s t a s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n be tween s o c i a l democracy a n d

t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m i s o f t e n more f o r m a l t h a n s u b s t a n t i v e t h e same

can be s a i d o f Ransom's p o e t i c s a n d p o s i t i v i s t s c i e n c e w h i c h

f u n c t i o n m u t u a l l y r a t h e r t h a n a n t a g o n i s t i c a l l y .

I n c o n t r a s t , R i c h a r d s ' s e m p h a s i s on e x p e r i e n c e a s t h e

e s s e n c e o f p o e t r y sounds v e r y much l i k e a n a r c h i s m . Ransom

w r i t e s :

... when we a n a l y s e p o e t r y i n c o g n i t i v e t e r m s we a l l o w , i n c i d e n t a l l y , f o r a l l a p p r o p r i a t e e m o t i o n s a n d a t t i t u d e s ; t h a t i s , f o r a l l t h a t c a n f i n d t h e i r e x c u s e , o r t h e i r c h a n c e , i n t h e t e x t . B u t i n t h i s p r o c e d u r e we a r e n o t t e m p t e d t o e x p l o r e t h e f a n t a s t i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a t a r i s e o n c e we s e t up t h e n o t i o n o f e m o t i o n s and a t t i t u d e s a s i n d e p e n d e n t e n t i t i e s . N o r do we have t o s k i p b a c k a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n " o b j e c t i v e " a n d " s u b j e c t i v e " c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a v e r y e m b a r r a s s i n g p o l i c y a n d ~ ~ p e c i a l l y m o r t a l t o t h e o b j e c t i v e s i d e o f a n a l y s i s .

Whereas R i c h a r d s ' s p s y c h o l o g i s m t e n d s t o w a r d s s u b j e c t i v i s m ,

s o t h a t ' e m o t i o n s a n d a t t i t u d e s ' a p p e a r a s ' i n d e p e n d e n t

e n t i t i e s ' , Ransom's c o g n i t i v e o b j e c t i v i s m t e n d s t o b a n i s h

s u b j e c t i v i t y a l t o g e t h e r f r o m l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . H i s h i g h l y

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m o r a l i s t i c l a n g u a g e - - ' a l l o w 1 , ' e m b a r r a s s i n g ' , ' m o r t a l 8 - -

s u g g e s t s h i s r e p r e s s i v e f e a r o f human f e e l i n g s s i n c e i f t h e y

w e r e t a k e n s e r i o u s l y t h e y w o u l d t h r e a t e n h i s w h o l e c r i t i c a l

p r o j e c t , t h e ' o b j e c t i v e s i d e o f a n a l y s i s ' .

T h e r e i s o f c o u r s e a s e r i o u s weakness i n R i c h a r d s ' s

r e d u c t i o n o f p o e t i c s t o a f f e c t i v i s t e x p e r i e n c e b u t Ransom

seems t o t h i n k t h a t t h e o n l y c r i t i c a l c h o i c e s a r e b e t w e e n

p o e t r y a s k n o w l e d g e a n d p o e t r y a s e x p e r i e n c e . He c a n n o t see

t h a t c r i t i c i s m m u s t c o n s t r u c t a h i s t o r i c a l d i a l e c t i c t h a t

u n i t e s t h e s e p o l a r i t i e s . H i s r e v e a l i n g a n a l o g y o f p o e t r y a s

t h e d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e i n p a r t e x p l a i n s why t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n

r e m a i n s b e y o n d h i s c r i t i c a l v i s i o n s i n c e he w a n t s p o e t r y , i n

a c r u d e l y n a t u r a l i s t i c f a s h i o n , t o c o n f o r m t o t h e c o m m o d i f i e d

s t r u c t u r e o f c a p i t a l i s m .

L e t us now t u r n t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f R i c h a r d s ' s m e t h o d ,

h i s t r u e w o r t h a s f a r a s Ransom i s c o n c e r n e d . Ransom

o b s e r v e s t h a t R i c h a r d s f u s e s ' n o m i n a l i s m ' , t h e v i e w t h a t

l a n g u a g e r e f e r s t o t h e o b j e c t i v e w o r l d , and ' p o s i t i v i s m ' ,

t h e b e l i e f i n t h e p e r f e c t a b i l i t y o f s c i e n c e . T h i s f u s i o n i s

R i c h a r d s ' s m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . Ransom

w r i t e s :

N o m i n a l i s m a n d p o s i t i v i s m a r e s t r a n g e - l o o k i n g y o k e f e l l o w s f o r u n d e r t a k i n g k n o w l e d g e , b u t i t m u s t b e s a i d t h a t t h e y w o r k v e r y w e l l t o g e t h e r . I t may be t h a t t h e p h i l o s o p h e r a s p o s i t i v i s t w i l l h a v e t o make some c o n c e s s i o n s a s t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f r e f e r e n t s n o t g e n e r a l l y a t t e n d e d t o i n t h e s c i e n c e s , a n d on t h e o t h e r h a n d t h a t a s a n o m i n a l i s t he w i l l have t o e n t e r t a i n some m i s g i v i n g s a s t o

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t h e p u r e s c i e n t i f i c r e f e r e n t s . Be tween them, t h e t w o b i a s e s do a t l e a s t o f f e r a d r a m a t i c s e t t i n g f o r a f u r i o u s e f f o r t t o w a r d s b i g g e r a n d b e t t e r k n o w l e d g e s . I b e l i e v e t h e y s u i t a s o r t o f p i o n e e r i n g , s t a r t - a t - t h e - b o t t o m A m e r i c a n i s m , a n d a r e a n e x c e l l e n t s t r a t e g y f o r u s , a s I i d e a l i z e o u r n a t i o n a l t e m p e r a n d p r o s p e c t s o f k n o w l e d g e . The t h i n k e r , o r t h e g r o u p o f t h i n k e r s , has a l l t h e room i n t h e w o r l d t o g r o w . B u t t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t h o n e s t n o m i n a l i s t - p o s i t i v i s t s i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i r c a r e e r s w i l l come t o h a v e m o r e commerce i t h m e t a p h y s i c s t h a n t h e y h a d c o n t e m p l a t e d . 19

I n u n d i l u t e d f o r m Ransom s t a t e s t h e e s s e n c e o f New C r i t i c i s m

a s a n a l o g o u s t o A m e r i c a n e x p a n s i o n i s m . H i s e c o n o m i s t i c

l a n g u a g e r e v e a l s t h e f o r m t h a t he hopes c r i t i c i s m w i l l t a k e :

t h a t i s , m e t a p h y s i c s o u g h t t o be c o m m o d i f i e d i n a s p e c i f i c a l l y

n a t i o n a l way. C r i t i c i s m m u s t be c o n c e i v e d a s a new p r o d u c t

t h a t d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d s s o p h i s t i c a t e d m a r k e t i n g p r o c e d u r e s

t o e n s u r e i t s s u c c e s s i n A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y . Ransom, i n s p i t e

o f h i s o b j e c t i o n s t o R i c h a r d s ' s p s y c h o l o g i s m , f e e l s t h a t t h e

l a t t e r ' s n o m i n a l i s t - p o s i t i v i s m i s p r e c i s e l y t h e m e t h o d o l o g y

t h a t c a n t r a n s f o r m New C r i t i c i s m i n t o a c o m p e t i t i v e c o m m o d i t y

i n t h e A m e r i c a n a c a d e m i c m a r k e t .

R e g a r d i n g R i c h a r d s ' s P r a c t i c a l C r i t i c i s m Ransom makes

t h e f o l l o w i n g comment:

I n c r i t i c i z i n g t h e s t u d e n t s ' a b i l i t y t o r e a d t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p o e t r y , R i c h a r d s r e v e a l s h i m s e l f a s a n a s t u t e r e a d e r . He l o o k s much m o r e c l o s e l y a t t h e o b j e c t i v e poem t h a n h i s t h e o r i e s r e q u i r e h i m t o do. H i s m o s t i n c o n t e s t a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p o e t i c d i s c u s s i o n , i n my o p i n i o n , i s i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e i d e a l o r e x e m p l a r y r e a d i n g s , a n d i n p r o v o k i n g s u c h r e a d i n g s f r o m o t h e r s c h o l a r s . R a t h e r q u a l i f i e d i n c o m p a r i s o n w o u l d b e t h e v a l u e o f h i s c r i t i c a l

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d i s c u s s i o n s ; t h e y h a v e been e x t r e m e l y p r o v o c a t i v e i n t h e r i s e o f a new c r i t i c i s m , b u t t h i s h a s o f t been c o m p r o m i s e d b y w h a t I r e g a r d a s h i s e r r o r s . 71

The d e t e r m i n a t e c o n c e p t i n t h i s p a s s a g e i s t h a t R i c h a r d s was

' p r o v o c a t i v e i n t h e r i s e o f a new c r i t i c i s m ' ; t h a t i s ,

R i c h a r d s ' s i n d i r e c t v a l u e f o r Ransom l i e s i n h i s e r r o r s t h a t

a r e a f u n c t i o n n o t o f m e t h o d b u t o f a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s .

By a n a l y s i n g R i c h a r d s ' s b a s i c e r r o r s o f m e t a p h o r , t r a g e d y a n d

i r o n y , Ransom h o p e s t o s u g g e s t a p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n f o r a

new c r i t i c i s m .

R i c h a r d s d i s c u s s e s t h e c o n c e p t o f m e t a p h o r i n t e r m s o f

' t e n o r ' a n d ' v e h i c l e ' w h i c h g i v e m e t a p h o r t h e c h a r a c t e r o f

u n i t y . T e n o r i s t h e u n d e r l y i n g c o n t e x t upon w h i c h i s s u p e r -

i m p o s e d ' f o r e i g n c o n t e n t ' , t h e v e h i c l e . Thus m e t a p h o r i s a

' s e m i - s u r r e p t i t i o u s m e t h o d b y w h i c h a g r e a t e r v a r i e t y o f

e l e m e n t s c a n be w r o u g h t i n t o t h e f a b r i c o f t h e p o e t i c

e x p e r i e n c e ' . l9 B u t Ransom's d u a l i s m c a n n o t a c c e p t R i c h a r d s ' s

m o n i s t i c u n i t y a l t h o u g h he does a c c e p t t h e t e r m i n o l o g i c a l

v a l i d i t y o f ' t e n o r ' and ' v e h i c l e ' . Ransom t h e r e f o r e p r o p o s e s

t h e f o l l o w i n g c o r r e c t i o n :

I.. . f e e l d i s p o s e d . . . t o a r g u e f o r a l o g i c a l p r o p r i e t y , a s p e c i f i c " p o i n t o f a n a l o g y " a s t h e o c c a s i o n f o r a n y g i v e n m e t a p h o r ; a n d t h e n f o r b r i l l i a n c e a n d i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e b o d y o f t h e v e h i c l e i n i t s own r i g h t . B u t i t seems t o me s c a r c e l y open t o q u e s t i o n t h a t t h e v e h i c l e m u s t r e a l i z e i t s e l f i n d e p e n d e n t l y and go b e y o n d i t s o c c a s i o n . . . . I n d o i n g t h i s t h e v e h i c l e becomes i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e a r g u m e n t , a n d a s s e r t s t h e p o e t i c u n d e r t a k i n g t o i n c o r p o r a t e l o c a l t e x t u r e . 2 0

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Ransom w a n t s t o subsume a l l p o e t i c p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s t o h i s

d u a l i s t i c t o t a l i t y i n w h i c h t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t

( v e h i c l e ) f r o m t h e o b j e c t ( t e n o r ) i s c o n s i d e r e d ' s c a r c e l y

open t o q u e s t i o n ' . O r , w h a t a m o u n t s t o t h e same t h i n g , t h e

f r e e d o m o f t h e s u b j e c t t o e x p e r i e n c e i s s a c r o n s a n c t a n d

t h e r e f o r e r e s i s t s c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w h e t h e r t h a t b e

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r c o g n i t i v e . O n l y t h e o b j e c t , b e c a u s e i t i s

a n a l o g o u s w i t h t h e r e i f i e d w o r l d o f c o m m o d i t i e s , c a n be

s u b j e c t e d t o s e m a n t i c c r i t e r i a .

R i c h a r d s ' s t r a g i c t h e o r y i s , b y a n d l a r g e , a t r a n s l a t i o n

o f A r i s t o t l e s n k a t h a r s i s i n t o b e h a v i o u r i s t i c p s y c h o l o g y ;

t h a t i s , t h e c o n f l i c t o f p i t y a n d t e r r o r c o n s t i t u t e an

' o r d e r e d s i n g l e r e s p o n s e ' . I n c o n t r a s t , Ransom s i m p l y makes

t r a g i c t h e o r y an a s p e c t o f h i s p o e t i c s :

The t r a g i c e f f e c t i s a t e s t i m o n i a l t o t h e h o m e l y a n d r e a c t i o n a r y h o n e s t y o f p o e t i c c o g n i t i o n . B u t i t s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t d o e s n o t depend upon i t s h a v i n g e x t e n d e d , o r c o n t r a c t e d , o r m o d i f i e d t h e p e c u l i a r p o e t i c t e c h y j q u e , w h i c h c o n s i s t s i n t h e p r o v i s i o n o f t e x t u r e .

T r a g e d y i s s i m p l y r e d u c e d t o an u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l l o g i c a l

s t r u c t u r e t h a t d i f f e r s f r o m o t h e r p o e t i c d i s c o u r s e o n l y b y

v i r t u e o f i t s n e g a t i v i t y . Ransom's t h e o r y o f t r a g e d y , i t

m u s t be c o n c e d e d , i s a weak l i n k i n h i s p o e t i c s . B u t i t i s

l o g i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s c o g n i t i v e d u a l i s m w h i c h makes

n o a l l o w a n c e s f o r t h e f u n d a m e n t a l d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n

g e n r e s .

F i n a l l y t h e r e i s t h e q u e s t i o n o f i r o n y , p e r h a p s R i c h a r d s ' s

m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l c o n c e p t . R i c h a r d s d e f i n e s p o e t i c i r o n y a s

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t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h e d i s t i n g u i s h - a b l e i m p u l s e s . B u t t h e y a r e more t h a n h e t e r o g e n e o u s , t h e y a r e o p p o s e d . They a r e s u c h t h a t i n o r d i n a r y , n o n - p o e t i c , n o n - i m a g i n a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e , O n e o r o t h e r s e t w o u l d b e s u p p r e s s e d t o g i v e a i t m i g h t a p p e a r f r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t t o t h e o t h e r s . 8 2

I t i s b e c a u s e i r o n y a p p l i e s t o a l i m i t e d b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e

t h a t Ranson i s s c e p t i c a l o f i t s v a l u e as a c r i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e .

Ransom a r g u e s t h a t R i c h a r d s h a s f a i l e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

i r o n y a n d t e x t u r e : t h e f o r m e r i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t r a g e d y w h e r e

' t h e a r t i s t w o r k s o v e r t h e p r a c t i c a l f a i l u r e s i n human l i f e ,

a n d t h e a m b i g u o u s a n t i c 1 i m a c t i c ha1 f - s u c c e s s e s ' a n d t h e

l a t t e r r e f e r s t o a r t t h a t ' c e l e b r a t e s t h e p r a c t i c a l s u c c e s s e s

as a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e a n d n o t t h e f a i l u r e s ' . 2 3 More p a r t i c u l a r l y ,

Ransom o b j e c t s t o R i c h a r d s ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t

( p o e t i c m e a n i n g ) w i t h t h e s u b j e c t ( i r o n y ) w h i c h assumes an

e x p e r i e n t i a l t o t a l i t y t h a t c o n f r o n t s s o c i a l r e a l i t y i n s t e a d

o f s t r u c t u r a l l y c o n f i r m i n g t h a t r e a l i t y . Ransom w r i t e s :

F o r h e r e i s a p r i m a r y a n o m a l y a b o u t a w o r k o f a r t t h a t r e f l e c t s a m o r t i f y i n g l a w i n o u r economy: i n a r t we can e x p e r i e n c e o u r s i t u a t i o n more i n t i m a t e l y a n d s e n s i t i v e l y , b u t t h e c o n d i t i o n i s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t i t i s n o t t h e r e a l b u t o n l y t h e i m a g i n a l s i t u a t i o n , and t h a t t h e r e a l one has p a s s e d . I n l i f e we a r e g r o s s a n d p r a c t i c a l , a n d i t d i s p a r a g e s u s a s much as i t p l e a s e u s t h a t i n a r t we may b e d e l i c a t e and s e n s i t i v e . 3 4

Ransom p r e s e n t s h i s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s w i t h o u t

e q u i v o c a t i o n a n d he does n o t w a n t a r t t o t h r e a t e n them.

He r e g a r d s t h e m e t h o d o l o g y o f s c i e n c e a s o n t o l o g i c a l l y

d e s c r i p t i v e a n d t h e r e f o r e f a u l t s R i c h a r d s ' s p s y c h o l o g i s m f o r

c o n f u s i n g a r t w i t h l i f e . Ransom c e r t a i n l y does n o t see t h a t

b e n e a t h t h e d e l i c a c y and s e n s i t i v i t y w h i c h he a t t r i b u t e s t o

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art lies the 'gross and practical' a s expressed in h i s

alienated critical practice. T h e illusion in which he

participates is that the 'mortifying f l a w o f o u r economy'

separates art from life, whereas the historical truth is

that all human activities--artistic and practical--are

determined by t h e iron law o f reified commodities.

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I V . NEW CRITICAL THEORY: THE ETHOS OF LITERARY CONSUMERISM

One o f t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l m i s t a k e s t h a t c a n b e made

a b o u t t h e New C r i t i c i s m i s t o assume t h a t i t s t h e o r e t i c a l

p r i n c i p l e s o f p r a c t i c e a r e c o n s i s t e n t t h r o u g h t o u t t h e movement .

O r , t o p o s e t h e p r o b l e m d i f f e r e n t l y , i t i s a m i s t a k e t o assume

t h a t New C r i t i c i s m p o s s e s s e s an u n e q u i v o c a l l e a d e r i n t h e

p e r s o n o f J o h n Crowe Ransom. T h i s i s t h e c r i t i c a l e r r o r

n o t o n l y o f t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f New C r i t i c i s m s u c h a s J o h n

s t e w a r t ' b u t a l s o o f i t s c r i t i c s o f w h i c h J o h n F e k e t e i s

t h e m o s t r e c e n t e x a m p l e . * T h i s a s s u m p t i o n l e a d s t o t w o

m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f New C r i t i c i s m : i t

g i v e s New C r i t i c i s m an e x c e s s i v e l y r e g i o n a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r

b y t r a c i n g t h e o r i g i n s o f Ransom's t h o u g h t t o t h e o b s c u r a n t i s t

F u g i t i v e and A g r a r i a n movements ; a n d i t e x a g g e r a t e s t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l s u b s t a n c e o f Ransom's w r i t i n g s . What i s c r u c i a l

t o r e c o g n i z e i s t h e p a s s i v i t y o f New C r i t i c i s m i n t h e d e t e r -

m i n a t i o n o f t h e o r y : New C r i t i c i s m i s e s s e n t i a l l y a r e f l e c t i o n

o f t h e c o m o d i f i e d s t r u c t u r e o f c a p i t a l i s m a n d t h i s s t r u c t u r e

m u s t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e a m b i t i o u s i n i t i a t i v e shown b y

p a r t i c u l a r New C r i t i c s who a c t i v a t e a p a s s i v i t y b u t do n o t

" c r e a t e " a t h e o r y . F u r t h e r m o r e i t i s t h i s f e a t u r e t h a t

e f f e c t i v e l y s u b v e r t s a c r i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n c r i t i c a l

p r a c t i c e s o t h a t b y t h e l a t e f i f t i e s a n d e a r l y s i x t i e s m o s t

a c a d e m i c l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s h a v e no a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i r c r i t i c a l

p r e s u m p t i o n s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , c r i t i c s d e f i n e t h e i r a t t i t u d e s

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t h e i r own m e c h a n i s t i c c r e a t i v e p r a c t i c e w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f

c r i t i c i s m ; ( 2 ) t h e p a r t i a l n e g a t i o n o f t h e p o e t i c i s t mode l i n

f a v o u r o f a more p u r e l y c r i t i c a l mode l a s e x e m p l i f i e d b y C l e a n t h

B r o o k s and R o b e r t Penn War ren ; and ( 3 ) t h e f i n a l t r a n s c e n d e n c e

o f t h e p o e t i c i s t mode l a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a r i g i d l y a c a d e m i c

p r a x i s a s e x e m p l i f i e d b y W . K. W i m s a t t .

