linguistic in short

Written and Prepared by Atheer Latif 2009

Suggest some reasons why people talk ?

1_ People talk to communicate each other.

2_ People talk to understand to each other.

3_To improve his needs easily.

Discovery procedures: - A set of principles which would enable a linguist to discover, in a

foolproof way the linguistic unit of an unwritten language , because of their overriding

interest in the internal patterns of structures of the language , such linguists are sometimes

labeled structural list .

Natural class: - A group of sounds which share an important feature in common , such as

the group of nasals are known natural class .

Double articulations: - This organization of language into two layers-layer of sound which

combine into a second layer of large units .

Dative case :- English itself doesn’t have dative case form but expresses the nation indirect

object using preposition and word order .

e.g. She gave me a book to the boy. { indirect object , in the dative case }

e.g. She gave the boy a book.

( dative denote a case of noun , pronoun and objective used to express indirect object to

identify the recipient . )

Phoneme :- Is separate independent unit, is the smallest segment of sound which can

distinguish two words.

Generative grammar :- A grammar which consists of a set of statements or rules which

specify which sequences of a language are possible and which impossible is a generative

grammar.


Minimal pairs :- Pairs of words such as pit-bit . which differ by only one phonemes are

known as minimal pairs and one way to identify the phoneme of any language is to look for

minimal pairs.

Allophones :- The aspirated and un aspirated realization are both recognized as ( t ) by

English speaker despite their differences. But the aspirated realization will never be found

where the un aspirated as propertied and vice versa, we find this strict aspiration of places

of position where particular realization are complementary distribution.

e.g. the word ( tea ) ( t ) is aspirated as are all voiceless plosive when the before stressed

vowels of the begins of syllable.

e.g. the word ( eat ) the realization of ( t ) is un aspirated as are all voiceless plosive when

the occur of the end of syllable and aren’t followed by a vowel .

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We can predict initial aspiration but the find allophone seem to be unpredictable second

free variation.

{ d } voiced

{ bid }

{ d } devoiced

Semantics :

Polysemy :- Polysemy can be defined as one form ( written and spoken ) having multiple

meaning that are all related by extension. Or ( it is concerned with the way word often have

number of different meaning ) . Examples are the word head used to refer to the object on

the top of your body , on top of glass of beer, person at the top of company or department ,

and many other things .


Collocation :- Collocation is concerned with the way words occur together , often in

unpredictable ways. It is a very good idea when learning new words to learn any typical

collocations that go with them . Examples .

_ adjective + noun collocations , the real thing , great detail , the genuine article .

_ verb + adverb collocations , let’s move quickly .

_ adverb + adjective collocations , very good .

_ verb + object collocations , we can visit a website on the Internet.

Metonymy :- The relatedness of meaning found in polysemy is essentially based on

similarity . The head of a company is similar to the head of a person on a top of and

controlling the body. There is another type of relationship between words, based simply on

a close connection in everyday experience. That close connection can be based on a

container—contents relation ( bottle/water , can/juice ), a whole—part relation

( car/wheels, house/roof ) or a representive --symbol ( king/crown , the President/the

White House ).

Metaphor :- Metaphor is concerned with using is abstract rather than literal ways.

Metaphor is a way of expressing something by comparing it with something else that has

similar characteristics.

Example, If we say that someone lights up our life. We are using metaphor .

We are suggestion that person is like light in our life that they bring us great happiness.

Homophones and Homonyms :-

Homophones : - When two or more different words have the same pronunciation , they are

described as homophones. Examples, meat/meet , bare / bear , flour/flower ,

write/right , pale/pail.

Homonyms : - We use the term homonyms when one word has two or more unrelated

meanings.


