lexicology -summary

LEXICOLOGY - SUMMARY

SGU

SUMMARY ON FINAL TEST

- Style: Formal vs. informal

- British and American English

- Words

- ICs

- Word formation

LANGUAGE STYLE

INFORMAL STYLE

FORMAL STYLE

INFORMAL STYLE

• Colloquial words

• Slang

• Dialectism

• Vulgarisms

Formal style • Learned words

• Archaic and poetic words

• Technical terms or professional Terminology

• Barbarisms

INFORMAL STYLE

• is used in one’s immediate circle: family, relatives, or friends.

• One uses informal words when at home or when feeling at home.

• Relaxed, free-and-easy, familiar and unpretentious.

• Consequently, the choice of words is determined in each particular case not only by an informal (or formal) situation, but also by the speaker’s educational and cultural background, age group, and his occupational and regional characteristics.

Which style is it?

1.“where ya going ?”

“to school”

INFORMAL STYLE

2. Should you require any assistance, please feel free to contact us.

FORMAL STYLE

3. The company laid him off because he didn’t work much.

INFORMAL STYLE

4. Mind your own business!

INFORMAL STYLE

5. Dear Sir or Madam,

I should be grateful if you would send me information about the regulations for admission to the Hall school of Design. Could you also tell me the school arranges accomodations for students?

Yours faithfully,

Allan Parker

FORMAL STYLE

6. B is A’s boss. A needs to leave work early today to see the doctor and approaches B, who is working at his or her desk.

FORMAL STYLE

7. A and B are good friends. A has just finished moving into a new house and wants to invite B over to celebrate.

INFORMAL STYLE

Colloquial words

Colloquial words (=colloquialisms) are the least exclusive: they are used by everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively wide, at least of literary colloquial words.

Colloquialisms are used in everyday conversational speech by cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups.

Colloquial words • However, in modern fiction, informal words are

not restricted to conversation in their use, but also frequently appear in descriptive passages, when the author wants to create an intimate, warm, informal atmosphere.

• Here are some more examples of literary colloquial words:

• e.g pal, chum (= friend)

bite, snack (=meal)

mum, mummy (=mother)

Colloquial words

Shortenings and verbs with post-positional adverbs are numerous among colloquialisms.

e.g exam (= examination)

fridge( = refrigerator)

Photo (=photocopy)

prep( preposition)

to make up

to do away

to turn in (= to go to bed)

Colloquial words

• Literary colloquial words are to be distinguished from familiar colloquial and low colloquial.

• The borderline between the literary and familiar colloquial is not always clearly marked.

– E. g: doc (for doctor), hi (for how do you do), ta-ta (for good-bye)

shut up (for keep silent), beat it (for go away).

Colloquial words

It is noted that some students misunderstand the term “ colloquial” and consider it “ conversational”.This misconception may lead to embarrassing errors, because colloquialism should even be avoided in formal conversations or in reports.

It is important that students associate these words with informal, relaxed situations.

• Slang;

A set of new, very informal words used in private conversation language.

All or most slang words are current words whose meanings have been metaphorically shifted.

Each slang metaphor is rooted in a joke, but not in a kind or amusing joke.

Most slang words are metaphors and jocular, often with a coarse, mocking, cynical colouring.

What is slang?

How many types of slang?

• To be picturesque, arresting, striking

• To be different from others

• To avoid the tedium of outmoded hackneyed "common" words.

• To demonstrate one's spiritual independence and daring

• To sound "modern" and "up-to-date".

why do people use slang?

Cop= policeman Hoofer=dancer

LEARNED WORDS

Are mainly associated with the printed page.

Poetry, fiction, diplomatic documents and letters are their resources .

Educated people use them naturally in everyday speech.

Excessive use of learned words in conversations may lead to official, inelegant manner; create an absurd and ridiculous effect.

Learned words are mostly polysyllabic ones of Latin,

Greek or French.

Most of them have been adapted to the English phonetic

system, but some continue to sound foreign.