I I

The t w o k e y s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e f i r s t d i a l e c t i c a l moment

a r e m o s t c e r t a i n l y Ransom's f i n a l e s s a y i n -- The New C r i t i c i s m ,

"Wanted: An O n t o l o g i c a l C r i t i c " a n d T a t e ' s e s s a y , " T e n s i o n

i n P o e t r y " . I n a c c e p t i n g t h a t t h e s e e s s a y s c o m p r i s e t h e f i r s t

moment o f New C r i t i c i s m i t s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h i s i s

n o t a c h r o n o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n b u t r a h t e r a l o g i c o - h i s t o r i c a l

s t r u c t u r e ; t h a t i s , t h e a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n Ransom a n d T a t e has

i t s o r i g i n s i n t h e F u g i t i v e movement a n d i n t h e i r m u t u a l i n t e r e s t

on t h e c r e a t i v e demands on t h e modern a r t i s t w h i c h h a s a d i r e c t l y

p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g f o r t hem.

I n "Wan ted : An O n t o l o g i c a l C r i t i c " Ransom w a n t s t o

i d e n t i f y t w o a s p e c t s o f h i s own p o e t i c s w i t h c r i t i c a l t h e o r y :

h i s d u a l i s t i c o n t o l o g y o f p o e t r y - - h i s w e l l known d i s t i n c t i o n

b e t w e e n a ' l o o s e l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e ' and a ' g o o d d e a l o f l o c a l

t e x t u r e 1 - - a n d h i s v i e w t h a t p o e t r y a v a i l s t o t h e r e a d e r a

p a r t i c u l a r i z e d o r d e r o f k n o w l e d g e . Ransom w r i t e s :

I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t i a o f p o e t r y a s d i s c o u r s e i s an o n t o l o g i c a l one. I t t r e a t s an o r d e r o f e x i s t e n c e a g r a d e o f o b j e c t i v i t y , w h i c h

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c a n n o t b e t r e a t e d i n s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e .... P o e t r y i n t e n d s t o r e c o v e r t h e d e n s e r a n d more o r i g i n a l w o r l d w h i c h we know l o o s e l y t h r o u g h o u r p e r c e p t i o n s a n d m e m o r i e s . By t h i s s u p p o s i t i o n i t i s a k i n d o f know- l e d g e w h i c h i s r a d i c a l l y o r o n t o l o g i c a l l y d i ~ t i n c t . ~

The t a s k o f c r i t i c i s m i s t h e r e f o r e seen a s t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n

o f t h i s o n t o l o g i c a l t r u t h . B u t r a t h e r t h a n e x a m i n i n g t h e

t r u t h c o n t e n t o f t h i s o n t o l o g y w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f u n c t i o n a l

d y n a m i c o f l i t e r a t u r e i n W e s t e r n c u l t u r e Ransom i s c o n t e n t

t o r e s t h i s a r g u m e n t on t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a r t a n d s c i e n c e

w h e r e t h e l a t t e r i s c o n c e i v e d m e r e l y a s an a l t e r n a t i v e

c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m .

Ransom d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t h e s c i e n t i f i c s y m b o l and

t h e a e s t h e t i c i c o n as f o l l o w s :

The s i g n w h i c h s c i e n c e e m p l o y s i s a mere s i g n , o r " s y m b o l " , t h a t i s , an o b j e c t h a v i n g n o o t h e r c h a r a c t e r - - f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f d i s c o u r s e a t l e a s t - - t h a n t h a t o f r e f e r r i n g t o a n o t h e r o b j e c t w h i c h i s i t s s e m a n t i c a l o b j e c t . F o r e x a m p l e , s y m b o l s a r e a l g e b r a i c c h a r a c t e r s ; o r w o r d s u s e d t e c h n i c a l l y , a s d e f i n e d i n t h e d i c t i o n a r y , o r d e f i n e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a g i v e n d i s c o u r s e i n t h e d i s c o u r s e i t s e l f . B u t t h e a e s t h e t i c s i g n s a r e " i c o n s " o r images As s i g n s t h e y h a v e s e m a n t i c a l o b j e c t s , o r r e f e r t o o b j e c t s , b u t as i c o n i c s i g n s t h e y a l s o r e s e m b l e o r i m i t a t e t h e s e o b j e c t s S 4

B u t t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e a b o u t u n m e d i a t e d

n a t u r e , t h e s p h e r e o f s c i e n c e , a n d k n o w l e d g e a b o u t h u m a n l y

m e d i a t e d n a t u r e , t h e s p h e r e o f t h e h u m a n i t i e s and s o c i a l

s c i e n c e s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i t i s n o t m e r e l y w h a t o b j e c t s s i g n i f y

o r r e p r e s e n t b u t a l s o how t h e y a r e m a t e r i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d a n d

t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e i r e x i s t e n c e i s e f f e c t e d b y h i s t o r i c a l

p r o c e s s e s . The p a r a l l e l o f a e s t h e t i c a n d s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e

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i s t h e r e f o r e a r t i f i c i a l and m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s an i d e o l o g i c a l

r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n t o j u s t i f y t h e c r i t i c a l r e i f i c a t i o n o f

l i t e r a t u r e , t o make t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a r t and t e c h n o l o g y

s u b s t a n t i v e r a t h e r t h a n f u n c t i o n a l .

H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d t h e c o n c r e t e n e s s o f t h e i c o n i c a r t

o b j e c t as opposed t o t h e a b s t r a c t s y m b o l i c s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t ,

Ransom t h e n p r o c e e d s t o examine t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r i c i p l e t h a t

v i t a l i z e s t h e c o n c r e t e i c o n , n a m e l y m e t r e . Comment ing on

t r a d i t i o n a l p o e t i c s as b e i n g o v e r l y p a r t i c u l a r i z e d Ransom

w r i t e s :

I f t h e u n s a t i s f a c t o r i n e s s o f p o e t i c t h e o r y , w h i c h s t r i k e s us s o p a i n f u l l y , i s due t o t h e a b s e n c e f r o m i t o f r a d i c a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l g e n e r a l i t i e s , t h e f a u l t m u s t b e g i n r e a l l y w i t h i t s f a i l u r e t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y and i m m e d i a t e a s p e c t t h a t f o r m a l p o e t r y w e a r s : i t s m e t r i c a l f o r m . The c o n v e n t i o n o f t h e m e t r i c a l f o r m i s t h o u g h t t o be as o l d as t h e a r t i t s e l f . Pe rhaps . i t i s t h e a r t i t s e l f . 1 s u g g e s t t h a t t h e m e t r e - a n d - m e a n i n g p r o c e s s i s t h e o r g a n i c a c t o f p o e t r y , a n d i n v o l v e s a l l i t s i m p o r t a n t character^.^

A l t h o u g h i t c a n be a r g u e d t h a t t h e m e t r i c a l f o r m i s t h e means

b y w h i c h t h e sensuous c o n t e n t o f p o e t r y i s a c h i e v e d ( a l t h o u g h

h a r d l y as i m p o r t a n t a s t h e e x p e r i e n c i a l m a t e r i a l o f p o e t r y ) i t

c a n n o t be a r g u e d t h a t t h e m e t r e i s t h e sensuous c o n t e n t a s Ransom

w o u l d have us b e l i e v e . However I do n o t w a n t t o a r g u e t h a t

t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f m e t r i c a l a n a l y s i s f o r an a n a l y s i s o f s o c i a l l y

m e a n i n g f u l s u b j e c t i v i t y i s s i m p l y a c r i t i c a l e r r o r f o r Ransom.

R a t h e r i t seems t o me t o s u g g e s t Ransom's i n a b i l i t y f o r ( o r f e a r

o f ) s e r i o u s i n t r o s p e c t i o n t h a t i s t h e c o n d i t i o n n o t o n l y o f t h e

m o d e r n i s t a n g s t w h i c h e r e c t s r i g i d c h a r a c t e r a r m o u r t o p r o t e c t

a f r a g i l e s u b j e c t i v i t y b u t a l s o o f a r e i f i e d s h i f t i n c r i t i c a l

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p e r s p e c t i v e w h e r e t h e a n a l y s i s o f p o e t r y i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d

f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f a g e n e r a l i z e d c u l t u r e b u t i n s t e a d

f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f a c a d e m i c s c h o l a r s h i p and c l a s s room

p r a x i s . I n o t h e r w o r d s i t i s n o t m e r e l y t h e e m p i r i c a l c o n t e n t

o f Ransom's c r i t i c a l t h e o r y t h a t i s a t i s s u e b u t a l s o t h e

i m p l i c i t u s e f o r w h i c h t h a t c o n t e n t i s i n t e n d e d . I n f a c t i t

becomes f a i r l y c l e a r t h a t Ransom's m e t h o d o l o g y i s n o t i n t e n d e d

as a b a s i s f o r c r i t i c a l l y d i s c u s s i n g t h e c u l t u r a l m e a n i n g o f

p o e t r y b u t i s r a t h e r i n t e n d e d t o o p p o s e s u c h a r e a d i n g , t o make

p o e t r y m e r e l y a v e h i c l e f o r s c h o l a r s h i p .

H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e e s s e n c e o f p o e t r y i s t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m e t r e a n d m e a n i n g Ransom t h e n p r o c e e d s t o

c o n s t r u c t a f o u r - l e v e l g r i d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n

b e t w e e n f o r m a l n e c e s s i t y ( d e t e r m i n a t e s o u n d - s t r u c t u r e [ D S ] a n d

d e t e r m i n a t e m e a n i n g [DM])and c r e a t i v e f r e e d o m ( i n d e t e r m i n a t e

s o u n d - s t r u c t u r e [ I S ] a n d i n d e t e r m i n a t e m e a n i n g [ I M ] ) . W i t h

a b s o l u t e c a n d o u r Ransom a r g u e s t h a t c r i t i c i s m i s t h e d e l i n e a t i o n

o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s :

I c a n n o t b u t t h i n k t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s , and e s p e c i a l l y o f DM and I M , i s t h e v o c a t i o n p a r e x c e l l e n c e o f c r i t i c i s m . I t i s more t e c h n i c a l t h a n some o t h e r e x e r c i s e s t h a t go a s c r i t i c i s m , b u t m o r e i n f o r m e d . I t b r i n q s t h e c r i t i c i s m t o somewhat t h e same l e v e l o f p r o f e ; s i o n a l c o m p e t e n c e a s t h a t o f d i s c u s s i o n s somet imes a c c o r d e d t o p a i n t i n g s , a n d t h a t w h i c h m u s i c i a n s a c c o r d t o m u s i c ; w h i c h means I t h i n k , an e l e v a t i o n o f o u r n o r m a l c r i t i c a l s t a n d a r d . 6 ( e m p h a s i s m i n e )

I n t h i s s t a t e m e n t Ransom's b i a s s t a n d s o u t c l e a r l y : he i s more

i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f h i s g r i d t o ' p r o f e s s i o n a l

c o m p e t e n c e ' t h a n i n i t s c a p a c i t y t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e a f f e c t i v e

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p o w e r o f p o e t r y .

However , a l t h o u g h Ransom i n s i s t s on a d u a l i s t i c o n t o l o g y

as a b a s i s o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m he i s o b l i g e d i n c r i t i c a l

p r a c t i c e t o p a y more a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i n d e t e r m i n a t e e l e m e n t s

o f p o e t r y , t h e t e x t u r e w h i c h c o n s t a n t l y c o - o p t t h e d e t e r m i n a t e

e l e m e n t s , t h e l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . By way o f a d m i s s i o n he w r i t e s :

I t i s n o t t e l l i n g t h e w h o l e t r u t h t o s a y t h a t S h a k e s p e a r e a n d o t h e r a c c o m p l i s h e d p o e t s r e s o r t t o t h e i r v a r i a t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e d e t e r m i n a t e m e a n i n g has f o r c e d them i n t o i t . The p o e t l i k e s v a r i a t i o n s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e m e a n i n g s , f i n d i n g t h e m e s s e n t i a l i n t h e c a p a c i t y a f a s o u n d - t e x t u r e t o go w i t h t h e s o u n d - s t r u c t u r e . 7

Thus a l t h o u g h t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s may be i n i t i a t e d b y c e r t a i n

l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t i e s t h e u l t i m a t e m e a n i n g o f p o e t r y m u s t be d i s -

c o v e r e d i n t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e , a n d i t becomes

t h e t a s k o f t h e c r i t i c t o a t t e n d t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l s o f

l a n g u a g e , i t s m e t r e and euphony , t h a t i s t h e b a s i s o f t h a t

c o m p l e x i t y .

Ransom i s c u r i o u s l y u n a f f e c t e d b y t h i s a p p a r e n t c o n t r a -

d i c t i o n i n h i s s y s t e m so t h a t f i n a l l y t h e o n l y s t r u c t u r e t h a t

c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o p o e t r y i s h e t e r o g e n e i t y w h i c h i s n o

s t r u c t u r e a t a l l :

A w o n d e r f u l " f i t n e s s " , harmony, o r p r o p r i e t y , e v e n an e n d u r i n g s t a b i l i t y , seems t o o b t a i n i n t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e m a n t i c p r o p e r t y a n d t h e p h o n e t i c p r o p e r t y i n t o a f i n e p o e t i c p h r a s e . I t i s s o m e t h i n g we a l l f e e l , a n d I b e l i e v e i t i s t h e f a c t we need t o a c c o u n t f o r h e r e . B u t w h a t i s t h e l a w o f i t s c o r p o r a t e e x i s t e n c e ? The l a w i s a n o n t o l o g i c a l one : t h e t w o p r o p e r t i e s s h a l l n o t b e i d e n t i c a l , or l i k e , homogeneous; t h e y s h a l l be o t h e r , u n l i k e , a n d h e t e r o g e n e o u s . I t i s t h e l a w o f

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t h e a c t u a l w o r l d e v e r y w h e r e ; a l l s o r t s o f a c t u a l t h i n g s a r e composed on t h i s p r i n c i p l e . 8

B u t if t h e c o g n i t i v e c o n t e n t o f p o e t r y c a n n o t be i s o l a t e d , o r

if i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o t h e t e x t u r e c a n n o t b e c r i t i c a l l y demon-

s t r a t e d how i s i t p o s s i b l e t o t a l k o f m e a n i n g a t a l l ? Ransom

w a n t s p o e t r y t o p o s s e s s an o r g a n i c u n i t y b u t he does n o t w a n t

t o c o m m i t h i m s e l f t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e i n f o r m i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f

t h a t u n i t y e x c e p t i n t h e m o s t a b s t r a c t s e n s e ( ' I t i s t h e l a w

o f t h e a c t u a l w o r l d e v e r y w h e r e ' ) . And s i n c e t h e c o n c r e t e

i n f o r m i n g p r i n c i p l e s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r c r i t i c a l d i a l o g u e ,

c r i t i c i s m c a n o n l y d e s c r i b e t h e p o e t i c s u r f a c e . P o e t r y i s

r e d u c e d t o t h e w o r d o r t h e p h r a s e and c r i t i c i s m t o s t a t i s t i c s .

Ransom's o n t o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t i s u l t i m a t e l y d e v o i d o f s u b s t a n c e ;

i t i s u n a b l e t o c o n c r e t e l y d e f i n e t h e p o e t i c e x p e r i e n c e and

t h e r e f o r e becomes a c o n v e n i e n t r a t i o n a l e f o r a v o i d i n g t h e c r u c i a l

i s s u e s o f g e n e s i s a n d f u n c t i o n t h a t a r e b o t h a e s t h e t i c a n d

s o c i a l a n d m u s t be e x a m i n e d i n a g e n u i n e p o e t i c s . I t i s

s u r e l y a s t r a n g e t a c t i c t o a p p e a l t o o u r i n n a t e p e r c e p t i o n s t o

v a l i d a t e a c r i t i c a l t h e o r y when t h e t h e o r y i s s u p p o s e d t o e x p l a i n

t h o s e p e r c e p t i o n s .

I n " T e n s i o n i n P o e t r y " A l l a n T a t e w i s h e s t o d e m o n s t r a t e

a s i m i l a r i d e a o f u n i t y w h e r e g o o d p o e t r y e x p r e s s e s a d y n a m i c

" t e n s i o n " b e t w e e n t h e d e n o t a t i o n ( ' e x t e n s i o n ' ) and c o n n o t a t i o n

( ' i n t e n s i o n ' ) . As w i t h Ransom, t h e t a s k o f t h e c r i t i c i s t o

' e x a m i n e a n d e v a l u a t e ' t h e w h o l e poem w h i c h i s ' t h e " r e s u l t "

o f a c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f m e a n i n g ' . ' B u t j u s t a s Ransom c a n n o t

c r i t i c a l l y p r a c t i c e h i s t h e o r y b u t m u s t e x p e c t h i s r e a d e r s t o

m e r e l y a c c e p t h i s o n t o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s s o T a t e , who h a v i n g

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d e f i n e d h i s t h e o r y o f p o e t i c t e n s i o n , t h e n p r o c e e d s t o a n a l y s e

t h e m a t e r i a l t e x t w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o i t s s u b j e c t i v e s t r u c t u r a l

p r i n c i p l e s .

A m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n Ransom a n d T a t e i s t h a t t h e

l a t t e r n e v e r f u l l y s u b v e r t s h i s r e a c t i o n a r y p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s

t o a n a c a d e m i c n e u t r a l i t y . F o r e x a m p l e , he i s q u i t e w i l l i n g

t o subsume a l l p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l p o e t r y w i t h w h i c h he does

n o t s y m p a t h i z e u n d e r t h e r u b r i c o f r o m a n t i c ' s e n t i m e n t a l i t y ' .

D i s c u s s i n g Edna M i l l a y ' s poem " J u s t i c e D e n i e d i n M a s s a c h u s e t s "

T a t e w r i t e s :

M i s s M i l l a y ' s poem was a d m i r e d when i t f i r s t a p p e a r e d t e n y e a r s ago, a n d i t i s no d o u b t s t i l l a d m i r e d , b y p e r s o n s t o whom i t c o m m u n i c a t e s c e r t a i n f e e l i n g s a b o u t s o c i a l j u s t i c e , b y p e r s o n s f o r whom t h e l i n e s a r e t h e o c c a s i o n s o f f e e l i n g s s h a r e d b y them a n d t h e p o e t . B u t i f y o u do n o t s h a r e t h o s e f e e l i n g s , a s I h a p p e n n o t t o s h a r e them i n t h e images o f d e s i c a t e d n a t u r e , t h e l i n e s arj# e v e n t h e e n t i r e poem a r e i m - p e n e t r a b l y o b s c u r e .

O f c o u r s e t h e r e i s n o t h i n g o b s c u r e a b o u t t h e poem; i t i s v e r y

d i r e c t i n i t s c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e Sacco a n d V a n z e t t i e x e c u t i o n

b u t i t p r o v i d e s a c o n v e n i e n t p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r t h e k i n d o f

a e s t h e t i c i z e d p o e t r y t h a t T a t e p r e f e r s a n d w h i c h v a l i d a t e s

h i s p o e t i c s , n a m e l y t h e M e t a p h y s i c a l p o e t s a t t h e d e n o t a t i v e

o r e x t e n s i v e p o l e and t h e S y m b o l i s t p o e t s a t t h e c o n n o t a t i v e

o r i n t e n s i v e p o l e .