Examples, pupil ( at school ) ----------- pupil ( in the eyes )

Mole ( on skin ) ------------- mole ( small animal )

Bat ( fly creature ) --------- bat ( used in sports )

Prototypes :- While the words canary , cormorant , dove , duck , flamingo , parrot , pelican

and robin are all equally co-hyponyms of the super ordinate bird , they are not all

considered to be equally good examples of the category ‘ bird ‘ . According to some

researchers, the most characteristic instance of the category ‘ bird ‘ is robin . The idea of ‘

the characteristic instance ‘ of a category is known as the prototype. The concept of a

prototype helps explain the meaning of certain words, like bird , not in terms of component

features ( e.g. has feathers , has wings ), but in terms of resemblance to the clearest

example. Thus , even native speakers of English might wonder if ostrich or penguin should

be hyponyms of bird ( technically they are ) , but have no trouble deciding about sparrow or

pigeon . These last two are much closer to the prototype.

Synonymy :- It is used to mean “ sameness of meaning “ . Two or more words with very

closely related meaning are called synonyms .

Examples, almost/nearly , freedom/liberty , big/large .

Hyponymy :- When the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another, the

relationship is described as hyponymy. Example are the pairs : animal/dog ,

vegetable/carrot , flower/rose . The concept of ‘ inclusion’ involved in this relationship is the

idea that if an object is a rose , then it is necessarily a flower , so the meaning of flower is

included in the meaning of rose. Or , rose is a hyponym of flower .

Antonyms :- It is used for “ oppositeness of meaning “. Two words with opposite meaning

are called antonyms . Example, alive/dead , big/small , fast/slow , happy/sad.


Antonyms are divided into two main types, ‘ gradable’ ( opposite along a scale ) and ‘non-

gradable’ ( direct opposite ) .

Gradable antonyms , such as the pairs big/small , can be used in comparative constructions

like

I’m bigger than you and A pony is smaller than horse.

Non-gradable antonyms , ( complementary pairs ) , comparative constructions are not

normally used. We don’t typically describe someone as deader or more dead than other.

Also, the negative of one member of a non-gradable pair does imply the other member.

That is , My grandparents aren’t alive does indeed mean My grandparents are dead.

Conceptual and associative meaning .

When we investigate the meaning of words in a language, we are normally interested in

characterizing the conceptual meaning and less concerned with the associative meaning of

the words. Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential components that are conveyed

by the literal use of a word. Some of the basic components of a word like needle in English

might include ‘ thin, sharp, steel instrument’. These components would be part of the

conceptual meaning of needle . However, different people might have different associations

or connotations attached to a word like needle . They might associate it with ‘ pain’ , or ‘

illness’, or ‘ blood ‘ , or ‘ drugs’ , or ‘ thread’ , or ‘ knitting’ , or ‘ hard to find ‘ and these

associations may differ from one person to the next. These types of associations are not

treated as part of the word’s conceptual meaning.


Pragmatics :

Politeness : We can think of politeness in general terms as having to do with ideas like being

tactful, modest and nice to other people. In the study of linguistic politeness, the most

relevant concept is ‘face’. Your face, in pragmatics, is your public self-image. This is the

emotional and social sense of that self everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize.

Politeness can be defined as showing awareness of and consideration for another person’s

face .

Negative and positive face .

We have both a negative and a positive face. Negative face is the need to be independent

and free from imposition. Positive face is the need to be connected, to belong, to be a

member of the group. So, a face-saving act that emphasizes a person’s negative face will

show concern about imposition ( I’m sorry to bother you . . ; I know you are busy, but … ). A

face-saving act that emphasizes a person’s positive face will show solidarity and draw

attention to a common goal (Let’s do this together . ; You and I have the same problem, so ) .

Direct and indirect speech acts .

We usually use certain syntactic structures with the functions listed beside them in the

following table.

Structures functions

Did you eat the pizza ? Interrogative Question

Eat the pizza ( please ) ! Imperative Command ( Request )

You ate the pizza. Declarative Statement

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When an interrogative structure such as Did you ….?, Are they ….? , or Can we….? Is used

with the function of a question, it is described as a direct speech act . For example, when we

don’t know something and we ask someone to provide the information, we usually produce

a direct speech act such as Can you ride a bicycle?