French and Latin were once the language of the English

belonging to the ruling or upper class in the English society.

Carry out (= do)

The experiment was carried out yesterday.

Investigate (= look into)

Safety officers are investigating the problem at the moment.

Different styles between informal &

formal English

• I’m sorry but …

• I’m happy to say that …

• If you lose it, then contact us as soon as possible

• We regret to inform you that …

• We have pleasure in announcing that …

• Any lost of this document should be reported immediately.

Because of

Archaic and poetic words

Are words that now go out of use

The advance

in human

knowledge

The

changes in

the social

system

Development

of culture

e.g. Betwixt = Between

Ex: "You shall see, as I have said, great

difference betwixt our Bohemia and your

Sicilia” (The Winter's Tale-Shakespeare)

Aye/ Yea = Yes

Ex: The world is not aye

Twain = Two

• They are moribund, already partly or

fully out of circulation, rejected by the

living language. “Partly moribund”

because they may exist in historical

novels when authors want to create a

particular period atmosphere, or in

poetry which is rather conservative in

its choice of words.

e.g. Morn (=Morning); Moon (=Month);

Errant (=Wandering); Eve (=Evening)

Damsel (=Girl)

Sometimes, an archaic word may undergo a

sudden survival

e.g. Kin (=Relatives) now current in American

usage.

“Did you have kin from here?”

There are some rules when you write letter or essay: Use appropriate punctuation Avoid common colloquial words and expression Don't use contractions Try to avoid the first and second person Don't start a sentence with condinating conjunction When referring to the number of countable objects, use words rather than figures when the amount is less than twenty

07/12/2015

Speaking formal English

Be aware of the parts of speech. English speakers commonly replace adverbs with adjectives in casual speech

Use correct grammar

Choose precise vocabulary words, and avoid the word "got.

Avoid using idiom

Formal words may relate to prossional communication

Variations in British and American English

British English American English

candidate [I] Delegate holiday [I] tomato [a] Fragile [aI] Missile Pasteurisation Crystallisation

candidate [eI] delegate holiday [eI] tomato [eI] fragile [I/∂] Missile Pasteurization Crystallization

1. Variation in pronunciation: a) In the vowel sounds:

b) In the stress and vowels:


garage Aristocrat Laboratory Capillary Centenary Phenomenon Pentagon Territory Auditory stationary secretary advertisement

garage Aristocrat Laboratory Capillary Centenary Phenomenon Pentagon Territory Auditory stationary secretary advertisement

Remark: AE prefers the double stress

c) In the stress:

BE AE

dic`tate ro`tate `bourgeois `frontier ‘mid`day ‘beef`steak `come`in `go a`head

`dictate `rotate `bour`geois fron`tier `mid’day `beef’steak Come`in Go a`head

2. Variation in spelling:

BE AE

Colour Centre Advertise Defence traveller

Color Center Advertize Defense traveler

BRITISH ENGLISH AMERICAN ENGLISH

REMARK

a) colour favour,

labour, humour

color Favor Labor humor

1) Americanisms have a tendency to make the spelling easier.

b) centre theatre, litre

center theater, liter

2) “l” is double in AE words with the stress on the last syllable. e.g. enroll, fulfill

c) traveller marvellous

woollen But: skilful,

fulfil

traveler marvelous woolen Skillful, fulfill

3) The endings -pl-l of verbs (with stress on the first syllable), are double in BE (single in AE) before –ed/-ing. e.g. `worshipped, `labelled (BE), `kidnaped, `leveled (AE)

d) advertise organise

advertize organize

e) defence But : to practise

defense pratice (n,v)

f) Miscellaneous - aeroplane - dialogue - cheque - draught - gauge - kerb - tyre - gaol - pyjamas - plough - judgement

- airplane - dialog - check - draft - gage - curb - tire - jail - pajamas - plow - judgment

3. Variation in grammar: a) Verbs


• Prefers irregular form of P1, P2

-burn burnt burnt -dream dreamt dreamt • But: proved (P2 of to

prove); got (P1, P2 of to get)

• Prefers regular form of P1, P2

-burn burned burned -dream dreamed dreamed • But: proven (P2 of to prove);

gotten (P2 of to get)

b) The word-order in words of river, valley , lake….