F o r T a t e w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h i s p o e t i c g r i d f r o m t h e

p o e t r y o f ' s e n t i m e n t a l i t y ' ( a c o u n t e r g r i d e x t e n d i n g f r o m

r o m a n t i c i s t d i s p l a y o f f e e l i n g t o t h e h a r d p o e t r y o f d i r e c t

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c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) i s n o t p r i m a r i l y a s t r u c t u r a l u n i t y , w h i c h o f

c o u r s e c a n be j u s t a s e a s i l y d i s c o v e r e d i n S h e l l e y ' s p o l i t i c a l

p h i l o s o p h y a s i n D o n n e ' s a e s t h e t i c i s m , b u t i n t h e f a c t t h a t

a ' g o o d poem' r e q u i r e s n o r e c o u r s e t o n o n - p o e t i c s o c i a l e x -

p e r i e n c e b e c a u s e i t s v a l u e i s c o n t a i n e d b y t h e i n t e n s i v e a n d

e x t e n s i v e m a n i p u l a t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e . C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p l e ,

t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t on t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p o e t ' s

p h i l o s o p h y :

F o r , i n t h e l o n g r u n , w h a t e v e r t h e p o e t ' s ' p h i l o s o p h y ' , h o w e v e r w i d e may be t h e e x t e n s i o n o f h i s m e a n i n g - - l i k e M i . l t o n l s P t o l e m a i c u n i v e r s e i n w h i c h he d i d n ' t b e l i e v e - - b y h i s l a n g u a g e y o u s h a l l know h im; t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s anguage i s t h e v a l i d l i m i t o f w h a t he has t o s a y . 1 1

B u t how c a n P a r a d i s e L o s t be r e a d s e r i o u s l y w i t h o u t p a y i n g

a t t e n t i o n t o M i l t o n ' s p h i l o s o p h y o r i s i t t o be t a k e n as one

l o n g l y r i c a l poem? O r , when T a t e s a y s t h a t t h e ' m e a n i n g o f

p o e t r y i s i t s " t e n s i o n " ' i s h e m e r e l y t a l k i n g a b o u t e x p e r i e n c e ?

I n a n y c a s e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m e a n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e

r e m a i n s b e y o n d T a t e ' s c r i t i c a l g r a s p . F o r e x a m p l e , when he s a y s

t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f " T o H i s Coy M i s t r e s s " i s t h e ' c o n f l i c t o f

s e n s u a l i t y a n d a s c e t i c i s m ' T a t e i s s a t i s f i e d t o c o n c l u d e h i s

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e poem on t h a t n o t e . B u t w h a t does t h a t c o n f l i c t

mean? How does t h a t c o n f l i c t a r i s e ? I s t h e r e a c o n f l i c t a t

a l l o r a r e s e n s u a l i t y and a s c e t i c i s m r e c i p r o c a l a s p e c t s o f a

l a r g e r d i l e m m a ? A l l t h e s e q u e s t i o n s n e e d t o be c o n s i d e r e d b u t

T a t e , l i k e Ransom, a c c e p t s t h e e m p i r i c i s m o f t h e s e l f - e v i d e n t

f a c t a n d f e e l s no n e e d t o d e v e l o p a l i t e r a r y h e r m e n e u t i c :

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i n t r o s p e c t i o n a n d c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y assumed

t o b e a n t a g o n i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s .

The i m p o r t a n c e o f Ransom a n d T a t e i s t h a t t h e y i n i t i a t e d

t h e New C r i t i c a l p r o j e c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h t h e i r e m p h a s i s on

p o e t i c l a n g u a g e . B u t t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e a s p o e t s i s a c o n s t a n t

t h r e a t t o t h e p r o j e c t b e c a u s e , l i k e E l i o t , t h e y c a n n o t r e f r a i n

f r o m a p p e a l i n g t o an i n n a t e s e n s e o f p o e t i c v a l u e w h i c h i s m o s t

c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i r own p o e t r y . T h e i r c r i t i c a l l a n g u a g e

i s o f t e n o v e r l y s t y l i z e d a n d t h e i r c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i s t o o o f t e n

b a s e d i n t h e i r own p r a c t i c e o f p o e t i c c o m p o s i t i o n . I t i s t h e

t a s k o f R o b e r t Penn W a r r e n a n d C l e a n t h B r o o k s t o d i s t a n c e c r i t i c a l

t h e o r y f r o m t h e o r i e s o f c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n and t o b r i n g

i t m o r e i n t o l i n e w i t h t h e n e e d s o f a c a d e m i c s c h o l a r s h i p a n d

c l a s s - r o o m p r a c t i c e .

I I I

R o b e r t Penn W a r r e n i s t h e p i v o t a l f i g u r e i n t h e d e v e l o p -

m e n t o f New C r i t i c i s m ; on t h e one hand h e , l i k e Ransom a n d T a t e ,

was an a c c o m p l i s h e d w r i t e r q u i t e a p a r t f r o m h i s l i t e r a r y c r i t i -

c i s m , w h i l e on t h e o t h e r h a n d he c o - a u t h o r e d many l i t e r a r y

s t u d i e s w i t h C l e a n t h B r o o k s t h a t became r e q u i r e d r e a d i n g f o r

l i t e r a t u r e c o u r s e s a c r o s s t h e c o n t i n e n t . I t becomes c l e a r t h a t

W a r r e n r e p r e s e n t s t h e p a s s i n g o f a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e , t h e p o e t -

c r i t i c , i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f New C r i t i c i s m i n f a v o u r o f a new

c h a r a c t e r t y p e , t h e s c h o l a r - c r i t i c . I t h a s t o be u n d e r s t o o d

a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t much o f t h e c r e d i t a b i l i t y o f New C r i t i c i s m

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d e r i v e s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t i t s l e a d e r s , Ransom a n d T a t e , h a d

p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e a s p o e t s a n d c o u l d t h e r e f o r e speak f r o m a

p o s i t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y . However o n c e t h i s movement had been

s u c c e s s f u l i n i t s i n i t i a l t r a j e c t o r y , t h i s a u t h o r i t a r i a n s t a n c e

b l o c k s t h e a c a d e m i c p o t e n t i a l o f New C r i t i c i s m a n d m u s t b e

n e g a t e d . R o b e r t Penn War ren m u s t t h e r e f o r e be s e e n t o r e p r e s e n t

t h e d i a l e c t i c o f c o n t i n u i t y a n d d i s c o n t i n u i t y t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s

t h e d y n a m i c o f New C r i t i c i s m .

T h i s d i a l e c t i c a l movement i s p e r h a p s m o s t c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d

i n W a r r e n ' s e s s a y , " P u r e a n d I m p u r e P o e t r y " p u b l i s h e d i n 1942.

A t one l e v e l , t h i s e s s a y p r e f i g u r e s l a t e ' s t h e o r y o f t e n s i o n

b u t a t t h e same t i m e War ren i s m o r e " d e m o c r a t i c " t h a n T a t e s i n c e

he r e p u d i a t e s ' m a n d a r i n d e t a c h m e n t a s t h e a r t i s t ' s i d e a l ' .

Consider W a r r e n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p u r e a n d i m p u r e p o e t r y .

The p u r e poem, W a r r e n w r i t e s ,

t r i e s t o be p u r e b y e x c l u d i n g , more o r l e s s r i g i d l y , c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s w h i c h m i g h t q u a l i f y o r c o n t r a d i c t i t s o r i g i n a l i m p u l s e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e p u r e oems w a n t t o be , and d e s p e r a t e l y , a l l o f a p i e c e . 1 9

The p u r e poem i s t h e i d e a l i z e d poem w h e r e t h e i d e a l s o f t h e p o e t

a r e p r e s e n t e d u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l l y i n t h e s t y l e o f a m a n i f e s t o , b u t

W a r r e n a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e a r e h a r d l y a n y g r e a t p u r e poems b e c a u s e

p o e t r y a l w a y s r e q u i r e s some s o r t o f r e a l i t y p r i n c i p l e , some

s o r t o f ' i m p u r i t y ' i n o r d e r t o make t h e p u r i t y h u m a n l y m e a n i n g -

f u l . Thus t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p u r e and i m p u r e p o e t r y i s

s t r u c t u r a l b e c a u s e t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p u r i t y w i l l v a r y w i t h i n -

d i v i d u a l p o e t s a n d i t i s t h e t a s k o f g r e a t p o e t r y t o d e v i s e some

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s o r t o f b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e p o l e s .

Thus t h e r e a l p u r p o s e o f W a r r e n ' s p u r e - i m p u r e f o r m u l a t i o n

i s t o s u g g e s t a c r i t i c a l m e t h o d o l o g y f o r a p p r o a c h i n g p o e t i c

s t r u c t u r e . C o n s i d e r t h e r e f o r e W a r r e n ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f p o e t i c

s t r u c t u r e :

Can we make g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e ? F i r s t , i t i n v o l v e s r e s i s t a n c e s a t v a r i o u s l e v e l s . T h e r e i s t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e r h y t h m o f t h e poem a n d t h e r h y t h m o f s p e e c h ( a t e n s i o n w h i c h i s v e r y l o w a t t h e e x t r e m e o f f r e e v e r s e a n d a t t h e e x t r e m e o f v e r s e s u c h a s t h a t o f " U l a l u m e " , w h i c h v e r g e s t o w a r d s a w a l l o p i n g d o g g e r e l ) ; b e t w e e n t h e f o r m a l i t y o f t h e r h y t h m a n d t h e i n f o r m a l i t y o f t h e l a n g u a g e : b e t w e e n , t h e p a r t i c u l a r a n d t h e g e n e r a l , t h e c o n c r e t e a n d t h e a b s t r a c t ; b e t w e e n t h e e l e m e n t s o f e v e n t h e s i m p l e s t m e t a p h o r ; b e t w e e n t h e b e a u t i f u l a n d t h e u g l y ; b e t w e e n i d e a s ; b e t w e e n t h e e l e m e n t s i n v o l v e d i n i r o n y ; b e t w e e n p r o s a i s m s a n d p o e t i c i s m s .

T h i s l i s t i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o be e x h a u s t i v e ; i t i s i n t e n d e d t o be m e r e l y s u g g e s t i v e . B u t i t may b e t a k e n t o i m p l y t h a t t h e p o e t i s l i k e t h e j u j i t s u e x p e r t ; he w i n s b y u t i l i z i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f h i s o p p o n e n t - - t h e m a t e r i a l s o f t h e poem. I n o t h e r w o r d s , a poem, t o be good , has t o e a r n i t s e l f . I t i s a m o t i o n t o w a r d s a p o i n t o f r e s t , b u t i f i t i s n o t a r e s i s t e d m o t i o n , i t i s a m o t i o n o f n o c o n s e q u e n c e . F o r e x a m p l e , a poem w h i c h depends on s t o c k m a t e r i a l s a n d s t o c k r e - s p o n s e s i s s i m p l y a t o b o g g a n s l i d e , o r a f a l l t h r o u g h s p a c e . And t h e g o o d poem m u s t , i n some way, i n v o l v e t h e r e s i s t a n c e s ; i t m u s t c a r r y s o m e t h i n g o f t h e c o n - t e x t o f i t s own c r e a t i o n ; i t m u s t come t o t e r m s w i t h M e r c u t i o . 13

The e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t o f W a r r e n ' s t h e o r y o f s t r u c t u r e , e v e n

i f h e does n o t s t a t e i t e m p h a t i c a l l y , i s t h a t p o e t r y r e t a i n s

' s o m e t h i n g o f t h e c o n t e x t o f i t s own c r e a t i o n ' . T h a t i s , he

i s n o t a r g u i n g , a s does Ransom, t h a t p o e t s t r y t o r e c o n s t i t u t e

t h e w o r l d o r t o comment on t h a t w o r l d f r o m t h e s a n c t i t y o f t h e i r

s u b j e c t i v i t y . On t h e c o n t r a r y , h e i s a r g u i n g t h a t p o e t r y c a n

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n e v e r i s o l a t e i t s e l f f r o m s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h a t by i m -

p l i c a t i o n t h e ' g r e a t n e s s o f a p o e t depends on t h e e x t e n t o f

t h e a r e a o f e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h he c a n m a s t e r p o e t i c a l l y ' . 14

However i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a s e r i o u s s o c i a l a e s t h e t i c s i t m u s t

f i r s t b e e s t a b l i s h e d w h a t k i n d o f h i s t o r i c a l d y n a m i c i s i m p l i c i t

i n s o c i a l experience and w h a t k i n d o f m e d i a t i o n s e x i s t b e t w e e n

s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d 1 i t e r a r y f o r m s . F o r W a r r e n s o c i a l f o r m s

( t h e i m p u r i t i e s o f p o e t r y ) a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o p o e t r y t o keep t h e

p u r i t y h o n e s t b u t i n t h i s d r a m a t i c p r o c e s s t h e t e n s i o n s t h a t

e x i s t i n s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e a r e t r a n s c e n d e d i n a r t ; o r , a s W a r r e n

s a y s , t h e p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e i s a ' d r a m a t i c s t r u c t u r e , a movement

t h r o u g h a c t i o n t o w a r d s r e s t , t h r o u g h c o m p l i c a t i o n t o w a r d s s i m p l i -

c i t y o f e f f e c t ' . l5 Thus a l t h o u g h p o e t r y i s i n t h i s s e n s e s o c i a l l y

d e t e r m i n e d i t i s n e i t h e r e v a l u a t i v e n o r i n t e r p r e t i v e b u t o n l y

m i m e t i c i n t h e n a t u r a l i s t s e n s e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . S o c i a l e x -

p e r i e n c e becomes f o d d e r f o r p o e t r y a n d i n t h e a c t o f i t s d i g e s t i o n

s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e l o s e s i t s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d p o e t r y becomes

an i d e o l o g i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n f o r a f f i r m i n g c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l r e a l i t y .

A p a r t f r o m d e v e l o p i n g a more s o c i a l t h e o r y o f l i t e r a r y

c r e a t i o n War ren i s a l s o s u g g e s t i n g a m e t h o d f o r r e a d i n g p o e t r y

t h a t s t r e s s e s b a l a n c e . By way o f i l l u s t r a t i o n l e t me q u o t e

W a r r e n ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e f i r s t s t a n z a o f L a n d o r ' s poem, "Rose

A y l m e r " :

The a c t u a l q u a l i t y o f t h e f i r s t s t a n z a i s h a r d , n o t s o f t . I t i s a c h i s e l e d s t a n z a , i n w h i c h f o r m a l i t y i s i n s i s t e d upon. We may o b s e r v e t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e f i r s t h a l f a n d t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e t h i r d l i n e ,

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which recapitulates the structure of the first two lines; the balance of the two parts of the last line, though here the balance is merely rhythmical and not a sense of balance as in the preceding instances; the binders of discrete alliteration, repetition, and assonance. The stanza is built up, as it were, of units which are firmly defined and sharply separated, phrase by phrase, line by 1 ine. We have the formal contro! of the soft subject, ritual not sur- render.16

This passage illustrates the kind of criticism that was to be-

come typical in future New Critical practice and it reveals the

true meaning of Warren's idea of impurity; that is, social

becomes synonymous with commodified. Throughout this passage

no mention is made of the ideational or experiential content

of the poem but only of formal qualities. Warren is continually

referring to 'balance' and 'formality' which are expressed through

the technical devices of the poem. At no point is any attempt

made which might suggest why the poem is socially meaningful or

that the poet has a serious subjective motivation for writing

the poem. There is of course a validity in understanding the

technical process of the poem but in isolation from its historical

genesis and creative purpose such an analysis becomes criti-

cally meaningless; it is unable to explain the affective power

of the poem and hence the historical value of our reading

experience. The real function of Warren's method is therefore

to provide a means of rationalizing our poetic experience for the

purpose of academic production (or reproduction) of literary

texts; the method is not intended to interpret our reading

experience since its objectivist bias erects an insurmountable

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b a r r i e r b e t w e e n t h e r e a d e r ' s s o c i a l s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d t h e m a t e r i a l

t e x t .

These i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e e x p l o r e d more f u l l y i n C l e a n t h

B r o o k s ' e s s a y , " t h e F o r m a l i s t C r i t i c " , p e r h a p s t h e c l e a r e s t

s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f New C r i t , i c a l p r a c t i c e . P h i l i p

Rahv has c o r r e c t l y c a l l e d B r o o k s t h e ' m o d e l New C r i t i c ' , a

' s t r i c t a d h e r e n t o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p u r i t y ' . 1 7 I n f a c t B r o o k s '

i s c e n t r a l t o t h e i n i t i a l p h a s e o f New C r i t i c i s m ; h e was a

s t u d e n t o f Ransom; h e p o p u l a r i z e d t h e c r i t i c a l u s e R i c h a r d s ;

h e c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h b o t h War ren a n d W . K . W i m s a t t o n i m p o r t a n t

New C r i t i c a l t e x t s ; a n d i n h i s own r i g h t w r o t e p e r h a p s t h e m o s t

i m p o r t a n t New C r i t i c a l s t u d i e s o f p o e t r y , n a m e l y Modern P o e t r y

a n d t h e T r a d i t i o n a n d The W e l l - w r o u g h t 5: S t u d i e s i n t h e -- --

S t r u c t u r e of P o e t r y . I n t e r m s o f t h e s e c o n d moment o f New

C r i t i c i s m h e e p i t o m i z e s a r a d i c a l l y new t y p e o f c r i t i c , t h e

a c a d e m i c s c h o l a r whose c r i t i c a l c o n c e r n s a r e u n m e d i a t e d

b y c r e a t i v e i m p u l s e s : h e i s t h e f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l .

" T h e F o r m a l i s t C r i t i c " i s b a s i c a l l y a m a n i f e s t o f o r New

C r i t i c i s m a n d B r o o k s b e g i n s b y s t a t i n g ' some a r t i c l e s o f f a i t h ' :

That l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s a d e s c r i p t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f i t s o b j e c t .

T h a t t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n o f c r i t i c i s m i s w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f u n i t y - - t h e k i n d o f w h o l e w h i c h a l i t e r a r y w o r k f o r m s o r f a i l s t o f o r m , a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s t o e a c h o t h e r i n b u i l d i n g up t h i s w h o l e .

T h a t t h e f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s i n a w o r k o f l i t e r a t u r e may i n c l u d e , b u t c e r t a i n l y e x c e e d , t h o s e o f l o g i c .

T h a t i n a s u c c e s s f u l w o r k , f o r m a n d c o n t e n t c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d .

T h a t f o r m i s m e a n i n g . T h a t l i t e r a t u r e i s u l t i m a t e l y m e t a p h o r i c a l a n d s y m b o l i c .

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T h a t t h e g e n e r a l a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l a r e n o t s e i z e d upon b y a b s t r a c t i o n , b u t g o t a t t h r o u g h t h e c o n c r e t e a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r .

T h a t l i t e r a t u r e i s n o t a s u r r o g a t e f o r r e l i g i o n . T h a t , a s A l l a n T a t e s a y s , " s p e c i f i c m o r a l p r o b l e m s

a r e t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f l i t e r a t u r e , b u t t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f l i t e r a t u r e i s n o t t o p o i n t a m o r a l .

T h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f c r i t i c i s m d e f i n e t h e a r e a r e l e v a n t t o l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m ; t h e do n o t c o n s t i t u t e a m e t h o d f o r c a r r y o u t t h e c r i t i c i s m . 1 d

Many o f t h e s e i s s u e s have a l r e a d y been t o u c h e d upon i n t h i s s t u d y

a n d do n o t r e q u i r e r e i t e r a t i o n . The g e n e r a l p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t

B r o o k s has r a t i o n a l i z e d l i t e r a t u r e as an o b j e c t f o r c r i t i c i s m ;

l i t e r a t u r e may be r e c o g n i z e d a s a s o c i a l l y m e d i a t e d f o r m b u t

s u c h a n a t t i t u d e w i l l have n o r e l e v a n c e t o c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e .

The h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f B r o o k s i s n o t so much t h e c o n t e n t

o f h i s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n b u t r a t h e r t h e d e g r e e o f t h a t r a t i o n a l i z a -

t i o n .