Compare that utterance with Can you pass the salt? In this second example, we are not

really asking a question about someone’s ability. In fact, we don’t normally use this

structure as question at all. We normally use it to make a request. That is, we are using a

syntactic structure associated with the function of a question, but in this case with the

function of a request. This is an example of an indirect speech act. Whenever one of the

structures in the set above in used to perform a function other than the one listed beside it

on the same line the result is an indirect speech act.

The utterance You left the door open has a declarative structure and, as a direct speech

act, would be used to make a statement.

Presupposition :

When we use a referring expression like this, he or Shakespeare, we usually assume that our

listeners can recognize which referent is intended. In a more general way, we design our

linguistic messages on the basis of large-scale assumptions about what our listeners already

know. Some of these assumptions may be mistaken, of course, but mostly they are

appropriate. What a speaker ( or writer ) assume is true or known by a listeners ( or reader )

can be described as a presupposition.

Reference : We have to define reference as an act by which a speaker ( or writer ) uses

language to enable a listener ( or reader ) to identify something. To perform an act of

reference, we can use proper noun ( Chomsky , Jennifer ) , other nouns in phrase ( a writer ,

my friend , the cat ) or pronoun ( he ,she )


Or ( Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentence,

etc., and the non-linguistic world of experience. It is that semantics that deals with meaning

in terms of our experience outside language . )

Sense : Sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the

linguistic elements themselves ( mostly the words ) : it is concerned only with intra-linguistic

relations. It’s that semantics that deals with semantics structures.

Inference : An inference is additional information used by the listener to create a

connection between what is said and what must be meant. For example , a successful act

reference depends more on the listener’s ability to recognize what we mean than on the

listener’s ‘dictionary’ knowledge of a word we use. For example, in restaurant, one waiter

can ask another, Where’s the spinach salad sitting? And receive the reply, He’s sitting by the

door. If you are studying linguistics, you might ask someone, Can I look at your Chomsky?

And get the response, Sure, it’s on the shelf over there. These examples make it clear that

we can use names associated with things ( salad ) to refer people, and use names of people

( Chomsky ) to refer to things. The key process here is called inference.


Discourse analysis :

Schemas and scripts :

A schema is a general term for a conventional knowledge structure that exists in memory.

We were using our conventional knowledge of what a school classroom is like, or a

‘classroom schema’, as we tried to make sense of the previous example. We have many

schemas that are used in the interpretation of what we experience and what we hear or

read about. If you hear someone describe what happened during a visit to a supermarket,

you don’t have to be told what is normally found in a supermarket. You already have a

‘supermarket schema’ ( food displayed on shelves, arranged in aisles, shopping carts and

baskets, check-out counter, and other conventional features ) as part of your background

knowledge.

Similar in many ways to a schema is a script. A script is essentially a dynamic schema. That

is, instead of the set of typical fixed features in a schema, a script has a series of

conventional actions that take place. You have a script for ‘Going to the dentist’ ad another

script for ‘Going to the movies’. We all have version of an ‘Eating in a restaurant’ script,

which we can activate to make sense of the following discourse.

Hedges : We use certain types of expressions, called hedges, to show that we are concerned

about following the maxims while being co-operative participants in conversation. Hedges


can be defined as words or phrases used to indicate that we are not really sure that what we

are saying sufficiently correct or complete. We can use sort of or kind of as hedges on the

accuracy of our statements, as descriptions such as His hair was kind of long or The book

cover is sort of yellow ( rather than It is yellow ). These are examples of hedges on the

quality maxim. Other examples would include the expressions listed below that people

sometimes put at the beginning of their conversational contributions.