River Thames River Clyde University of London

Mississippi River Hudson River Harvard University

c) In the use of preposition – adverbs


to fill out (the blank) outside (the house) to meet ( someone) To win To protest against To battle with

to fill in (the blank) outside of (the house) to meet up (someone) To win out To protest To battle

d) Miscellaneous

BE AE

to help + to infinitive TO+ indirect Object

(passive voice) E.g. A letter was sent to Mary.

to help + bare infinitive without to + indirect Object

(passive voice) A letter was sent Mary.

Remarks: American people have a tendency to use very easy going way, for their convenience, to express themselves. So they tend to use conversion, blending, or clipping in their daily speech.

E.g: To chair a meeting

To vacation

An athletic meet

Medicare (medical + care)

Slanguage (slang + language)

Ad (advertisement)

Natch (naturally)

Besides, they also prefer short forms of words:

E.g: I been, I done, I seen (= I’ve been, I’ve done, I’ve seen)

Go bring the paper back (=go and bring…)

I sure will help (=it surely will help)

Drive slow (=drive slowly)

You gotta go (you’ve got to go)

4. Variation in vocabulary:

a) There are quite a lot of words denoting the same object or notion, but having different forms in BE and AE

E.g.

Cinema (BE) Chemist Goods

Movie (AE) Druggist freight

BE AE

Railway railroad

Sweet(s) candy

Pavement sidewalk

Roadway subway

Petrol gas/ gasoline

Lift elevator

Flat apartment, flat, studio

The following is a list of BE words. Use a dictionary to find their AE equivalents.

BE AE

Luggage baggage

Maize corn

Tap faucet

Shop shop/ store

Tube, underground subway

Tin (opener) can

BE AE

Postman mailman, mail/letter carrier

Lorry truck/ semi/ tractor

(bank) note bill

Return ticket round- trip

Car park parking lot

Dustbin garbage/ trash can

garden yard

b) However, there are words that do exist in both BE and AE, but bear different meanings:

BE AE

Million millions 1012

Thousand millions 109

Prep school

E.g. billion

BE AE

Elementary school preparing for entering school

Private school preparing for entering institute or university

c) There are also British and American set expressions:

Other words of the same type are: corn, pavement, to guess, clerk, lunch, solicitor, subway, workhouse

BE AE

To take the bun To beat about the bush

To take the cake To beat around the stump

A lot of American set expressions appear to reflect the history of American life, tradition, features

E.g. to be at bat

Fireside chat

Dark horse

AE BE

eraser

aerial

Band – aid

bill (at a restaurant)

Bathrobe

biscuit

bureau

rubber

Antena /aerial

plaster

bathgown

bill/check

cookie

cookie

Exercise II.3 (P.22)

AE BE

caretaker

closet (for hanging clothes)

curtains

freeway

lorry

kerosene

nappy

janitor

wardrobe

drapes

motorway

truck

paraffin

diaper

AE BE

vest

chimney

Purse

Torch

Yard

vest

trailer

holiday

waistcoat

smokestack

handbag

flashlight

garden

undershirt

caravan

vacation

WORDS A word is the smallest segment of speech that

can be used alone, and at which pausing is possible.

Ex: They call up their roommates.

(Call up, roommates are two words, and no pauses are possible between the two elements of each word).

There are three main classes of words: simple words, complex (or derived) words, and compound words.

1. Simple words are composed of a single free morpheme.

Ex: high, table, university

2. Complex (or derived) words include either two bound morphemes, or a bound and a free form.

Ex: Two bound forms: televise, sentiment, consent

A bound and a free form: telephone, happiness

dishonest, nonsense

3. Compound words have two or more free morphemes.

Ex: Sweetheart, time-table, forget-me-not.

Sometimes, it is difficult to decide if the word is a compound word or a group of words (grammatical structure).