C o n s i d e r h i s r e s p o n s e s t o t h e o b j e c t i o n s t o New C r i t i c a l

p r i n c i p l e s . B r o o k s i s o l a t e s t w o b a s i c o b j e c t i o n s : ( 1 ) t h a t

New C r i t i c i s m i g n o r e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e c r e a t i o n

o f l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e a u t h o r a s a r e a l h i s t o r i c a l

b e i n g and ( 2 ) t h a t New C r i t i c i s m does n o t t a k e t h e r e a d e r i n t o

a c c o u n t i n i t s a n a l y s i s o f a l i t e r a r y w o r k . To t h e s e o b j e c t i o n s

B r o o k s a n s w e r s :

The f o r m a l i s t c r i t i c , b e c a u s e he w a n t s t o c r i t i c i z e t h e w o r k i t s e l f , makes t w o a s s u m p t i o n s : ( 1 ) he assumes t h a t t h e r e l e v a n t p a r t o f t h e a u t h o r ' s i n - t e n t i o n i s w h a t he g o t a c t u a l l y i n t o h i s w o r k ; t h a t i s , he assumes t h a t t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n a s r e a l i z e d i s t h e " i n t e n t i o n " t h a t c o u n t s , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y w h a t he was c o n s c i o u s o f t r y i n g t o do, o r w h a t he now remembers he was t h e n t r y i n g t o do. And ( 2 ) t h e f o r m a l i s t c r i t i c assumes a n i d e a l r e a d e r : t h a t i s , i n s t e a d o f f o c u s i n g

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I o n t h e v a r y n g . s p e c t r @ o f p o s s i b l e r e a d i n g s , he a t t e m p t s t o f i n d a ; c e n t r a l p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e f r o m w h i c h e c a n f o c u s upon t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e poem o r n o v 19

B u t t h e s e a r e s c a l y a n s w e r s t o t h e q u e s t i o n . I t i s o b v i o u s l y

n o t an i s s u e o f ' m i n t e n t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f a l i t e r a r y w o r k ' s

g e n e s i s b u t o f t h o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h an a u t h o r ' s s u b -

j e c t i v i t y i s b o t h a r e s p o n s e t o and a c o n s e q u e n c e o f . I t i s

t h e r e f o r e n o t a q e s t i o n ' b i o g r a p h y a n d p s y c h o l o g y ' a s B r o o k s

w o u l d h a v e i t b u t o f r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t l i t e r a t u r e i s t h e sub - ' I

j e c t i v e h i s t o r y o{ a s p e c i f i c c u l t u r e . I t s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be I

t h e t a s k o f c r i t i c i s m t o d e v e l o p a h i s t o r i c a l l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s

c u l t u r e b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e l i v i n g

l i t e r a r y p a s t and t h e l i f e o f t h e p r e s e n t . The n o t i o n o f t h e

' i d e a l r e a d e r ' m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d s i m i l a r l y ; i t i s n o t , a s B r o o k s

c l a i m s , a ' d e f e n s i b l q s t r a t e g y . . . t h a t a l l c r i t i c s o f w h a t e v e r i

p e r s u a s i o n a r e f o r c e d t o a d o p t . What B r o o k s s h o u l d be d o i n g

i s d e v e l o p i n g a c o n c d p t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d s e l f - I

c o n s c i o u s r e a d e r r a t i e r t h a l o f an a h i s t o r i c a l a b s t r a c t s u b j e c t .

T h e r e i s n o i d e a 1 r e a d e r , a l t h o u g h we c a n t a l k o f r e a d e r s who

s h a r e a s s u m p t i o n s , apd i t i s ' c l e a r t h a t B r o o k s ' r e a d e r i s t h e 1

a c a d e m i c c r i t i c who $cads f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f f o r m a l i s t i c I I

c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e . , f i o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e i d e a l >

r e a d e r i l l u m i n a t e s a l c e n t r a l f e a t u r e o f New C r i t i c i s m , n a m e l y ,

i t s f a i l u r e t o deGe ldp a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f i t s c r i t i h a l

a c t i v i t y . New C r i t i i i s r n a l w a y s makes t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e I

i s n o e s s e n t i a l d l s t n c t i o n be tween a p a r t i c u l a r i z e d a c a d e m i c

a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f 1 i t b r a t u r e and a n o n - a c a d e m i c g e n e r a l i z e d u s e

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o f l i t e r a t u r e . Whereas t h e d i s t i n c t i o n i s a r a d i c a l o n e : w i t h i n

the u n i v e r s i t y l i t e r a t u r e i s c o m m o d i f i e d f o r c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e

and w i t h i n t h e s o c i e t y l i t e r a t u r e i s c o m m o d i f i e d as u n p r o b l e m -

a t i c a l l e i s u r e a c t i v i t y .

The f i n a l and t r a n s c e n d e n t moment o f t h i s i n i t i a l p h a s e o f

New C r i t i c i s m i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y W.K . W i m s a t t ' s c o l l e c t i o n , The

V e r b a l I c o n . The i m p o r t a n c e o f W i m s a t t i s t w o - f o l d : f i r s t l y ,

he a f f i r m s t h e r a t i o n a l i z e d c r i t i c a l p r o j e c t o f C l e a n t h B r o o k s

b y e r a d i c a t i n g a n y a s p i r a t i o n s t o w a r d s s u b j e c t i v i t y t h a t had

been u n c o n s c i o u s l y r e t a i n e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e i n i t i a l moment o f

New C r i t i c i s m w h i c h Ransom and T a t e had g e n e r a t e d ; a n d s e c o n d l y ,

W i m s a t t s u c c e s s f u l l y l o c a t e s t h e r a t i o n a l i z e d p r o j e c t o n a

n a t i o n a l , and u l t i m a t e l y i n t e r n a t i o n a l , c o n t e x t . The i m p o r t a n c e

o f t h i s l o c a t i o n c a n h a r d l y be o v e r e s t i m a t e d s i n c e n o t o n l y was

W i m s a t t a b l e t o move New C r i t i c i s m f r o m t h e domain o f t h e S o u t h e r n

t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s , s t i l l i m p l i c i t i n t h e s e c o n d moment, b u t he

managed t o do so a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , t h e b a s t i o n o f

t h e m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d a r t i c u l a t e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e New

C r i t i c i s m , t h e N e o - A r i s t o t e l i a n s o f w h i c h R . S . C rane , E l d e r

O l s o n , W . R . K e a s t a n d Wayne B o o t h a r e t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l s p o k e s -

men. W i m s a t t , t h e r e f o r e , more t h a n anyone e l s e i s r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r t h e p o l i t i c a l i z a t i o n o f New C r i t i c i s m b e c a u s e he r e c o g n i z e d

t h a t t h e s u c c e s s o f h i s h i s t o r i c a l t a s k depended n o t o n l y upon

m a k i n g m e t h o d o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i v i t y an e x p l i c i t l y p r i m a r y f e a t u r e

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o f t h e c r i t i c a l p r o j e c t b u t a l s o on e x p l i c i t l y a t t a c k i n g com-

p e t i n g c r i t i c a l s y s t e m s f o r t h e i r f a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e o b j e c t i v i t y

i n c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e .

P e r h a p s t h e t w o m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l e s s a y s i n The V e r b a l I c o n

a r e "The I n t e n t i o n a l F a l l a c y " a n d "The A f f e c t i v e F a l l a c y " b e c a u s e

t h e y a r e o r i e n t e d so r a d i c a l l y t o w a r d s c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e , t h e

r e a l s o u r c e o f t h e i d e o l o g i c a l a f f e c t i v i t y o f New C r i t i c i s m .

W i m s a t t d e f i n e s t h e c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e f a l l a c i e s a s

f o l l w s :

The I n t e n t i o n a l F a l l a c y i s a c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n t h e poem a n d i t s o r i g i n s , a s p e c i a l c a s e o f w h a t i s known t o t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s a s t h e G e n e t i c F a l l a c y . I t b e - g i n s b y t r y i n g t o d e r i v e t h e s t a n d a r d o f c r i t i c i s m f r o m p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a u s e s o f t h e poem a n d ends i n b i o g r a p h y a n d r e l a t i v i s m . The A f f e c t i v e F a l l a c y i s a c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n t h e poem and i t s r e s u l t s ( w h a t i t i s a n d w h a t i t d o e s ) , a s p e c i a l c a s e o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a ~ s k e p t i c i s m , t h o u g h u s u a l l y a d v a n c e d as i f i t h a d f a r s t r o n g e r c l a i m s t h a n t h e o v e r a l l f o r m s o f s k e p t i c i s m . I t b e g i n s b y t r y i n g t o d e r i v e t h e s t a n d a r d o f c r i t i c i s m f r o m t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f t h e poem a n d e n d s i n i m p r e s s - i o n i s m a n d r e l a t i v i s m . The o u t c o m e o f e i t h e r F a l l a c y , t h e I n t e n t i o n a l o r t h e A f f e c t i v e , i s t h a t t h e poem i t - s e l f , a s an o b j e c t o f s p e c i f i c a l l y c r i t i c a l j u d g m e n t , t e n d s t o d i s a p p e a r . *1

I t i s o n l y b y f e t i s h i z i n g t h e p o e t i c d i s c o u r s e w h i c h t r a n s f o r m s

a s o c i a l l y m e d i a t e d s u b j e c t i v i t y i n t o an ' o b j e c t o f c r i t i c a l

j u d g m e n t ' t h a t W i m s a t t c a n r e j e c t i n t e n t i o n a l i s t a n d a f f e c t i v i s t

c r i t i c i s m . W i m s a t t ' s t a s k i s f u r t h e r f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e r e -

d u c t i o n i s t t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e modes o f c r i t i c i s m

w h i c h o f t e n do r e s u l t i n b i o g r a p h i s m a n d i m p r e s s i o n i s m . B u t

r a t h e r t h a n t a k i n g s e r i o u s l y t h e c r i t i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a t i n t e n t -

i o n a l i s m a n d a f f e c t i v i s m a d d r e s s - - t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c g e n e s i s

o f l i t e r a r y f o r m s a n d t h e h i s t o r i c f u n c t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e i n

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s o c i e t y - - W i m s a t t i s s e l f - r i g h t e o u s l y s a t i s f i e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e

t h e i m p o v e r i s h m e n t o f t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t s . As A n t o n i o G r a m s c i

has a r g u e d , y o u c a n n o t a d v a n c e y o u r c r i t i c a l p o s i t i o n b y a t t a c k -

i n g t h e o p p o s i t i o n a s i t s w e a k e s t p o i n t s i n c e s u c h a s t r a t e g y

n o t o n l y r e v e a l s a weakness i n y o u r own c r i t i c a l m e t h o d b u t i t

a l s o m i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e o p p o s i t i o n . 2 2

The c r i t i c a l p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r W i m s a t t i n a t t a c k i n g

t h e r e d u c t i o n s o f poems i n p r o b l e m s o f a u t h o r s h i p a n d r e a d e r -

s h i p i s t h a t poems a r e n e c e s s a r i l y p u b l i c a n d t h e r e f o r e o n l y a

m e t h o d o f i m p e r s o n a l o b j e c t i v i t y c a n g r a s p t h e i r t r u e e s s e n c e .

W i m s a t t w r i t e s :

The poem i s n o t t h e c r i t i c ' s own a n d n o t t h e a u t h o r ' s ( i t i s d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e a u t h o r a t b i r t h a n d goes a b o u t t h e w o r l d b e y o n d h i s power t o i n t e n d a b o u t i t o r c o n t r o l i t ) . The poem b e l o n g s t o t h e p u b l i c . I t i s e m o b o d i e d i n l a n g u a g e , t h e p e c u l i a r p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e p u b l i c , a n d i t i s a b o u t t h e human b e i n g , an o b j e c t o f p u b l i c k n o w l e d g e . What i s s a i d a b o u t t h e poem i s s u b j e c t t o t h e same s c r u t i n y a s a n y s t a t e m e n t i n l i n g u t i c s o r i n t h e g e n e r a l s c i e n c e o f p s y c h o l o g y . $3

I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e poem i s p u b l i c - - a l t h o u g h I w o u l d r a t h e r c a l l

i t s o c i a l - - b u t o n l y i n a v e r y s p e c i a l s e n s e ; t h a t i s , i t s s i g -

n i f i c a n c e i s d e t e r m i n e d b y i t s c a p a c i t y t o a e s t h e t i c a l l y " t y p i f y "

s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e . The f a l l a c i e s o f W i m s a t t ' s c r i t i c a l b a s e

a r e t h a t h a v i n g d e f i n e d p o e t r y b y i t s m a t e r i a l t e x t , h e t h e n

p r o c e e d s t o c o u n t e r p o e t r y a s p u b l i c p r o p e r t y t o p o e t r y as p r i v -

a t e p r o p e r t y as i f s u b j e c t i v e o r a r t i s t i c v a l u e c o u l d b e m e a s u r e d

i n t e r m s o f c a p i t a l , i n t e r m s o f e x c h a n g e v a l u e . I t s h o u l d be

c l e a r t h a t t h i s f a l l a c y i s a d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f an o n t o l o g y

t h a t d i c h o t o m i z e s a n a t u r a l t e x t f r o m a h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t ;

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t h a t i s , t h e t e x t has m e a n i n g t h a t p r e c e d e s a n y r e a d e r o r a u t h o r .

The s e c o n d f a l l a c y p r o c e e d s f r o m t h e f i r s t : t h e i d e a o f ' p u b l i c '

o r w h a t W i m s a t t e l s e w h e r e c a l l s ' l i v i n g a n d t h i n k i n g p r e s e n t ' 2 4

i s t a k e n t o b e s e l f - e v i d e n t ; he makes no a t t e m p t t o a n a l y z e o r

d e f i n e w h a t p u b l i c o r p r e s e n t means; a s r e f e r e n t s t h e y a r e m e r e l y

g i v e n . He seems o b l i v i o u s t o t h e f a c t t h a t he h a s g i v e n t h e s e

t e r m s a h i g h l y p a r t i c u l a r i z e d d e f i n i t i o n t h a t i s a f u n c t i o n n Q t

o n l y o f h i s c r i t i c a l p u r p o s e b u t a l s o o f h i s h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t -

i o n i n g - - t h e c o m m o d i f i e d s t r u c t u r e o f A m e r i c a n c a p i t a l i s m w h e r e

r a t i o n a l i z e d c u l t u r e i s assumed t o t r a n s c e n d h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r -

m i n a t i o n s . Thus t h e p r o b l e m s o f how p o e t r y becomes p u b l i c o r

w h a t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a l d i a l e c t i c o f t h e p r e s e n t n e v e r c o n f r o n t s

W i m s a t t ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I t i s a c l a s s i c c a s e o f t h e c o n f u s i o n

o f o n t o l o g y w i t h a n t h r o p o l o g y .

One f u r t h e r p o i n t r e m a i n s t o be made a b o u t t h e h i s t o r i c a l

i n t e n t o f t h e s e e s s a y s . A f u n d a m e n t a l n e e d t h a t New C r i t i c i s m

had s o u g h t t o g r a t i f y i s how l i t e r a t u r e o r c r i t i c a l t h e o r y c o u l d

be c o n c e p t u a l i z e d so t h a t t h e e c o n o m i c i m p e r a t i v e o f " p u b l i s h

o r p e r i s h " c o u l d be made e t h i c a l l y v i a b l e and, as a c o r o l l a r y ,

t h e t e a c h i n g o f l i t e r a t u r e c o u l d be f a c i l i t a t e d i n u n d e r g r a d u a t e

c o u r s e s w h e r e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a e s t h e t i c s a n d an a c q u a i n t a n c e

w i t h a l a r g e b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e c a n n o t be assumed a s a n a s p e c t

o f pedagogy . The p u r i f i c a t i o n o f i n t e n t i o n a l i s m a n d a f f e c t -

i v i s m f r o m l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a r e s p o n s e

t o t h i s need . F o r b y l i m i t i n g l i t e r a t u r e t o an a b s t r a c t t e x t

t h e i l l u s i o n o f c o n c r e t e n e s s i s m a i n t a i n e d a n d t h u s t h e p r o -

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d u c t i o n o f c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s becomes m o r e a q u e s t i o n o f l a b o u r

t h a n o f i n t r o s p e c t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n b e c a u s e n o m a t e r i a l s o u t s i d e

t h e i m m e d i a t e t e x t a r e c o n s i d e r e d r e l e v a n t t o t h e " d o m a i n o f

c r i t i c i s m " ; o r , a s W i m s a t t w r i t e s , t h e ' v e r b a l o b j e c t a n d i t s

a n a l y s i s c o n s t i t u t e s t h e doma in o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m ' . 25 The

p r o d u c t i v e i m p e r a t i v e o f E n g l i s h d e p a r t m e n t s t h e r e f o r e becomes

r e a s o n a b l e p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e n o a c c u m u l a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e o r

c r i t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h a t p r o d u c t i o n . New

C r i t i c i s m c a n c l a i m , a t l e a s t i n t h e o r y , t h a t i t i s t r u l y demo-

c r a t i c s i n c e t h e c r i t i c a l r e s t r a i n t o f t h e v e r b a l o b j e c t p e r m i t s

a n y b o d y f r o m a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t t o a f u l l - p r o f e s s o r t o w r i t e

s t r u c t u r a l l y i d e n t i c a l a r t i c l e s a n d i t i s o n l y s t y l e t h a t f o r m s

t h e b a s i s o f q u a l i t y .

A s i m i l a r i l l u s i o n o f d e m o c r a c y c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e

c l a s s r o o m w h e r e t h e p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y o f t h e s t u d e n t a n d t e a c h e r

i s b a s e d on t h e i r m u t u a l a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e t e x t a n d n o t

on t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h a t t e x t . G r a d e s a r e t h e r e f o r e

d e t e r m i n e d on t h e r e l a t e d b a s i s o f c o n f o r m i t y i n c r i t i c a l a s -

s u m p t i o n s a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f an a c c e p t a b l e l i t e r a r y s t y l e

w h i c h o p p o s e s c o m p l e x i t y t o c l a r i t y . The l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i s

t h e r e f o r e c o n c e i v e d as an a c q u i s i t i o n o f s p e c i f i c s k i l l s r a t h e r

t h a n a s a d i a l e c t i c o f i n d i v i d u a l i z e d i m a g i n a t i v e d i s c o v e r y a n d

s o c i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d i m p l i e s an i n t e r e s t e d a u d i e n c e a n d n o t

one w h i c h s i m p l y t r a n s l a t e s p a p e r s i n t o e c o n o m i c p o t e n t i a l i t i e s .

F i n a l l y , t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e f o r m a l i s t

m e t h o d o l o g y a s m e a s u r e d a g a i n s t t h e n o r m a t i v e t r e n d s o f A m e r i c a n

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c r i t i c i s m ( i . e . t h o s e t r e n d s t h a t s u b o r d i n a t e d a n a n a l y s i s o f

t h e t e x t t o m o r a l i s t o r h i s t o r i c i s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ) m u s t be

c o n s i d e r e d . I t i s u s u a l f o r c r i t i c s , i n s p i t e o f t h e i r oppo-

s i t i o n t o New C r i t i c i s m , t o come t o i t s d e f e n s e b e c a u s e , b y

m a k i n g t h e t e x t , r a t h e r t h a n p r e t e x t u a l s e n s i b i l i t y , t h e p o i n t

o f d e p a r t u r e , New C r i t i c i s m b r o u g h t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m down t o

e a r t h . T h i s l i n e o f a r g u m e n t has o n l y l i m i t e d v a l i d i t y b e c a u s e

i t o v e r s t a t e s t h e a c t i v e p r i n c i p l e b e h i n d New C r i t i c a l t h e o r y .

I t has t o be i n s i s t e d t h a t New C r i t i c i s m i s a h i s t o r i c a l phenome-

n o n c o m i n g i n t o e x i s t e n c e w i t h t h e s u c c e s s f u l r e b i r t h o f c a p i t a l -

i s m i n A m e r i c a a n d t h a t t h e c l o s e t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s w h i c h c h a r a c -

t e r i z e s New C r i t i c i s m i s a p a s s i v e r e f l e c t i o n o f t h a t r e b i r t h .

I t has t o be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i n s p i t e o f t h e o b v i o u s weakness

o f f o r m e r c r i t i c i s m t h e r e was a l w a y s an a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e i n -

a l i e n a b i l i t y o f human s u b j e c t i v i t y . The i n t e n s e c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n

t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s A m e r i c a n p r o s p e r i t y v i o l a t e s t h i s a s s u m p t i o n

t o i t s v e r y c o r e a n d i t was t h e h i s t o r i c a l t a s k o f New C r i t i c i s m

t o d e m o l i s h t h e b a r r i e r s o f a e s t h e t i c s t h a t had t r a d i t i o n a l l y

p r o t e c t e d s u b j e c t i v i t y f r o m t h e j a w s o f c a p i t a l i s m b y o p e n l y

d e n o u n c i n g t h e c r i t i c a l i n t e n t i o n s and n o t m e r e l y t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d

a c h i e v e m e n t s o f t h e " i m p r e s s i o n i s t s " a n d " h i s t o r i c i s t s " . New

C r i t i c i s m p r o v e d t h a t i t s r e a l i n t e n t i o n was t o make l i t e r a t u r e

homo logous w i t h t h e r e i f i e d s t r u c t u r e o f c a p i t a l i s m . New C r i t i -

c i s m i s n o t an " a d v a n c e " on i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s b u t a n e g a t i o n o f

them; we n e e d o n l y t h i n k o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y d e v e l o p m e n t s i n

E u r o p e a n l i t e r a r y t h e o r y ( L u k a c s , B e n j a m i n , P o u l e t , R u s s i a n

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F o r m a l i s m , S a r t r e , e t c . ) t o s e e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " a d v a n c e "

w h i c h i s c o n t i n u o u s w i t h a n d " n e g a t i o n " w h i c h i s d i s c o n t i n u o u s

w i t h a e s t h e t i c t r a d i t i o n s . New C r i t i c i s m was t h e r e f o r e n o t an

a d v a n c e a s a e s t h e t i c s b u t c e r t a i n l y was " p r o g r e s s " f r o m a n i d e o -

l o g i c a l v i e w p o i n t .