As far as I know …,

Now, correct me if I’m wrong but …

I’m not absolutely sure, but …

Turn-taking : Some of the most interesting research in this area has revealed different

expectations of conventional style and different strategies of participation in conversation.

Some of these strategies seem to be the source of what is sometimes described by

participants as ‘rudeness’ ( if one speaker cuts in on another speaker ) or ‘shyness’ ( if one

speaker keeps waiting for an opportunity to take a turn and none seems to occur ). The

participants characterized as ‘rude’ or ‘shy’ in this way may simply be adhering to slightly

different conventions of turn-taking.

Cohesion : We know, for example, that texts must have a certain structure that depends on

factors quite different from those required in the structure of a single sentence. Some of

those factors are described in terms of cohesion, or the ties and connections that exists

within texts.

Coherence: The key to the concept of coherence (‘everything fitting together well’) is not

something that exists in words or structures, but something that exists in people. It is people

who ‘make sense’ of what they read and hear. They try to arrive at an interpretation that is

in line with their experience of the way the world is.


Phonetics and phonology :

Phonetics : Phonetics is the study of individual sound used by all human beings regardless of

their language.

Phonology : Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of a particular language.

Different between the phonetics and phonology .

_ Phonetics;

1_ Phonetics studies all sounds made by any human in any language.

2_ Phonetics studies sounds individually.

_ Phonology;

1_ Phonology studies the sound of only one language.

2_ Phonology studies sounds in patterns.

Consonants: A consonant is a sound during the production of which an articulator touches

another making a contact which leads to a kind of obstruction.


Vowels: A vowel is a sound during the production of which an articulator doesn’t touch

another articulator. It is become close to it. This is no obstruction.

Assimilation: Assimilation refers to a phenomenon that happens in connected speech

where sounds belong to one word can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring. It

is something which various in extant according to be speaking rate and style; it’s more likely

to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely in slow, careful speech, assimilation is

obtained.

Kind of assimilation:

Regressive assimilation: It means that the phoneme that comes first is affected by the one

that come after it.

Progressive assimilation: It means that the phoneme that comes next affected by the

phoneme that comes before it.

regressive

Preceding first left

Cf Ci

Progressive Following second right

Word boundary

The main differences between consonants are of three types :

1_ Differences in place of articulation;

Without assimilation assimilationThat personLight blueThat caseQuite good


2_ Differences in manner of articulation;

That sideGood night

3_ Differences in voicing;

Horse shoeTen boys

Elision: The nature of elision may be stated quite simply: under certain circumstances

sounds disappear; one might express this in more technical language by saying that in

certain circumstances a phoneme may be realized as zero, or have zero realization or be

deleted. Elision is typical of rapid, causal speech. Producing elisions is something which

foreign learners do not need to learn to do, but it is important for them to be aware that

when native speakers of English talk to each other, quite a number of phonemes that the

foreigner might expect to hear are not actually pronounced.

Rhythm: The notion of rhythm involves some noticeable event happening at regular

intervals of time; one can detect the rhythm of a heart-beat, of a flashing light or of a piece

of music. It has often been claimed that English speech is rhythmical, and that the rhythm is

detectable in the regular occurrence of stressed syllables.

Syllables and clusters :


A syllable must contain a vowel sound. The most common type of syllable in language also

has a consonant (C) before the vowel (V) and is typically represented as CV. Technically, the

basic elements of the syllable are onset ( one or most consonants )and the rhyme. The

rhyme consists of a vowel, which is treated as the nucleus, plus any following consonants,

described as the coda.

e.g. green ( ccvc ), eggs (vcc ) , and ( vcc ) , ham ( cvc ), I ( v ), do ( cv ), like ( cvc )

syllable

Onset rhyme

Nucleus coda

Consonant vowel consonant

Both the onset and the coda can consist of more than one consonant, also known as a

consonant cluster. The combination /st/ is a consonant cluster ( cc ) used at onset in the

word stop , and as coda in the word post .

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