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Page 1: Liquids and Solids. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–2 Red Beryl, Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 O 18 -

Liquids and Solids

Page 2: Liquids and Solids. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–2 Red Beryl, Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 O 18 -

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–2

Red Beryl, Be3Al2Si6O18-

Page 3: Liquids and Solids. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–2 Red Beryl, Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 O 18 -

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–3

Page 4: Liquids and Solids. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–2 Red Beryl, Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 O 18 -

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–4

Figure 16.1: Schematic representation of the three states of matter

Page 5: Liquids and Solids. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–2 Red Beryl, Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 O 18 -

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–5

Page 6: Liquids and Solids. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–2 Red Beryl, Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 O 18 -

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–6

Bubble Pressure The net upward force on the top

hemisphere of the bubble is just the pressure difference times the area of the

equatorial circle:  

The surface tension force downward around circle is twice the surface tension

times the circumference, since two surfaces contribute to the force:

                                                              

          

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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–7

The height h to which capillary action will lift water depends upon the weight of water which the surface tension will lift:                     The height to which the liquid can be lifted is given by

            

毛細現象

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Figure 16.7: Nonpolar liquid mercury forms a convex meniscus in a glass tube.

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Figure 16.6: A molecule in the interior of a liquid is attracted to the molecules surrounding it, whereas a molecule at the surface of liquid is

attracted only by molecules below it and on each side of it.

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High T

Low T

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Low T High T

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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–12

Classifying Intermolecular Forces

1.Strong ionic attractionRecall lattice energy and its relations to properties of solid. The more ionic, the higher the lattice energy. 2.Intermediate dipole-dipole forcesSubstances whose molecules have dipole moment have higher melting point or boiling point than those of similar molecular mass, but their molecules have no dipole moment.

3.Weak London dispersion forces or van der Waal's force These forces alway operate in any substance. The force arisen from induced dipole and the interaction is weaker than the dipole-dipole interaction. In general, the heavier the molecule, the stronger the van der Waal's force of interaction. 4.Hydrogen bondCertain substances such as H2O, HF, NH3 form hydrogen bonds,.

5.Metallic bondingForces between atom in metallic solids belong to another category. Valence electrons in metals are rampant. They are not restricted to certain atoms or bonds. Rather they run freely in the entire solid, providing good conductivity for heat and

electric energy.

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Covalent bonds >

Hydrogen bonding >

Dipole-dipole interactions >

London forces

400 kcal > 12-16 kcal >

5-0.5 kcal >less than 1 kcal

Strength of Intermolecular Forces

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Dipole-dipole interactions

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Figure 16.2: (a) The electrostatic interaction of two polar molecules. (b) The interaction of many dipoles in a condensed state.

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Figure 16.3: The polar water molecule.

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A covalent bond between -O-H ---- :O- A covalent bond between -N-H----- :O-A covalent bond between F-H ------ :O-A covalent bond between -O-H ---- :N-A covalent bond between -N-H---- :N-A covalent bond between F-H ----- :N-A covalent bond between -O-H ----- :F-A covalent bond between -N-H ---- :F-

Hydrogen Bonds

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Figure 16.4: The boiling points of the covalent hydrides of elements in Groups 4A, 5A, 6A, and 7A.

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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–19

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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–20

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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–21

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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–22

The phase diagram of water is complex

If water behaved more typically as a low molecular weight material, its phase diagram may have looked rather like this:

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Figure 16.5: An instantaneous polarization can occur on atom a, creating instantaneous dipole.

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What Kinds of Materials Form Liquids at Room Temperature

(1)the strength of the bonds between the particles that form the substance

(2) the atomic or molecular weight of these particles

(3) the shape of these particles

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Molecular Shape

Compound Melting Point (oC) Boiling Point (oC)

                                     -130 36.1

                -159.9 27.8

            -16.5 9.5

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The Shape of the molecule also matters

n-pentane

bp= 309.4 k

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Categories of Solids Based on the Solid Pack

•Crystalline solids are three-dimensional analogs of a brick wall. They have a regular structure, in which the particles pack in a repeating pattern from one edge of the solid to the other. •Amorphous solids have a random structure, with little if any long-range order. •Polycrystalline solids are an aggregate of a large number of small crystals or grains in which the structure is regular, but the crystals or grains are arranged in a random fashion.

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Categories of Solids Based on Bonds

ionic ........ polar ........ covalent

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Figure 16.12: Examples of three types of cyrstalline solids.

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Figure 16.8: Several crystalline solids

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Figure 16.9: Three cubic unit cells and the corresponding lattices.

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Crystal Structure

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Other structures

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Figure 16.10: X-rays scattered from two different atoms may reinforce (constructive interference) or

cancel (destructive interference) one another.

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Figure 16.11: Reflection of X rays of wavelength

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A conch shell on a beach.

Source: Corbis

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Figure 16.13: The closet packing arrangement of uniform spheres.

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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 16a–41

Figure 16.14: When spheres are closest packed so that the spheres in the third layer are directlly over those in the first layer (aba),

the unit cell is the hexagonal prism illustrated here in red.

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A toy slide puzzle

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A section of a surface containing copper atoms (red) and an indium atom (yellow).

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Figure 16.15: When spheres are packed in the abc arrangement, the unit cell is face-centered cubic.

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Figure 16.16: The indicated sphere has 12 equivalent nearest neighbors.

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Figure 16.17: The net number of spheres in a face-centered cubic unit cell.

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Volume of a unit cell (2r, 4r, r)

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Figure 16.18: In the body-centered cubic unit cell the spheres touch along the body diagonal.

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Figure 16.19: The body-centered cubic unit cell with the center sphere deleted.

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Figure 16.20: On the face of the body-centered cubic unit cell.

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Figure 16.21: The relationship of the body diagonal (b) to the face diagonal (f) and the edge

(e) for the body-centered cubic unit cell.

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Figure 16.22: The electron sea model for metals postulates a regular array of cations in a "sea" of valence electrons.

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Grains of nanophase palladium magnified 200,000 times by an electron microscope.

Source: Nanophase Technologies Corporation

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Figure 16.23: The molecular orbital energy levels produced when various numbers

of atomic orbitals interact.

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Figure 16.24: A representation of the energy levels (bands) in a magnesium crystal

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Figure 16.25: Two types of alloys

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Figure 16.26: The structures of

(a) diamond and (b) graphite.

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Figure 16.27: Partial representation of the MO energies in (a) diamond and (b) a typical metal

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Graphite consitst of layers of carbon atoms.

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Figure 16.28: The p orbitals (a) perpendicular to the plane of th carbon ring system in graphite can combine to form

(b) an extensive pie bonding network.

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Electrical Properties

•Metallic Conductors, e.g. Cu, Ag...

•Semiconductors, e.g. Si, GaAs

•Superconductors, e.g. Nb3Sn, YBa2Cu3O7

•Electrolytes, e.g. LiI in pacemaker batteries

•Piezoelectrics, e.g. a Quartz (SiO2) in watches