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V . NEW CRITICAL PRACTICE: PRACTICAL CRITICISM AND

LITERARY GENRE

As I have s t r e s s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y t h e c e n t r a l f a c t o r

i n t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e New C r i t i c i s m l i e s i n i t s commi tmen t t o

p r a c t i c e s u c h t h a t t h e o r y o f t e n has t h e f u n c t i o n o f mere r a t i o n -

a l i z a t i o n . I n e f f e c t , we have t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n a ' f a l s e

t h e o r y ( t h e c r i t i c a l i n t e r e s t i n p o e t i c o n t o l o g y , t h e n a t u r e

o f p o e t i c k n o w l e d g e , t h e m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l i t y o f p o e t i c l a n g u a g e ,

e t c . ) t h a t i s assumed t o j u s t i f y c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e a l o n g c o r r e c t

l i t e r a r y l i n e s and a t r u e t h e o r y ( t h e n e c e s s i t y w i t h i n c a p i t a l -

i s t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t o c o m m o d i f y a l l human a c t i v i t i e s ) t h a t

assumes t h a t p r o d u c t i v e l a b o u r i s t h e o n l y i n d i c a t i o n o f o b j e c t -

i v e t r u t h w h i c h t h e r e f o r e v i t i a t e s t h e n e e d f o r c r i t i c a l i n -

t r o s p e c t i o n where p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t e n r e m a i n s a t t h e l e v e l o f

p o t e n t i a l i t y . I n t h i s c h a p t e r I w a n t t o e x a m i n e t w o r e l a t e d

a s p e c t s o f t h i s p r o b l e m : ( 1 ) t h e i n a b i l i t y o f " e x p l i c a t i o n " t o

r e p r e s e n t p o e t i c m e a n i n g and ( 2 ) t h e f a i l u r e o f New C r i t i c i s m t o

d e v e l o p a n a d e q u a t e t h e o r y o f l i t e r a r y g e n r e ; t h a t i s , a t h e o r y

t h a t r e c o g n i z e s f u n d a m e n t a l d i s t i n c t i o n s i n t h e a r t i s t i c p u r p o s e

and t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a e s t h e t i c d i s c o u r s e b e t w e e n p o e t r y , drama

and t h e n o v e l . These become r e l a t e d i s s u e s b e c a u s e t h e t h e o r e t -

i c a l v i a b i l i t y o f New C r i t i c i s m h i n g e s o n t h e p o e t i c a n a l y s i s ;

n o t o n l y m u s t i t be d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t a t h e o r y o f drama a n d t h e

n o v e l c a n be p o e t i c a l l y d e r i v e d b u t t h e p o e t i c s i t s e l f m u s t

p r o v e i t s w o r t h when c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a c o n c r e t e t e x t .

C o n s i d e r t h e n C l e a n t h B r o o k s ' s a n a l y s i s o f Y e a t s ' s poem,

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"Among S c h o o l C h i l d r e n " . The c e n t r a l a e s t h e t i c p r o b l e m o f t h e

poem i s t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e a r t i s t ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

a r t a s a l i f e g i v i n g a c t i v i t y and t h e a r t i s t ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

h i s own p e r s o n a l l i f e a s a r t l e s s e x p e r i e n c e . W i t h i n t h e l a n g u a g e

o f Y e a t s ' s p o e t r y t h i s i s t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l i z e d

g o l d e n b i r d o f B y z a n t i u m a n d t h e h i s t o r i c a l ' o l d s c a r e c r o w " . The

g r e a t n e s s o f "Among S c h o o l C h i l d r e n " r e s t s on t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n

a n d on t h e h o n e s t i n t i m a c y b y w h i c h i t i s c o m m u n i c a t e d so t h a t

b e i n g l e f t a s a g e n e r a l a e s t h e t i c p r o b l e m i t becomes t h e g e n u i n e

a n x i e t y o f a s e n s i t i v e human b e i n g . The c r i t i c a l i s s u e i s t h e r e -

f o r e t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e t r a g e d y o f a p o e t ' s a r t i s t i c

i d e a l i z a t i o n s w h i c h r a t h e r t h a n g i v i n g more m e a n i n g t o l i f e i n -

s t e a d a c c e n t u a t e t h e i m p o v e r i s h m e n t o f l i f e a n d so t h r e a t e n t h e

e n t i r e a e s t h e t i c p r o j e c t .

I t i s m a n i f e s t l y c l e a r t h a t s u c h a t a s k i s b e y o n d t h e

c r i t i c a l s c o p e o f C l e a n t h B r o o k s whose f o r m a l i s t m e t h o d c a n o n l y

a p p r o a c h t h e poem as b e i n g a b o u t t h e ' n a t u r e o f t h e human i m -

a g i n a t i o n i t s e l f ' . B r o o k s b e g i n s b y d i s c u s s i n g t h e i n t r i c a t e

b a l a n c e a n d l o g i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e poem:

The d r a m a t i c m e t h o d i s t h a t o f an a p p a r e n t l y r a m b l i n g and w h i m s i c a l m e d i t a t i o n w h i c h m e a n d e r s t o w a r d n o g o a l i n p a r t i c u l a r . One i t e m o f r e f l e c t - i o n s u g g e s t s a n o t h e r u n t i l , a t t h e e n d o f t h e poem, t h e s t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s has f l o w e d w i t h a l l t h e s e e m i n g p u r p o s e l e s s n e s s o f a r e a l s t r e a m t o a p o i n t f a r f r o m i t s s o u r c e , c a s u a l l y f l o a t i n g on i t s s u r f a c e r e f e r e n c e s t o Leda , P l a t o , t h e u g l y d u c k l i n g , a n d a h o s t o f p e r s o n a l r e f e r e n c e s . . . . T h e r e i s a n a b s o l u t e economy o f s y m b o l . T h e r e i s n o w a s t e m o t i o n . The poem moves, b y w h a t t u r n s o u t on i n s p e c t i o n t o be t h e s h o r t e s t r o u t e , t o i t s d e t e r m i n e d g o a l . 1

C e r t a i n l y a s a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o e t i c s u r f a c e t h e s e comments

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a r e a c c u r a t e b u t t h e y n e e d t o be i n t e r p r e t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e

l a r g e r i s s u e s o f t h e poem. B e n e a t h t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s t r e a m

a r e p o w e r f u l c u r r e n t s ; t h e ' m e a n d e r i n g ' s t r e a m i s t h e i l l u s i o n

o f a r t t h a t t r i e s t o h i d e t h e a n x i e t i e s o f Y e a t s ' s l i f e a n d

p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s s e x u a l d e s i r e s t h a t n e v e r h a v e been a b l e t o

f i n d a d e q u a t e g r a t i f i c a t i o n .

I t i s a s e r i o u s c r i t i c a l f a i l u r e n o t t o r e c o g n i z e t h i s

i l l u s i o n as does B r o o k s when he i n t e r p r e t s Y e a t s ' s f a n t a s y o f

one o f t h e s c h o o l g i r l s as s i m p l y a v e h i c l e f o r t h e p o e t ' s

s y m b o l o g y :

I n Y e a t s ' s s y s t e m o f s y m b o l s , man and woman a r e r e l a t e d a s t w o c o n e s i n h i s f i g u r e o f t h e d o u b l e c o n e - - o n e w a x i n g a s t h e o t h e r wanes, w a n i n g a s t h e o t h e r w a x e s - - i n dynamic s y n t h e s i s . The s p h e r e , b y c o n t r a s t , i s a t y p e o f ha rmony a n d r e p o s e . The b l e n d i n g w h i c h t h e y [ Y e a t s a n d t h e s c h o o l g i r l ] e x p e r i e n c e d w e n t b e y o n d s e x u a l a t t r a c t i n a n d r e p u l - s i o n : i t was c h i l d l i k e u n i t y o f b e i n g . !!

Bro .oks m i s r e a d s t h e poem b e c a u s e he assumes t h a t t h e a r t i s t i c

i d e a l i s u n m e d i a t e d b y Y e a t s ' s s e l f d o u b t s a b o u t h i s s e x u a l

i d e n t i t y . The t r a g e d y o f t h e p o e t , w h i c h i s t h e a e s t h e t i c p o w e r

o f t h e poem, i s t h a t he i s u n a b l e t o go b e y o n d ' s e x u a l a t t r a c t -

i o n a n d r e p u l s i o n ' ; r e a l i t y i n s i s t s on c o m p r o m i s i n g t h e i d e a l a s

Y e a t s makes c l e a r i n t h e f o u r t h s t a n z a :

And I t h o u g h n e v e r o f a Ledean k i n d Had p r e t t y p lumage o n c e - - e n o u g h o f t h a t , B e t t e r t o s m i l e on a l l t h a t s m i l e , a n d show T h e r e i s a c o m f o r t a b l e k i n d o f o l d s c a r e c r o w .

Y e a t s i s o b v i o u s l y n o t m e r e l y i d e n t i f y i n g age w i t h u g l i n e s s a n d

y o u t h w i t h b e a u t y b u t i s r a t h e r t r y i n g t o h i d e b e h i n d age t o p r o -

t e c t h i m s e l f f r o m t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e r e c a n be y o u n g s c a r e

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c r o w s t o o . A r t i f i c e may t r y t o d r e s s up a s c a r e c r o w t o l o o k

l i k e a swan b u t a r t can n e v e r p e r m i t t h i s d e c e p t i o n :

Wor ld - famous go1 d e n - t h i g h e d P y t h a g o r a s F i n g e r e d upon a f i d d l e - s t i c k o r s t r i n g s What a s t a r sang a n d c a r e l e s s Muses h e a r d : O l d c l o t h e s upon o l d s t i c k s t o s c a r e a b i r d .

P y t h a g o r a s , l i k e Y e a t s , i s t h e h e r o o f p h i l o s o p h y and t h e v i c t i m

o f r e a l i t y . F o r Y e a t s t h e e s s e n c e o f a r t i s t h a t i t s y m b o l i z e s

' h e a v e n l y g l o r y ' w h i l e m o c k i n g t h e c r e a t o r o f t h a t s y m b o l i z a t i o n .

T h i s i s t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e famous l a s t l i n e ( ' H o w c a n we know

t h e d a n c e r f r o m t h e d a n c e ' ) : t h e p o t e n t i a l l y p e r f e c t m i n d t h a t

c o n c e p t u a l i z e s t h e dance c a n n e v e r be s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e i m -

p e r f e c t b o d y t h a t g i v e s t h e dance s u b s t a n c e .

How does B r o o k s r e a d t h e l a s t s t a n z a and how does he i n t e r -

p r e t t h e d e l i b e r a t e l y p h y s i c a l image o f t h e d a n c e r ? To b e g i n

w i t h he s a y s t h a t t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f t h e l a s t s t a n z a a r e

r e a l l y e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l f a b r i c o f t h e poem. T h r o u g h o u t t h e poem, b i r t h a n d g r o w t h a n d d e c a y have r u n as m o t i f s : more s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e egg, t h e f l e d g l i n g , t h e f u l l - g r o w n b i r d , t h e s c a r e c r o w ; o r t h e babe a t b i r t h , t h e c h i l d , y o u t h a n d m a t u r i t y , Leda a n d g o l d e n - t h i g h e d P y t h a g o r a s , t h e man w i t h s i x t y w i n - t e r s on h i s head.

And i t i s t h e s e m e t a p h o r s w h i c h a r e c o n t i n u e d i n t h e c o n c l u d i n g s t a n z a . The v e r y f i r s t w o r d o f t h a t s t a n z a , " l a b o u r " , c a r r i e s an e l e m e n t o f t h e b i r t h m e t a p h o r as an u n d e r t o n e . L a b o u r i s n o t m e r e l y w o r k b u t t h e l a b o u r o f c h i l d b i r t h as w e l l . F o r t h e c h e s t - n u t - t r e e t h e r e a r e n o b i r t h p a n g s : " l a b o u r i s b l o s s o m - i n g " . F o r t h e g r e a t r o o t e d b l o s s o m e r i t i s j u s t t h a t - - 1 i t e r a l ly!

By m a i n t a i n i n g t h e a n a l y s i s a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e ' m e t a p h o r i c f a b r i c

o f t h e poem' B r o o k s d e p e r s o n a l i z e s t h e poem; a n d t h i s i s p a r t i c -

u l a r l y c o n s p i c u o u s w i t h t h e p e r s o n a l i m a g e r y o f t h e b i r d s w h i c h

do n o t m e r e l y r e p r e s e n t a b s t r a c t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s b u t e x p r e s s

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t h e p e s s i m i s m o f an o l d man who was u n a b l e t o l i v e l i f e t o

h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d whose g r e a t e s t p o e t r y i s t h e h u m i l i a t i n g

e x p o s u r e o f h i s p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l i n a d e q u a c y . Y e a t s i s c a u g h t

i n t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f h i s a r t :

0 c h e s t n u t t r e e , g r e a t r o o t e d b l o s s o m e r , A r e y o u t h e l e a f , t h e b l o s s o m o r t h e b o l e ?

The b e a u t y o f n a t u r e a n d a r t i s s e l f g i v e n ; a c t u a l l i f e , on t h e

o t h e r hand, c a n n o t r e m a i n b e a u t i f u l b e c a u s e i t i s d e t e r m i n e d

b y i n d e t e r m i n a t e s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d when l i t t l e g i r l s become women

t h e y l o s e t h e i r u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l b e a u t y a n d become s e x u a l l y

t h r e a t e n i n g .

B r o o k s a r g u e s t h a t i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a s t s t a n z a

we m u s t ' e x a m i n e t h e b o l e and t h e r o o t s , a n d m o s t o f a l l , t h e i r

o r g a n i c i n t e r r e l a t i o n s t 4 b u t on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t we ' o u g h t

t o do n o l e s s t h a n t o a p p l y Y e a t s ' s d o c t r i n e t o h i s own p o e m ' . 5

B u t t h e q u e s t i o n i s , a t l e a s t on t h e l i t e r a l l e v e l , w h e t h e r t h i s

i s n e c e s s a r y . By c o m p a r i n g t h i s poem t o " S a i l i n g t o B y z a n t i u m "

B r o o k s i s a b n e g a t i n g h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a s a c r i t i c t o d e a l w i t h

t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e i m m e d i a t e poem b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g t o a com-

p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s . However t h i s c r i t i c a l d e v i c e e n a b l e s B r o o k s

t o a v o i d t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h e poem a n d t o keep s u b j e c t i v i t y o u t

o f t h e s p h e r e o f c r i t i c i s m . Thus B r o o k s c a n w r i t e :

The i r o n y o f b o t h poems i s d i r e c t e d , i t seems t o me, n o t a t o u r y e a r n i n g t o t r a n s c e n d t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e , b u t a t t h e human s i t u a t i o n i t s e l f i n w h i c h s u p e r n a t u r a l a n d n a t u r a l a r e i n t e r m i x e d - , t h e human s i t u a t i o n w h i c h i s i n e v i t a b l y c a u g h t b e t w e e n t h e c l a i m s o f b o t h n a t u r a l a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l . The g o l d e n b i r d whose b o d i l y f o r m t h e s p e a k e r w i l l t a k e i n B y z a n t i u m w i l l be w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e f l u x o f t h e w o r l d o f b e c o m i n g . B u t so w i t h d r a w n , i t

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w i l l s i n g o f t h e w o r l d o f b e c o m i n g - - " O f w h a t i s p a s s e d , o r p a s s i n g , o r t o come." Removed f r o m t h a t w o r l d , i t w i l l know a s t h e c h e s t n u t - t r e e i m m e r s e d i n l i f e , d r e n c h e d n t h e w o r l d o f b e c o m i n g c a n n o t know. F u l l l i f e i s i n s t i n c t i v e l i k e t h e l i f e o f W o r d s w o r t h ' s c h i l d . I t i s a harmony w h i c h i s t o o b l i n d t o b e a w a r e o f i t s own harmony. H e r e we have t h e d i l e m m a o f W o r d s w o r t h ' s " I n t i m a t i o n s " o d e a l l o v e r a g a i n . The m a t u r e man c a n see t h e ha rmony , t h e u n i t y o f b e i n g , p o s s e s s e d b y t h e t r e e o r t h e l a m b o r t h e c h i l d ; b u t t h e p r i c e o f b e i n g a b l e t o see i t i s n o t t o p o s s e s s i t i n o n e ' s s e l f , j u s t as t h e p r i c e o f p o s s e s s i n g i t i n n e t s s e l f i s an u n a w a r e n e s s t h a t one does p o s s e s s i t . 8

B u t c a n t h e human s i t u a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s i t a p p l i e s t o t h e s e

poems, b e s i m p l y r e d u c e d t o t h e i n t e r m i x i n g o f t h e n a t u r a l a n d

t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l ? I s i t s i m p l y i r r e l e v a n t t h a t Y e a t s was w r i t -

i n g i n I r e l a n d i n t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ? Can a g o l d e n

b i r d know o r a c h e s t n u t t r e e become o r a r e t h e s e a p o e t ' s

i d e a l i z a t i o n s t h a t r e f l e c t h i s s i m u l t a n e o u s a l i e n a t i o n and

a b s o r p t i o n i n l i f e ? F u r t h e r m o r e i f t h e poem i s a ' c o n t r o l l e d

e x p e r i e n c e ' w h a t a r e t h e s u b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a t h a t d e t e r m i n e t h e

c o n t e n t o f t h a t e x p e r i e n c e ? I t c a n n o t s i m p l y be a r g u e d t h a t a l l

we c a n do i s t o d e l i n e a t e t h e ' c o m p l e x o f a t t i t u d e s ' a n d a n y -

t h i n g more c o n c r e t e w o u l d r e d u c e t h e p o e t i c e x p e r i e n c e .

I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e f o r m a l i s t a n a l y s i s t h a t B r o o k s em-

b r a c e s c a n n o t p e n e t r a t e t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e dance a n d t h e d a n c e r

b u t m u s t d i c h o t o m i z e i t s e l f i n t o e i t h e r d e s c r i b i n g t h e movement

o f t h e dance o r e t h e r e a l i z i n g t h e d a n c e r a s a m y s t i c a l b e i n g :

. . . we c a n n o t q u e s t i o n h e r a s a d a n c e r w i t h o u t s t o p p i n g t h e dance o r w a i t i n g u n t i l t h e dance h a s been c o m p l e t e d . And i n s o f a r as o u r i n - t e r e s t i s i n p o e t r y , t h e dance m u s t be p r i m a r y f o r u s . We c a n n o t a f f o r d t o n e g l e c t i t ; n o amoun t o f p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y o f t h e d a n c e r w i l l

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p r o v e a s u b s t i t u t e f o r i t ; a n d e v e n o u r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d a n c e r qua d a n c e r w i l l d e p e n d i n some m e a s u r e upon i t : How e l s e c a n we know h e r ? "How c a n we know t h e d a n c e r f r o m t h e d a n c e ? " 7

T h i s f a i l u r e t o p e n e t r a t e t h e m e a n i n g o f p o e t r y b y l i m i t i n g

t h e a n a l y s i s t o p o e t i c l a n g u a g e a n d f o r m becomes more e x a g g e r a t e d

when a p p l i e d t o o t h e r l i t e r a r y g e n r e s . The d i f f i c u l t y t h a t

p o e t r y p r e s e n t s i s t h e a m b i v a l e n c e o f i t s s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s

s i n c e t h e f o r m o f p o e t r y i s more e x p l i c i t l y s u b j e c t i v e ; i t s

n e c e s s a r y c o n d e n s a t i o n c a n n o t e x p r e s s a s o c i a l t o t a l i t y w i t h i n

i t s a e s t h e t i c f o r m . Such a t o t a l i t y m u s t emerge f r o m t h e r e a d e r

t h r o u g h t h e s u g g e s t i v e u s e o f l a n g u a g e . The same c a n n o t b e

s a i d o f drama a n d t h e n o v e l b e c a u s e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e o n t o l o g i e s

demand an immanent s o c i a l " w o r l d " w i t h i n t h e a e s t h e t i c f o r m i t -

s e l f . The i d e o l o g i c a l s u c c e s s e s o f blew C r i t i c i s m i n p o e t i c

a n a l y s e s m u s t t h e r e f o r e be p a r t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o m p l e x i t y

o f p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e w h e r e t h e s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a r e h i g h l y

m e d i a t e d : t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t p o e t r y i s p r i m a r i l y a b o u t l a n g u a g e

c a n be m a i n t a i n e d b y s u b s t i t u t i n g a m y s t i c a l s u b j e c t i v i t y t h a t

knows no l a n g u a g e f o r a s o c i a l s u b j e c t i v i t y t h a t r e q u i r e s a n o n -

a e s t h e t i c l a n g u a g e . B u t when s u c h a r e l i g i o u s a n d l i n g u i s t i c

mode l i s a p p l i e d t o drama a n d t h e n o v e l t h e i l l u s i o n c a n n o t b e

s u p p o r t e d b y t h e t e x t a n d t h e c r i t i c m u s t a p p e a l t o t h e " n a t u r a l "

s e n s e o f t h e r e a d e r - - a f t e r a l l i f p o e t r y i s l i t e r a t u r e so i s

drama a n d f i c t i o n .

R o b e r t H e i l m a n ' s e s s a y , " T r a g e d y a n d M e l o d r a m a : S p e c u l a -

t i o n s on G e n e r i c F o r m " , i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a t t e m p t t o p o e t i c i z e

drama b y m a k i n g m o r a l i t y , a s a p a r a d i g m o f o r d e r , t h e e s s e n c e

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o f t r a g e d y a n d p o l i t i c s t h e e s s e n c e o f m e l o d r a m a . Thus t h e

p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f t h e e s s a y i s t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e h i g h

drama o f m o r a l i t y a n d t h e l o w drama o f s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e . H e i l -

m a n ' s p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e i s A r i s t o t l e ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e t r a g i c

h e r o a s t h e ' g o o d man who g e t s i n t o t r o u b l e t h r o u g h some e r r o r

o r s h o r t c o m i n g f o r w h i c h t h e s t a n d a r d t e r m i s t h e t r a g i c f l a w . 18

From t h i s p o s i t i o n he d r a w s t h r e e a s s u m p t i o n s : ( 1 ) t h a t t h e

t r a g i c h e r o i s a d i v i d e d c h a r a c t e r ; ( 2 ) t h a t t h i s d i v i s i o n

i m p l i e s c h o i c e : ' t h e r e a r e a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d man m u s t s e l e c t one

o r a n o t h e r ' ; and ( 3 ) t h a t t h i s c h o i c e i m p l i e s c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

U n d e r t h e f i r s t a s s u m p t i o n H e i l m a n s u g g e s t s t h r e e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e s

o f t h e ' d i v i d e d n e s s o f h u m a n i t y ' . F i r s t l y t h e r e i s t h e d i v i s i o n

b e t w e e n c i v i l o r d e r a n d g u i l t o f w h i c h H a m l e t a n d A n t i g o n e a r e

t y p i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I n t h i s t y p e o f t r a g e d y t h e m a i n t e n -

a n c e o f c i v i l o r d e r i s s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h an a w a r e n e s s o f a

' c o u n t e r i m p e r a t i v e ' o f i n d i v i d u a l m o r a l i t y ; t h e c o m m i t t i n g o f an

a m b i v a l e n t a c t o r t h e c a n c e l l i n g o f a p a r t o f t h e h e r o ' s a w a r e -

n e s s w o u l d d e s t r o y t h e t r a g i c sense . H e i l m a n s u g g e s t s t h a t Ham-

l e t w o u l d c e a s e t o b e a t r a g i c h e r o had he r e g a r d e d t h e g h o s t l y

e x h o r t a t i o n s a s t e n s i o n s w i t h i n h i m s e l f b e c a u s e he w o u l d h a v e

s t o p p e d b r o o d i n g a b o u t an i m a g i n a r y e v i l and a d j u s t e d t o t h e

e x i s t i n g o r d e r . B u t t h i s i s a s t r a n g e r e a d i n g o f H a m l e t b e -

c a u s e i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e a m b i v a l e n c e o f t h e s e t e n s i o n s t h a t

makes H a m l e t w a n t t o a d j u s t t o t h e s t a t e . Such a m i s r e a d i n g o f

t h e p l a y i s a f u n c t i o n o f t r y i n g t o i m p o s e a m o r a l i s t i c mode l

on a b l a t a n t l y p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n . The s o u r c e o f H a m l e t ' s

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t r a g e d y i s t h a t h e i s c a u g h t w i t h i n a p o l i t i c a l i z e d O e d i p a l c o n -

f l i c t w h i c h c a n h a r d l y b e c o n s i d e r e d a h e r o i c f l a w u n l e s s we a r e

a l l h e r o e s .

The s e c o n d s t r u c t u r a l d i v i s i o n t h a t H e i l m a n n o t e s i s t h e

d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n ' m o r a l o r d i n a n c e ' a n d ' u n r u l y p a s s i o n ' a s

t y p i f i e d b y D o c t o r F a u s t u s a n d M a c b e t h . H e i l m a n w r i t e s :

T r a d i t i o n a n d c o m m u n i t y g i v e an o r d i n a n c e , b u t e g o t i s m d r i v e s one away f r o m i t . M a c b e t h s e e k s p o w e r t h r o u g h p o l i t i c s , F a u s t u s t h r o u g h i n t e l l e c t ; w h a t makes them t r a g i c , a s o r d i n a r y p o w e r - g r a b b e r s a r e n o t , i s t h a t n e i t h e r o f t h e m c a n e v e r , i n y i e l d i n g t o i m p u l s e , f o r c e o u t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h e i m p e r a t i v e s t h a t he r u n s a g a i n s t . 9

F i n a l l y H e i l m a n s u g g e s t s t h e d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n i m p u l s e a n d

i m p u l s e as i n I b s e n ' s p l a y s . However t h e c r i t i q u e o f m o r a l i s m

r e m a i n s p e r t i n e n t b e c a u s e i n e a c h c a s e t h e d i s m i s s a l o f s o c i e t y

a s a d e t e r m i n a t e t r a g i c f o r c e d i l u t e s o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

d r a m a t i c s o u r c e s f o r t r a g e d y . I t i s c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t t h e

p r i m a r y e f f e c t i s f e l t t h r o u g h t h e h e r o b u t t h e s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n

i s h i s t o r i c a l l y c h a n g e a b l e a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y we m u s t i n v e s t i g a t e

t h e s o c i o - d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t b e c a u s e i t p r o v i d e s t h e o b j e c t i v e

c o n d i t i o n s f o r t r a g e d y and i n f o r m s t h e c h a r a c t e r s t r u c t u r e o f

t h e h e r o . F u r t h e r , i t i s i n t h i s s e n s e t h a t a l l h e r o e s a r e a l s o

v i c t i m s b e c a u s e t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e i r h e r o i s m i s d e t e r m i n e d b y

t h e i r s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e .

I t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e h i s t o r i c a l d y n a m i c o f s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e

t h a t H e i l m a n w a n t s t o i g n o r e b e c a u s e i t a l l o w s h i m t o m o r a l i z e

t r a g e d y a n d a f f i r m s o c i a l r e a l i t y . H e i l m a n c o n s i d e r s t h a t t r a g e d y

p r o v i d e s

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an i n d i s p e n s a b l e means o f c o n t e m p l a t i n g human c a t a s t r o p h e : t h e i d e a t h a t c a l a m i t y may come f r o m d i v i s i o n s w i t h i n human n a t u r e a n d w i t h i n t h e o r d e r i n g o f l i f e . The i d e a t h a t man may c h o o s e e v i l . The i d e a t h a t p o t e n t i a l e v i l w i t h i n h i m may ove rcome h i m d e s p i t e r e s o l u t i o n o r f l i g h t . The i d e a t h a t b r u t a l e v e n t s may come o u t o f t h e n o r m a l l o g i c o f c h a r a c t e r . The i d e a t h a t man i s n e v e r s a f e f r o m h i m s e l f . The i d e a t h a t t h e k n o w l e d g e o f s u c h i d e a s i s e s - s e n t i a l t o t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h i n d i v i d u a l a n d t o t h e h e a l t h o f i n s t i t u t i o n s . 7 0

Such an i d e a l i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f t r a g e d y c a n n e v e r a c c o u n t f o r

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d r a m a t i c f o r m s b e c a u s e h i s t o r y i s n o t m e r e l y

a s o u r c e f o r d r a m a t i c c o n t e n t i t a l s o d e t e r m i n e s t h e f o r m s them-

s e l v e s . I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t w o r e l a t e d s t r a n d s i n H e i l m a n ' s c o n -

c e p t i o n o f t r a g e d y . On t h e one h a n d h i s m o r a l i t y e x p r e s s e s a

b o u r g e o i s i n d i v i d u a l i s m i n w h i c h t h e r e a l w o r l d o f t r a g e d y i s

c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e s a n c t i t y o f t h e h e r o ' s p r i v a t e p s y c h e .

W h i l e on t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e m o d e l s o f t r a g i c drama, w i t h t h e

p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f I b s e n , n e v e r go b e y o n d t h e E l i z a b e t h a n

e r a . H e i l m a n i s a b l e t o f i n d c o u n t l e s s e x a m p l e s o f p o s t -

E l i z a b e t h a n m e l o d r a m a t i c f o r m s w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n i n g why t h e r e a r e

no s i g n i f i c a n t t r a g i c f o r m s i n t h e l a s t t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s . B u t

t h i s i s n o t an u n r e s o l v a b l e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e h i s t o r i c a l

d i s t a n c e o f t h e g r e a t t r a g i c f o r m s a l l o w s an a h i s t o r i c a l il-

l u s i o n i n w h i c h t h e 'human c a t a s t r o p h e ' i s an u n r n e d i a t e d f o r m o f

b o u r g e o i s i n d i v i d u a l i s m . I t n e v e r o c c u r s t o H e i l m a n t h a t t h e

r e a s o n t h a t t h e h e r o i s m e d i a t e d b y r e a l i t y i n ' m e l o d r a m a ' i s

b e c a u s e t h o s e p l a y s d e p i c t t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y

f o r t h e b i r t h o f t h e b o u r g e o i s t y p e .

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H e i l m a n ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e m o r a l e p i s t e m o l o g y o f

t r a g e d y i s p a r a l l e l e d i n h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f me lod rama a s t h e

drama o f " d i s a s t e r " b y w h i c h he means t h a t d r a m a t i c m i s f o r t u n e

i s d e t e r m i n e d b y e v e n t s e x t e r n a l t o t h e h e r o . T h e r e a r e t w o

f u r t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n : ( 1 ) t h e h e r o i s

n e c e s s a r i l y a v i c t i m a n d ( 2 ) t h e d r a m a t i c s t r u c t u r e i m p l i e s a

q u a n t i t a t i v e v i e w o f l i f e i n w h i c h d e a t h becomes more m e a n i n g -

f u l t h a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s . H e i l m a n w a n t s t o p r e t e n d t h a t t h e d i s -

t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t r a g e d y and m e l o d r a m a i s n o t e v a l u a t i v e b u t

s u c h a p r e t e n s e i s b l o c k e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t me lod rama as s e r i o u s

drama has c l o s e a f f i n i t i e s w i t h " p o p u l a r " drama. As a c o n s e -

q u e n c e t h e b e s t e x a m p l e s o f me lod rama c a n b e f o u n d i n p l a y s l i k e

S y n g e ' s R i d e r s --- t o t h e Sea, D u e r r e n m a t t ' s The V i s i t a n d O ' N e i l l ' s

The I ceman Cometh. T h e r e c a n b e l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t n o t o n l y a r e

t h e s e p l a y s d r a m a t i c a l l y i n f e r i o r t o " t r u e " t r a g e d y b u t t h e i r

m o d e r n i t y i s i m p l i c i t l y assumed t o b e t h e s o u r c e o f t h a t i n -

f e r i o r i t y .

F u r t h e r m o r e when H e i l m a n c i t e s W e b s t e r ' s The Duchess of

M a l f i a s one o f t h e ' g r e a t d ramas o f d i s a s t e r ' he r e d u c e s i t s

a e s t h e t i c s c o p e t o t h e b a n a l i t y o f m o d e r n m e l o d r a m a :

. . . [ i n - The Duchess o f M a l f i ] a c h a r m i n g a n d i n - n o c e n t woman i s t o r t u r e d a n d d e s t r o y e d b y h e r c r u e l b r o t h e r s . She i s n o t p r e s e n t e d t r a g i c a l l y ; she does n o t , l i k e g r e a t h e r o i s , " e a r n " h e r f a t e . H e r h o n o u r - a b l e c o n d u c t s i m p l y happens t o r u n a f o u l o f t h e p u r p o s e s o f h e r v i c i o u s b r o t h e r s . L e a r , on t h e o t h e r hand , has made G o n e r i l a n d Regan e f f a c i o u s i n t h e w o r l d ; t h e y a r e p r o j e c t i o n s o f a p a r t o f h i s own d i v i d e d n a t u r e . L e a r has made h i s w o r l d i n a way t h a t t h e Duchess has n o t . W e b s t e r p r e s e n t s t h e e v i l b r o t h e r s as au tonomous

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- - l i k e a f l o o d o r h o l o c a u s t t h a t d e s t r o y s . T h i s i s n o t t o deny t h e e x i s t e n c e o f au tonomous e v i l ; i t i s s i l y t o s a y t h a t i t i s n o t t h e w o r l d o f t r a g e d y . '77

O f c o u r s e a n y s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r o f W e b s t e r ' s p l a y w i l l n o t f i n d

h i s c h a r a c t e r s o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t e r e o t y p e s b u t w i l l r e c o g n i z e

t h a t t h e i r m o r a l i t y i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e

s t a t e . C l e a r l y f o r H e i l m a n t h e s t a t e i s n o t f i t s u b j e c t m a t t e r

f o r t r a g e d y b e c a u s e i t makes m o r a l i t y c o n t i n g e n t , n o t upon

i n d i v i d u a l w i l l , b u t upon t h e q u a l i t y o f s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h

t h e s t a t e n e c e s s a r i l y s t r u c t u r e s . H e i l m a n ' s c o m p l e m e n t a r y

a n a l y s i s o f K i n q L e a r r e v e a l s t h e c r i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f h i s

r i g i d t r a g i c mode l s i n c e i t i s c l e a r t h a t G o n e r i l and Regan a r e

f a r more t h a n p r o j e c t i o n s o f a d i v i d e d n a t u r e b u t e x p r e s s t h e

p o l i t i c a l consequences o f a S t a t e t h a t i s n o l o n g e r s e l f - c o n -

s c i o u s a b o u t i t s s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . The f u n d a m e n t a l d i s -

t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o p l a y s i s t h e r e f o r e h i s t o r i c a l : Shake-

s p e a r e d e p i c t s t h e a n a r c h i c p o t e n t i a l i t y o f t h e E l i z a b e t h a n

s t a t e w h i l e ~ e b s t e r d e p i c t s i t s r e a l i z a t i o n . Thus L e a r c a n

make h i s w o r l d , n o t b e c a u s e S h a k e s p e a r e h a s a t r u e r a r t i s t i c

v i s i o n , b u t b e c a u s e p o l i t i c a l e t h i c s can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h

h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y . The g r a d u a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f e t h i c a l r e s -

p o n s i b i l i t y and t h e r i s e o f P u r i t a n i s m deny t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

w i t h h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y a n d i t i s t h i s d y n a m i c t h a t i n f o r m s

W e b s t e r ' s d r a m a t i c v i s i o n .

H e i l m a n ' s ' s p e c u l a t i o n s on g e n e r i c f o r m ' b r e a k down o n

t w o p o i n t s . F i r s t l y , he f a i l s t o a d e q u a t e l y a c c o u n t f o r t r a -

d i t i o n a l t r a g e d y b e c a u s e he r e j e c t s t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

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m o r a l i t y o f t h e h e r o a n d t h e h i s t o r i c c o n d i t i o n s t h a t g i v e r i s e

t o t h a t m o r a l i t y . He i s t h e r e f o r e u n a b l e t o c r i t i c a l l y d i s t i n -

g u i s h b e t w e e n S o p h o c l e a n and S h a k e s p e a r e a n t r a g e d y a n d h i s i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l p l a y s i s a c c o r d i n g l y l i m i t e d b e c a u s e i t

e x c l u d e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s t h a t a r e c e n t r a l t o t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f d r a m a t i c f o rms . S e c o n d l y , H e i l m a n ' s r e a d i n g s o f

p o s t - E l i z a b e t h a n drama p r o v e t o be t o t a l l y i n a d e q u a t e b e c a u s e ,

l a c k i n g a t h e o r y o f t h e g e n e s i s o f d r a m a t i c f o r m , h e i s u n a b l e

t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e t h e o r y o f t r a g e d y as m o r a l i t y i s i t s e l f

h i s t o r i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d a n d c a n n o t b e a p p l i e d t o drama, e v e n i n

a l i m i t e d sense , w h i c h i s c r e a t e d i n r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l

e p o c h s .

The d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t H e i l m a n d i s p l a y s i n p e n e t r a t i n g t h e

e s s e n c e o f t r a g e d y f i n d t h e i r comp lemen t i n New C r i t i c a l t h e o r i e s

o f t h e n o v e l o f w h i c h t h e b e s t known i s Mark S h o r e r ' s e s s a y ,

" T e c h n i q u e a s D i s c o v e r y " . I n b o t h c a s e s t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e

f r o m t h e a t t e m p t t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e s o c i a l a n d h i s t o r i c c o n t e n t

w i t h i n f o r m s t h a t depend on t h a t c o n t e n t f o r t h e i r a e s t h e t i c

e s s e n c e . S h o r e r b e g i n s b y a r g u i n g t h a t c r i t i c i s m o f f i c t i o n c a n

b e n e f i t f r o m t h e f o r m a l i s t i c c r i t i c i s m w h i c h showed t h a t

t o speak o f c o n t e n t a s s u c h i s n o t t o s p e a k o f a r t a t a l l , b u t o f e x p e r i e n c e ; a n d t h a t i t i s o n l y when we speak o f t h e a c h i e v e d c o n t e n t , t h e f o r m , t h e w o r k o f a r t as a w o r k o f a r t , t h a t we s p e a k a s c r i t i c s . The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n c o n t e n t , o r e x p e r ' e n c e , a n d a c h i e v e d c o n t e n t , o r a r t , i s t e c h n i q u e . 1 b

T e c h n i q u e becomes t h e r e f o r e t h e e s s e n c e o f a r t and t h e p o i n t o f

d e p a r t u r e f o r a l l c r i t i c i s m . S h o r e r a r g u e s t h a t p r e v i o u s c r i t i -

c i s m o f f i c t i o n h a s e i t h e r made c o n t e n t a v a l u e i n i t s e l f w i t h o u t

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r e c o u r s e t o i t s f u n c t i o n w i t h i n t h e t o t a l f i c t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o r

c r i t i c i s m has a v o i d e d c o n t e n t a l t o g e t h e r a n d f o c u s s e d on a r b i t r a r y

d e v i c e s ( e . g . p l o t , t h e means o f p o r t r a y i n g c h a r a c t e r , s u s p e n s e ,

c l i m a x , e t c . ) . F o r S h o r e r t e c h n i q u e has a much l a r g e r r e f e r e n c e ;

i t i s t h e 'means o f e x p l o r i n g a n d d e f i n i n g t h e v a l u e s i n an a r e a

o f e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e n , a r e b e i n g g i v e n . , I 3

B u t p o e t r y i s n o t f i c t i o n a n d a l t h o u g h t h e m e t h o d o f a n a l y -

s i s i s s i m i l a r t h e s u b s t a n c e o f f i c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s w i l l h a v e t o

a c c o u n t f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f f i c t i o n a l f o r m . S h o r e r w r i t e s :

T e c h n i q u e i n f i c t i o n i s , o f c o u r s e , a l l t h o s e o b v i o u s f o r m s o f i t w h i c h a r e u s u a l l y t a k e n t o b e t h e w h o l e o f i t , a n d many o t h e r s ; b u t f o r t h e p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s , l e t i t be t h o u g h t o f i n t w o r e s p e c t s p a r t i c u l a r l y : t h e u s e s t o w h i c h l a n g u a g e , as l a n g u a g e , i s p u t t o e x p r e s s t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e i n q u e s t i o n ; and t h e u s e s o f p o i n t o f v i e w n o t o n l y a s a mode o f d r a m a t i c d e l i m i t a t i o n , b u t m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y o f t h e m a t i c c o n v e n t i o n . T e c h n i q u e i s r e a l l y w h a t T . S . E l i o t means b y " c o n - v e n t i o n " - - a n y s e l e c t i o n , s t r u c t u r e , o r d i s t o r t i o n , a n y f o r m o r r h y t h m i m p o s e d upon t h e w o r l d o f a c t i o n ; b y means o f w h i c h - - i t s h o u l d be a d d e d - - o u r a p p r e - h e n s i o n o f t h e w o r l d o f a c t i o n i s e n r i c h e d o r renewed . I n t h i s s e n s e , e v e r y t h i n g i s t e c h n i q u e w h i c h i s n o t t h e l u m p o f e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f ; a n d one c a n n o t p r o p e r l y s a y t h a t a w r i t e r has n o l q . t e c h n i q u e , f o r , b e i n g a w r i t e r , he c a n n o t do so .

T h i s v i e w o f t h e n o v e l does n o t g r a s p i t s s o c i a l e s s e n c e : t h e

f o r m o f t h e n o v e l i s a r e s p o n s e n o t o n l y t o t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f a

s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , t h a t d rama a n d p o e t r y c o u l d no l o n g e r c o n t a i n ,

b u t a l s o t o t h e c o n t e n t o f s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e . The a l i e n a t i o n o f

i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t i v i t y f r o m s o c i a l o b j e c t i v i t y c a n o n l y be

a e s t h e t i c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d b y d e p i c t i n g an e x p e r i e n t i a l t o t a l i t y

i n w h i c h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r m u s t b e demon-

s t r a t e d w i t h i n t h e f o r m o f t h e n o v e l . T h i s i s o b v i o u s l y n o t a s

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t r u e i n p o e t r y a n d drama w h i c h demand a h i g h e r d e g r e e o f t y p i -

c a l i t y b e c a u s e e x p e r i e n c e i s g i v e n ; i t does n o t h a v e t o be demon-

s t r a t e d a s a t o t a l i t y b e c a u s e i t i s assumed w i t h i n t h e fo rm.

A f a i l u r e t o r e c o g n i z e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n l e a d s S h o r e r i n t o

t w o f a l l a c i e s . F i r s t l y , i t becomes a r b i t r a r y f o r h i m t h a t

w r i t e r s c h o o s e t h e n o v e l as an a r t i s t i c f o r m s i n c e t h e t e c h n i c a l

a n a l y s i s a p p l i e s e q u a l l y w e l l t o p o e t r y a n d drama a s S h o r e r ' s

a n a l y s e s o f W u t h e r i n g H e i g h t s a n d U l y s s e s d e m o n s t r a t e . S e c o n d l y ,

S h o r e r c o n s i s t e n t l y a v o i d s t h e s o c i a l a s p e c t s o f t h e n o v e l w h i c h

n o t o n l y g i v e i t f o r m a l s u b s t a n c e b u t a l s o p a r t i c u l a r i z e c h a r a c -

t e r s a n d t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s .

The c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e s e f a l l a c i e s c a n be seen i n S h o r e r ' s

a n a l y s e s o f - A P o r t r a i t o f t h e A r t i s t a s a Young Man a n d Sons - - - - -

a n d L o v e r s . S h o r e r p r e f a c e s h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f Sons a n d L o v e r s - -- b y r e f e r r i n g t o L a w r e n c e ' s a e s t h e t i c s w h i c h e m p h a s i z e t h e e m o t i o n s

a s t h e c r e a t i v e s o u r c e o f a r t . S h o r e r f e e l s t h a t i t i s ' a c c e p t -

a b l e ' t o b e l i e v e i n e m o t i o n s w i t h t h e p r o v i s o t h a t s u c h e m o t i o n s

a r e o b j e c t i f i e d b y t e c h n i q u e . B u t s i n c e L a w r e n c e r e f u s e s t o

l e g i t i m i z e t h e s e e m o t i o n s t h r o u g h t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n h i s

n o v e l s u l t i m a t e l y f a i l as a r t . S h o r e r w r i t e s :

H i s b e l i e f i n a " p o e t r y o f t h e i m m e d i a t e p r e s e n t " , p o e t r y i n w h i c h n o t h i n g i s f i x e d , s t a t i c , o r f i n a l , w h e r e a l l i s s h i m m e r i n e s s a n d impermanence a n d v i t a l - i s t i c e s s e n e , a r o s e f r o m ... a m i s t a k e n n o t i o n o f t e c h n i q u e . 1 8

Q u i t e a p a r t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t L a w r e n c e ' s n o v e l s n e e d n o t b e

j u d g e d b y h i s a e s t h e t i c s - - a f a c t t h a t L a w r e n c e ' s own a x i o m ,

b e l i e v e t h e t a l e n o t t h e t e l l e r , j u s t i f i e s - - S h o r e r m i s r e p r e s e n t s

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L a w r e n c e ' s t h e o r y o f e m o t i o n s . L a w r e n c e i s n o t a r g u i n g f o r a

h a p h a z a r d t h e o r y o f c r e a t i v i t y b u t r a t h e r assumes t h a t t h e

e m o t i o n s , a t t h e i r d e e p e s t l e v e l , h a v e a s t r u c t u r e t h a t i s n o t

o n l y m o r e m e a n i n g f u l t h a n a " c o n s c i o u s " s t r u c t u r e b u t i s i t s e l f

more c o h e r e n t .

S h o r e r s u g g e s t s t h a t i n -- Sons a n d L o v e r s t h e r e i s a f u n d a -

m e n t a l d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e ' c r i p p l i n g e f f e c t o f a m o t h e r ' s

l o v e on t h e e m o t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f h e r s o n ' a n d t h e d i c h o t o m o u s

l o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t P a u l d e v e l o p s w i t h C l a r a a n d M i r i a m

b e c a u s e t h e l o g i c a l o u t c o m e o f t h e n o v e l s h o u l d be P a u l ' s d e a t h .

Such a d i s c r e p a n c y , f o r S h o r e r , r e v e a l s ' c e r t a i n c o n f u s i o n s b e -

t w e e n i n t e n t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e ' , r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e c h a r a c t e r i -

za t ions o f P a u l ' s m o t h e r a n d f a t h e r . S h o r e r a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e i s a

c o n t r a d i c t i o n

b e t w e e n L a w r e n c e ' s e x p l i c i t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f t h e m o t h e r a n d f a t h e r a n d t h i s t o n a l e v a l u a t i o n s o f them. I t i s a p r o b l e m n o t o n l y o f s t y l e ( o f t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n e x p r e s s e d m o r a l e p i t h e t s a n d t h e more g e n e r a l t e x t u r e o f t h e p r o s e w h i c h a p p l i e s t o t h e m ) b u t a l s o o f p o i n t o f v i e w . M o r e l and L a w r e n c e a r e n e v e r s e p a r a t e d , w h i c h i s a way o f s a y i n g t h a t L a w r e n c e m a i n t a i n s f o r h i m s e l f i n t h i s book t h e c o n f u s e d a t t i t u d e o f h i s c h a r a c t e r . The m o t h e r i s a " p r o u d , h o n o u r a b l e s o u l " , b u t t h e f a t h e r has a " s m a l l , mean h e a d " . T h i s i s t h e s u s t a i n e d c o n t r a s t ; t h e e p i t h e t s a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e w h o l e , and t h e y r e p r e s e n t h a l f o f L a w r e n c e ' s f e e l i n g s . B u t w h a t i s t h e o t h e r h a l f ? Which o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s i s g i v e n h i s r e a l s y m p a t h y - - t h e h a r d , s e l f - r i g h t e o u s , a g g r e s s i v e , demand ing m o t h e r who comes t h r o u g h t o u s , o r t h e s i m p l e , d i r e c t , g e n t l e , d o w n r i g h t , f u m b l i n g , r u i n e d f a t h e r ? T h e r e a r e t w o a t t i t u d e s h e r e . L a w r e n c e ( a n d M o r e l ) l o v e s h i s m o t h e r , b u t h e a l s o h a t e s h e r f o r c o m p e l l i n g h i s l o v e ; and he h a t e s h i s f a t h e r w i t h t r u e F r e u d i a n j e a l o u s y , b u t he a l s o l o v e s h i m f o r w h a t he i s i n h i m s e l f , a n d he s y m p a t h i z e s more d e e p l y w i t h h i m b e c a u s e h i s w h o l e n e s s has b e e n d e s t r o y e d b y

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t h e mo the ' s d o m i n a t i o n , j u s t a s h i s , L a w r e n c e - M o r e l ' s , has been . f 6

S h o r e r ' s c r i t i q u e o f t h i s ' p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e n s i o n ' r e s t s on t h e

a s s u m p t i o n t h a t M o r e l m u s t be t a k e n a s t h e a u t h o r , t h e son o f

a c o a l m i n e r , a n d t h e o n l y j u s t i f i c a t i o n he p r o v i d e s f o r t h i s

a s s u m p t i o n i s a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n t h a t we " c a r e f u l l y " r e a d t h e

n o v e l a n d t h e book , D . H . L a w r e n c e : A - P e r s o n a l R e c o r d by E . T . ,

t h e mode l f o r M i r i a m . B u t c l e a r l y w h a t b o t h e r s S h o r e r i s t h a t

L a w r e n c e ' s n o v e l s do n o t end: t h e y r a i s e human p r o b l e m s , s u c h

a s t h e c o n f l i c t s c i t e d above, w i t h o u t f u l l y r e s o l v i n g t h e m w i t h i n

t h e f o r m o f t h e n o v e l . S h o r e r f e e l s t h a t h a d L a w r e n c e d i s -

t a n c e d h i m s e l f f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f h i s f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s

he c o u l d h a v e a e s t h e t i c a l l y r e s o l v e d t h e i r p r o b l e m s . As a b a s i s

f o r c r i t i c i z i n g L a w r e n c e t h i s i s u n a c c e p t a b l e s i n c e i t m e r e l y

assumes t h a t t h e c l a s s i c i s t a e s t h e t i c o f James, C o n r a d , a n d J o y c e

i s t h e o n l y l e g i t i m a t e a e s t h e t i c f o r t h e n o v e l . S h o r e r t h e r e -

f o r e r e f u s e s t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t L a w r e n c e n o t o n l y w a n t s t o e m o t i o n -

a l l y engage t h e r e a d e r b u t he a l s o w a n t s t o p e n e t r a t e t h e s o c i a l

s u r f a c e s o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h r o u g h i n t i m a t e c h a r a c t e r -

i z a t i o n . P a u l may w e l l be m o d e l l e d on L a w r e n c e b u t t h a t h a r d l y

l i m i t s -- Sons a n d L o v e r s t o s e l f - a n a l y s i s b u t i n s t e a d a l l o w s

L a w r e n c e t o d e p i c t a h i s t o r i c a l l y v a l i d s o c i a l t y p e w i t h a

p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e p t h r a r e l y f o u n d i n c l a s s i c i s t f i c t i o n .

J o y c e ' s - A P o r t r a i t -- o f t h e A r t i s t - - a s a Young - Man i s p r e -

s e n t e d a s a p o s i t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e t o -- Sons a n d L o v e r s b e c a u s e

i t a n a l y s e s i t s m a t e r i a l r i g o r o u s l y , a n d i t d e f i n e s t h e v a l u e a n d q u a l i t y o f i t s e x p e r i e n c e n o t b y appended comment o r m o r a l e p i t h e t , b u t b y t h e t e x t u r e o f t h e s t y l e . 1 7

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I t i s h e r e t h a t S h o r e r f i n d s t h e f i c t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s l a c k i n g

i n L a w r e n c e - - m e t i c u l o u s s t y l e , c o h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e un -

p r o b l e m a t i c a l o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f e m o t i o n s . C o n s i d e r h i s comments

on J o y c e ' s s t y l e :

The o p e n i n g pages a r e w r i t t e n i n s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h e s t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f U l y s s e s , a s t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i m p i n g e s d i r e c t l y on t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e i n f a n t a n d t h e c h i l d , a s t r a n g e o p e n i n g w o r l d w h i c h t h e m i n d does n o t s u b j e c t t o q u e s t i o n i n g s e l e c t i o n , o r j u d g m e n t . B u t t h e s t y l e changes v e r y s o o n , a s t h e b o y b e g i n s t o e x p l o r e h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s ; a n d a s h i s s e n s u o u s e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e w o r l d i s e n l a r g e d , i t t a k e s on h e a v i e r a n d h e a v i e r r h y t h m s a n d a f u l l e r a n d f u l l e r b o d y o f s e n s u o u s d e t a i l , u n t i l i t r e a c h e s a c r e s c e n d o o f r o m a n t i c o p u - l e n c e i n t h e e m o t i o n a l c l i m a x e s w h i c h mark S t e p h e n ' s r e j e c t i o n o f d o m e s t i c a n d r e l i g i o u s v a l u e s . Then g r a d u a l l y t h e s t y l e s u b s i d e s i n t o t h e a u s t e r e i n - t e l l e c t u a l i t y o f t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n s , a s h e d e f i n e s t o h i m s e l f t h e o u t l i n e s o f t h e a r t i s t i c t a s k w h i c h i s t o u s u r p h i s m a t u r i t y . 1 8

S h o r e r assumes t h a t ' s t y l e a n d m e t h o d e v a l u a t e t h e e x p e r i e n c e '

o f t h e n o v e l - - t h e a r t i s t ' s a l i e n a t i o n f r o m h i s e n v i r o n m e n t . B u t

t o r e d u c e t h e n o v e l t o J o y c e ' s c o n s c i o u s i n t e n t , t h e s t y l i s t i c

p o r t r a i t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f an a r t i s t , c a n n o t i n i t s e l f

a c c o u n t f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e b e c a u s e t h i s a n a l y s i s i s u n a b l e t o

a c c o u n t f o r t h e s o c i o - a e s t h e t i c m e d i a t i o n s b e t w e e n s t y l e a n d

c h a r a c t e r . S p e c i f i c a l l y , a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s m u s t a t t e n d t o

S t e p h e n ' s c h a r a c t e r s t r u c t u r e a n d he i s n e v e r a b l e t o r e j e c t

t h e s e f o r c e s . B e n e a t h t h e m e t i c u l o s u l y c o n s t r u c t e d s t y l e l i e s

a p r o f o u n d g u i l t t h a t a r t i s i n t e n d e d t o e x p i a t e . I n f a c t , a r t

i s o n l y a b l e t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h a t g u i l t b y m a k i n g i t a n a e s t h e t i c

p r i n c i p l e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e s t y l e m u s t b e a n a l y s e d f r o m t h e

p o i n t o f v i e w o f S t e p h e n ' s a c t u a l s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e a n d n o t , a s

S h o r e r a r g u e s , v i c e v e r s a . To t a k e t h e s t y l e as t h e c r i t i c a l

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p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e i s t o n e t u t r a l i z e t h e p o w e r o f s e x u a l a n d

C a t h o l i c g u i l t as i f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a l o n e c a n t r a n s c e n d a n x i e t y .

T h i s i s S t e p h e n ' s i l l u s i o n b u t J o y c e i s more h o n e s t as t h e l a s t

t w o e n t r i e s i n h i s d i a r y make c l e a r :

A p r i l 26. M o t h e r i s p u t t i n g my new s e c o n d h a n d c l o t h e s i n o r d e r . She p r a y s now, she s a y s , t h a t I may l e a r n i n my own l i f e a n d away f r o m home a n d f r i e n d s w h a t t h e h e a r t i s and w h a t i t f e e l s . Amen. So be i t . Welcome, 0 l i f e ! I go t o e n c o u n t e r f o r t h e m i l l i o n t h t i m e t h e r e a l i t y o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d t o f o r g e i n t h e s m i t h y o f my s o u l t h e u n c r e a t e d c o n - s c i e n c e o f mv r a c e . "

A p r i l 2 7 . O l d f a t h e r , o l d a r t i f i c e r , s t a n d me now a n d e v e r i n g o o d s t e a d .

How i s i t p o s s i b l e t o a r g u e f o r a ' r e j e c t i o n o f d o m e s t i c a n d

r e l i g i o u s v a l u e s ' when t h e e n c o u n t e r w i t h e x p e r i e n c e i s c o n -

t i n u a l l y f r u s t r a t e d ( a m i l l i o n t i m e s ) o r when a r t ( ' o l d a r t i f -

i c e r ' ) i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h C a t h o l i c i s m ( ' o l d f a t h e r ' ) . I t i s

t h e r e f o r e n o t a s i m p l e q u e s t i o n o f an a r t i s t ' s a l i e n a t i o n f r o m

h i s e n v i r o n m e n t b u t o f an a r t i s t ' s a l i e n a t i o n f r o m h i m s e l f a n d

h i s i n a b i l i t y t o make a r t a s u b s t i t u t e f o r r e l i g i o n a n d m e a n i n g -

f u l s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e .

S h o r e r ' s p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o t e c h n i q u e a l w a y s l e a d s h i m t o

c o n c l u d e t h a t p r o b l e m s i n t h e n o v e l a r e p r o b l e m s o f s t y l e a n d

t h i s a p p l i e s n o t o n l y t o L a w r e n c e b u t a l s o t o J o y c e . He f a i l s

t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e g r e a t n e s s o f f i c t i o n l i e s n o t i n t h e a e s t h e t i c

o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f p r o b l e m s b u t i n t h e s o c i a l n a t u r e o f p r o b l e m s

a n d t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e y t y p i f y t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e age.

B u t S h o r e r , l i k e B r o o k s a n d H e i l m a n , i s t o o c o m m i t t e d t o t h e

i d e o l o g i c a l p r o j e c t o f New C r i t i c i s m t o c o n s i d e r t h e l a r g e r

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i s s u e s o f l i t e r a t u r e ; h e does n o t q u e s t i o n why c e r t a i n l i t e r a r y

w o r k s c o n t i n u e t o p o w e r f u l l y a f f e c t r e a d e r s who c a n n o t s h a r e

d i r e c t l y i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s o f l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n s . The

a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s n e c e s s a r i l y t h r e a t e n t h e v a l i d i t y o f

New C r i t i c i s m b e c a u s e q u i t e a p a r t f r o m m a k i n g g r e a t e r demands on

t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l c r i t i c s t h e q u e s t i o n s i n e v i t a b l y

i n v o l v e a p e r s o n a l i n t r o s p e c t i o n : a r e c o g n i t i o n o f a c r i t i c ' s

p r i v a t e f e e l i n g s n e g a t e s t h e " c r i t i c a l d i s t a n c e " t h a t i s m a i n -

t a i n e d b e t w e e n t h e r e a d e r a n d t h e t e x t a n d b e t w e e n t h e c r i t i c

a n d i m m e d i a t e s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e .

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V I . CONCLUSION

P e r h a p s t h e m o s t c e n t r a l i s s u e o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m t h a t

t h i s s t u d y h a s a d d r e s s e d has b e e n t h e q u e s t i o n o f m e t h o d . T h i s

i s s u e c a n be b r i e f l y s u m m a r i z e d a s f o l l o w s : c o n f o r m i s t b o u r g e o i s

t h o u g h t a l w a y s t a k e s a s i t s c r i t i c a l p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e , c o n -

s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y , t h e e c o n o m i c l a w s o f c a p i t a l i s t d e -

v e l o p m e n t w h e r e a s h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m ( o r a n y o t h e r " p r o -

g r e s s i v e " i n t e l l e c t u a l s y s t e m ) t a k e s a s i t s p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e

t h e o b j e c t i v i t y o f t h e h i s t o r y o f human d e v e l o p m e n t a n d p o t e n t i -

a l i t y . These c o n t r a d i c t o r y a s s u m p t i o n s o f o b j e c t i v i t y l e a d t o

e q u a l l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y a s s u m p t i o n s o f m e t h o d o l o g y w h i c h c a n b e

r e s p e c t i v e l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d as e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l . Each s y s t e m

c a n p o t e n t i a l l y d e v e l o p a p o l i t i c a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e b u t t h e

t e l e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t o f t h a t s u p e r s t r u c t u r e i s c o n t i n g e n t upon

t h e n a t u r e o f t h e b a s e s t r u c t u r e .

I n t h e i n s t a n c e o f New C r i t i c i s m I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t i t s

e c o n o m i c m e t h o d d e t e r m i n e s a p r o d u c t i v i s t d i a l e c t i c b e t w e e n t h e

c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f 1 i t e r a t u r e ( c o m m o d i f i e d c r i t i c a l a c t i v i t y

becomes r a t i o n a l i z e d l a b o u r ) and t h e m y s t i f i c a t i o n o f s u b j e c t -

i v i t y ( t h e s o c i o - s u b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t o f 1 i t e r a t u r e i s e i t h e r

i g n o r e d o r m y s t i f i e d i n c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e ) . F u r t h e r , s i n c e t h i s

d i a l e c t i c i s s t r u c t u r a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e d i a l e c t i c o f mo-

n o p o l y c a p i t a l i s m ( t h e d i a l e c t i c o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n f o r m i t y

a n d c o m m o d i f i e d f r e e d o m ) t h e s u c c e s s e s o f New C r i t i c i s m c a n b e

a t t r i b u t e d t o i t s f u n c t i o n as i d e o l o g y .

I t r e m a i n s t o b r i e f l y c o n s i d e r t h e v i a b i l i t y o f my m e t h o d -

o l o g i c a l c r i t i q u e a s o p p o s e d t o t h e " l i b e r a l i s t " c r i t i q u e s t h a t

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f o c u s o n t h e New C r i t i c a l r e j e c t i o n o f h i s t o r y a n d s o c i e t y o f

w h i c h t h e m o s t r e c e n t i s R i c h a r d Ohmann's E n g l i s h - i n A m e r i c a

( 1 9 7 6 ) . ' What a l l t h e s e c r i t i q u e s s h a r e i n common i s t h e i r

i n a b i l i t y t o g r a s p New C r i t i c i s m a s an i d e o l o g y , a s a c r i t i c a l

s u p e r s t r u c t u r e b a s e d on t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e o f A m e r i c a n

c a p i t a l i s m . As a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e y do n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e a l i e n -

a t e d c h a r a c t e r o f c r i t i c a l a c t i v i t y t h a t i s a n e c e s s a r y c o n -

d i t i o n o f t h e " p o l i t i c a l " hegemony o f New C r i t i c i s m . Ohmann,

f o r e x a m p l e , e n t r a p s h i m s e l f i n an i n s o l u b l e d i l e m m a : he sympa-

t h i z e s w i t h t h e a e s t h e t i c p r o j e c t o f New C r i t i c i s m b u t o b j e c t s

t o i t s n e g a t i o n o f p o l i t i c s as c r i t i c a l l y i r r e l e v a n t . 2 R a t h e r

t h a n t r a c i n g t h e n e g a t i o n o f p o l i t i c s t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r a e s -

t h e t i c s o f New C r i t i c i s m , h e assumes t h a t s u c h a n e g a t i o n i s

i m p l i c i t i n b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y a n d t h a t o n l y w i t h t h e n e g a t i o n o f

t h a t s o c i e t y c a n p o l i t i c s be f u s e d w i t h a e s t h e t i c s . Ohmann

t h e r e f o r e becomes a d e t e r m i n i s t c o m p a r a b l e , a t l e a s t s t r u c t u r a l l y ,

t o B e r n s t e i n i n t h e " r e v i s i o n i s t " d e b a t e w i t h Luxemburg . I n

s h o r t , Ohmann f a i l s t o r e a l i z e t h a t p o l i t i c s c a n be f u s e d w i t h

a e s t h e t i c s b u t o n l y a f t e r a e s t h e t i c s h a s b e e n c o n c e i v e d a l o n g

s o c i a l l i n e s . The c a s e o f Ohmann i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p o w e r o f New

C r i t i c i s m a s an i d e o l o g y s i n c e a t no p o i n t does h e c h a l l e n g e

t h e e c o n o m i s t i c e s s e n c e o f New C r i t i c i s m . Ohmann i s c o n t e n t t o

l o o k a t t h e c r i t i c a l s u r f a c e a n d t h i s i s t h e p r e c i s e f u n c t i o n

o f t h e i d e o l o g y .

F i n a l l y , l e t me e m p h a s i z e t h a t a c r i t i q u e o f t h e New

C r i t i c i s m i s s o c i a l l y n e c e s s a r y n o t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e m e a n i n g o f

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l i t e r a t u r e b u t a l s o t h e m e a n i n g o f i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e m u s t be

r e v i t a l i z e d a n d removed f r o m t h e r a t i o n a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e s i m p o s e d

upon them b y t h e New C r i t i c s . Such a p r o j e c t c a n o n l y be s e r i o u s -

l y u n d e r t a k e n when t h e r a t i o n a l i z e d b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t t h i s p r o j e c t

a r e c o n c r e t e l y r e c o g n i z e d . A f a i l u r e t o u n d e r s t a n d o u r own

c r i t i c a l h i s t o r y i s , a s A d o r n o has s u g g e s t e d , t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n

t h e same r e i f i c a t i o n as we a r e t r y i n g t o n e g a t e . To p o s e t h e

q u e s t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y , how c a n 1 i t e r a t u r e a n d 1 i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m

become s o c i a l l y m e a n i n g f u l a n d n o t m e r e l y p o l i t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t ?

The a n s w e r m u s t l i e n o t i n t h e a b s t r a c t o b j e c t i v i t y o f a g i v e n

c r i t i c a l s y s t e m b u t i n t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h a t s y s t e m c a n

g r a t i f y o u r i m a g i n a t i v e a n d s o c i a l a s p i r a t i o n s .

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L I S T OF REFERENCES

CHAPTER I

' 6 . L u k a c s , H i s t o r y a n d C l a s s C o n s c i o u s n e s s . t r a n s . R . L i v i n g s t o n e ( C a m b r i d g e , M a K , m ) , pp . 8 3 - 2 2 2 .

2 George Watson has a r g u e d t h a t t h i s t r a d i t i o n i n c l u d e s T. S. E l i o t whose S a c r e d Wood e s s a y s a r e as much a p e r s o n a l a e s t h e t i c s as t h e y a r e a f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e S c r u t i n e e r s a n d t h e New C r i t i c s (G. Watson, The L i t e r a r y C r i t i c s ( L o n d o n , 1 9 6 2 ) pp . 1 7 5 - 7 8 ) .

3 ~ . G r o s s The R i s e a n d F a l l o f t h e Man o f L e t t e r s ( L o n d o n , ------- 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 1 6 7 - i 9 7

4 ~ e e W . B e n j a m i n , C h a r l e s B a u d e l a i r e , t r a n s . H . Zohn ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 1 0 3 - 6 .

5 ~ . Rahv, " C r i t i c i s m a n d t h e I m a g i n a t i o n o f A1 t e r n a t i v e s " i n The M y t h -- a n d t h e Powerhouse (New Y o r k , 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 6 9 - 7 5 .

6 ~ e e P . B a r a n a n d P . Sweezy, M o n o p o l y C a p i t a l (New Y o r k , 1 9 6 6 ) , pp . 1 4 - 5 1 .

7 ~ . ~ . Ransom, - The W o r l d ' s Body ( B a t o n Rouge, L a . , 1 9 3 8 ) , pp . 3 3 6 - 3 7 .

8 ~ . W a r r e n a n d R . W e l l e k , T h e o r y of L i t e r a t u r e (New Y o r k , 1 9 5 6 ) , p . 1 5 6 .

'w .K . W i m s a t t , " E x p l i c a t i o n as C r i t i c i s m " i n - The V e r b a l I c o n ( L e x i n g t o n , K y . , 1 9 5 4 ) , p . 236 .

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1 4 ~ s h o u l d e m p h a s i z e , h o w e v e r , t h a t s i n c e W i m s a t t ' s m e t h o d o l o g y i s n o t p r e m i s s e d on a c r i t i c a l l y a c t i v e s u b j e c t i t c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d a s an e t h i c s : i t a l l o w s no more f r e e d o m i n t h e o r d e r o f i n q u i r y t h a n i t does i n t h e o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a - t i o n .

1 5 c f . I. M e s z a r o s : " [ P o s i t i v i s t s ] s t a r t f r o m t h e p r e s u m e d o b j e c t i v i t y o f " c o m p l e t e n e s s " , i g n o r i n g t h e a r b i t r a r i n e s s o f t h e c h o i c e o f i n q u i r y i t s e l f , w h e r e b y t h e p r o p e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e s e a r c h a n d r e s e a r c h e r i s c o m p l e t e l y o v e r t u r n e d . I t i s n o t t h e r e s e a r c h e r who l o o k s f o r d a t a b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e a v a i l - a b i l i t y o f a b u n d a n t d a t a p r o d u c e s t h e r e i f i e d r e s e a r c h e r o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r o u t i n e . And, o f c o u r s e , t h e s e l f - j u s t i f y - i n g i d e o l o g y o f s u c h p r o c e d u r e t a k e s t h e f o r m o f a p r i o r i r u l i n g o u t t h e n e e d f o r j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f a n y r e s e a r c h w h a t s o e v e r , no m a t t e r how t r i v i a l a n d i r r e l e v a n t i t may b e . A n y t h i n g goes t h a t c a n be r e s e a r c h e d , i . e . n a i l e d t o a d i s p l a y b o a r d i n a f o r m t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e dead " o b j e c t i v i t y " o f d u s t y d a t a i s l i n k e d t o an i m p e r s o n a l l y " o b j e c t i v e " p s e u d e - s u b j e c t . ( " P h a s e s o f S a r t r e ' s D e v e l o p m e n t " , T e l o s ( F a l l , 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 1 1 4 )

1 6 ~ e n j a m i n , o p . c i t . , p . 1 0 5 .

CHAPTER I 1

I See L . T r i l l i n g , M a t t h e w A r n o l d (New Y o r k , 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 174 .

L A r n o l d H a u s e r , " P r o p a g a n d a , I d e o l o g y a n d A r t " i n A s p e c t s o f H i s t o r y a n d C l a s s C o n s c i o u s n e s s , e d . I. Y e s z a r o s ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 1 ) , - -- p . 134 .

3 ~ b i d . , p p . 1 4 2 - 1 4 3 .

4 ~ n t o n i o G r a m s c i , "The F o r m a t i o n o f I n t e l l e c t u a l s " i n - The Modern P r i n c e - a n d O t h e r W r i t i n g s , t r a n s . L . M a r k s (New Y o r k , 1 9 5 7 ) , p. 1 1 8 .

6 ~ a t t h e w A r n o l d , C u l t u r e - a n d A n a r c h y , ed . D o v e r W i l s o n ( C a m b r i d g e , l 9 3 2 ) , pp . 1 3 1 - 3 2 .

7 I t i s i n t h i s s e n s e t h a t e v e n t h e m o s t p o s i t i v e c r i t i c s o f A r n o l d h a v e p r o v e d i n a d e q u a t e when t h e y n o s t a l g i c a l l y a r g u e f o r

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t h e ' l i b e r a l ' i n t e l l e c t u a l as a modern s o c i a l t y p e . We n e e d o n l y t h i n k o f T r i l l i n g ' s i n t r o d u c t o r y r e m a r k s t o h i s o t h e r w i s e a u t h o r i t a t i v e s t u d y o f A r n o l d : " I n a t i m e when t o t h e d u p l i c i t y o f n a t i o n s i s added a s h r e w d madness d e n y i n g t h a t w o r d s h a v e a n y m e a n i n g a t a l l , A r n o l d , w i t h h i s i n s i s t e n c e on o b j e c t i v i t y a n d t h e p o w e r s o f human r e a s o n , may w e l l p r o p o u r m i n d s . . . . He s o u g h t t o c o n c i l i a t e e p o c h s a n d t h a t i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t h i s t o r y b u t n o s i n g l e m i n d c a n s u c c e s s f u l l y do. Y e t A r n o l d ' s e c l e c t i c and d i a l e c t i c a l m e t h o d has i t s v i t a l i t y b e c a u s e i t i s t h e m e t h o d o f h i s t o r y . " ( T r i l l i n g , pp . 1 2 - 1 3 ) I t w o u l d be l e g i t i m a t e t o ask w h e t h e r modern i n t e l l e c t u a l s a r e a n y l e s s i n s i s t e n t o n t h e power o f r e a s o n a n d o b j e c t i v i t y , o r f o r t h a t m a t t e r w h e t h e r A r n o l d ' s e c l e c t i c m e t h o d i s t h e ' m e t h o d o f h i s t o r y ' . I t w o u l d seem, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h a t A r n o l d a c c e p t s t h e w o r l d v i e w t h a t t h e P h i l i s t i n e s a r e t h e t r u e a g e n t s o f h i s t o r y . He can n o more i m a g i n e a p o l i t i c a l t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f c a p i t a l i s m t h a n T r i l l i n g c a n g r a s p t h e h i s t o r i c a l f u n c t i o n o f l i b e r a l i s m .

' s e l e c t e d C r i t i c i s m o f M a t t h e w A r n o l d , ed . C . R i c k s (New Y o r k , 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 102-7;

'H. Marcuse , "The A f f i r m a t i v e C - h a r a c t e r o f C u l t u r e " i n N e g a t i o n s ( B o s t o n , l 9 6 8 ) , p p . 8 8 - 1 33.

' O ~ o r an e x c e l l e n t s t u d y o f A r n o l d ' s p o l i t i c s see P. J . M c C a r t h y , M a t t h e w A r n o l d and t h e T h r e e C l a s s e s (New Y o r k , 1 9 6 4 ) .

1 6 ~ . N a i r n , 'The F a t e f u l M e r i d i a n i ' , -- New L e f t R e v i e w ( 6 0 ) , p . 30.

1 7 ~ . E . Hu lme, S p e c u l a t i o n s , e d . H. Read (.London, 19241, p . 116 .

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2 4 ~ e e K . M a r x , C a p i t a l , V o l . I. ( L o n d o n , 19761 , p p . 1 3 1 - 3 7 .

2 5 ~ . E a g l e t o n , " I d e o l o g y a n d L i t e r a r y Fo rm" , New L e f t R e v i e w ( g o ) , p p . 99-100 .

2 6 ~ . S . E l i o t , - The S a c r e d Wood ( L o n d o n , 1 9 2 0 ) , p . v i i i .

2 7 ~ b i d . , p . x .

2 8 ~ b i d . , p p . x v - x v i .

3 2 ~ e l e c t e d - _ _ P r o s e o f T .S. - E l i o t , ed . F. Kermode ( N e w ' f o r k , 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 61.

3 4 ~ b i d . , p p . 6 2 - 3 .

36H. L e v e r , The T r a g e d y -- o f S t a t e ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 1 ) , p . v i i .

3 7 ~ e l e c t e d --- P r o s e o f T.S. E l i o t , p . 65 .

3 8 ~ h e S a c r e d Wood, p . 58.

3 9 1 b i d . , p . 49

4 0 ~ b i d . , p . 75.

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CHAPTER I 1 1

1 G e o r g e W a t s o n , - The L i t e r a r y C r i t i c s ( M i d d l e s e x , 1 9 6 2 ) ,

p . 1 8 6 .

2 J .C . Ransom, The New C r i t i c i s m ( N o r f o l k , 1 9 4 1 1 , p . 1 3 8 .

3 ~ b i d . , p . 1 4 0 . '

4 1 b i d . , p . 1 4 5

bid., p . 1 4 9 .

' O ~ a x H o r k h e i m e r , E c l i p s e of Reason (New Y o r k . 1 9 4 7 ) . p . 76 .

" J . c . Ransom, The W o r l d ' s Body ( B a t o n Rouge, 1 9 3 A ) , p . 1 5 0 .

1 2 ~ a t s o n , p . 1 8 6 .

1 3 s t e p h e n P e p p e r , The B a s i s o f C r i t i c i s m t h e A r t s ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , 1965),p. 9 6 - 1 1 3 .

1 4 ~ h e -- New C r i t i c i s m , p . 4 .

1 5 1 b i d . , p p . 4 3 - 4 .

1 6 1 b i d . , p p . 2 5 - 6 .

1 7 1 b i d . , p p . 5 - 6 .

1 8 1 b i d . , p . 45

"I.A. R i c h a r d s , P r i n c i p l e s of L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m (New Y o r k , 1 9 2 5 ) , p . 240 .

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CHAPTER I V

~ . ~ . ~ t e w a r t , - - The B u r d e n -- o f T i m e ( P r i n c e t o n , 1 9 6 5 ) .

' 5 . F e k e t e , " T h e New C r i t i c i s m : I d e o l o g i c a l E v o l u t i o n o f t h e R i g h t O p p o s i t i o n " , T e l o s 20 (Summer 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 2 - 5 1 .

3 ~ . ~ . Ransom, B e a t i n g - t h e B u s h e s (New Y o r k , 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 2 - 3 .

4 1 b i d . , p . 5 .

6 ~ b i d . , p p . 1 8 - 1 9 .

' ~ l l e n T a t e , " T e n s i o n i n P o e t r y " i n The M o d e r n C r i t i c a l S p e c t r u m , e d . 6 . 3 . G o l d b e r g a n d N . M . Go1 d b G m e r s e y , l 9 6 2 ) , p . 8 3 .

l 1 1 b i d . , p . 8 9 .

1 2 ~ . P . W a r r e n , S e l e c t e d E s s a y s (New Y o r k , l 9 6 6 ) , p . 1 6 .

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1 4 1 b i d . , pp. 2 6 - 2 7 .

1 7 p h i l i p Rahv, The M y t h and t h e Powerhouse (New Y o r k , 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 64 .

1 8 c l e a n t h ~ r o o k s , "The F o r m a l i s t C r i t i c " i n The Modern C r i t i c a l 5 e c t r u m , ed . G . J. G o l d b e r g a n d N.M. ~ o l * r m J e r s e y , 1 1 .

" w . K . W i m s a t t , J r . , The V e r b a l I c o n ( ~ e x i n g t o n , Ky., 1 9 5 4 ) , p . 21.

2 2 ~ n t o n i o Gramsc i , S e l e c t i o n s -- f r o m t h e P r i s o n N o t e b o o k s t r a n s . a n d ed. Q u i n t o n H o a r e and G e o f f r e y N o w e l l S m i t h (New Y o r k ,

C H A P T E R V

' c l e a n t h B r o o k s , The W e l l N r o u o h t U r n : S t u d i e s S t r u c t u r e - o f P o e t r y ( ~ e n o r k , 1 9 Q f l , p x 7 9 - 8 0 .

bid., p p . 1 8 1 - 2 .

3 ~ b i d . , p . 186 .

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6 ~ b i d . , p p . 1 8 9 - 9 0 .

8 ~ . ~ . H e i l m a n , " T r a g e d y a n d M e l o d r a m a : S p e c u l a t i o n s o n G e n e r i c Fo rm" , T e x a s Q u a r t e r l y , 3 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , p . 3 7 .

1 2 n a r k S h o r e r , " T e c h n i q u e as D i s c o v e r y " i n The Modern C r i t i c a l S e c t r u m , ed . G .J . G o l d b e r g , a n d N.M. ~ o l d b e r g ( N e w J e r s e y , 1 . h 70 .

C H A P T E R V I

' R . Ohmann, E n g l i s h i n A m e r i c a (New Y o r k , 1 9 7 6 ) . See a l s o A . K a z i n , On N a t i v e G r o u n d s ( ~ e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 6 ) ; a n d L . T r i l l i n g , Be o n d C u l t u r e : E s s a y s on L i t e r a t u r e L e a r n i n g (New Y o r k , t i

-

20hmann, p p . 6 5 - 9 1 .

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