There are three ways to see the difference.

3.a. Structural integrity:

We cannot add any word to the middle of two morphemes of compound words.

Ex: It is a greenhouse. (compound word)

It is a green wooden house. (a group of words = grammatical structure)

3.b. Semantic criterion:

The meaning of a compound word is idiomatic, not the sum of the meaning of the words (grammatical structure).

Ex: He has an iron heart. (He is not kind)

He has a heavy iron heart. (He has a heart-shaped thing which is heavy)

3.c. Phonetic criterion:

Most compound words have the main stress over the first word. A group of words (grammatical structure) has the main stress over the second word.

Ex: A swímming teàcher (a compound word)

A swìmming teácher (a group of words)

Notes: ‘ main stress.

` secondary stress.

Abbreviation:

S simple word

Cx Complex word

Cd Compound word

Gs Grammatical structure

Indicate whether each italicized expression is a compound word (Cd) or a grammatical structure (Gs). Pay no attention to hyphens or spaces, for these are deceptive:

1. Jim’s new car is a hardtop. ______

2. This jar has a rather hard top. ______

3. It was a jack –in-the-box. ______

4. There was a plant in the box. ______

5. A hót dòg is not a hòt dóg. ______ ______

6. He has a dog in the manger attitude. ______

7. She has a strong hold on him. ______

8. She has a stronghold in the Women’s Club. ______

9. George found his father-in-law. ______

10. George found his father in trouble. ______

11. The bought it on the black market. ______

12. The electricity went off, and we were caught in a black completely lightless, market. ______

13. Agatha is a desígning teàcher. ______

14. Agatha is a desìgning teácher. ______

For a view of the three classes of words, identify the following items with these symbols:

S simple word

Cx Complex word

Cd Compound word

Gs Grammatical structure

Make the IC cuts for Cx and Cd.

1. Shárpshòoter _________

2. Shàrp shóoter _________

3. act __________

4. react __________

5. rattlesnake __________

6. passbook __________

7. apparatus __________

8. glowworm __________

9. import __________

10. ripcord __________

11. unearth __________

12. stick-in-the-mud __________

State whether the following groups of words are compounds or free word-groups, making use of different criteria:

1. Sweet voice

2. Sweet potato

3. White coffee

4. white-wash

5. White house

6. Hígh-prèssure

7. Hìgh tíme

8. Rèd méat

9. Red eyes

10. Red tap

11. Réd Cròss

12. Gold fish

13. Góld rìng

14. Gólden Àges

15. Golden wedding (50th)

16. Golden hair

17. Gólden rùle

18. Green eyes

19. Green horn (-house)

20. Green belt

21. Green door

22. Blue blood

23. sky-blue

24. blue-jacket (=sailor)

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MORPHEMES Free and Bound morphemes

+ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.

Free morphemes are monomorphemic words and they can operate freely in the language.

Ex: honest, possess, study, girl, danger

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+ A bound morpheme cannot be uttered alone with meaning. It is always annexed to one or more morphemes to form a word.

Bound morphemes must combine with other morphemes.

Ex: dishonest = dis (BM) + honest (FM) + A morpheme consists of: - Root/base - Stem (if there is any affix) - Affix (Prefix is added to the beginning of a

word and a suffix is added to the end of a word).

Exercises

1. How many morphemes are there in each of the following words:

- Table - Television

- Ceiling - Writing

- Blackboard - Underground

- Country - Hospital

- River - Printer

- Seaside - Southwest

- Honeymoon - Asian

- Typewriter - Americans

- Basketball - Helpers

- Table-tennis - Manufacturers

- Backpack - Jackfruits

- Building - Newspapers

- Sweater - Swimming-pools

- Profit - Railways

- Sailor - Indonesia

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Underline the base/root in the following words:


- Honeymoon - Asian







- Profit - Railways

- Sailor - Indonesia

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Analyze the stem in the following words:


- Honeymoon - Asians







- Profits - Railways

- Sailor - Indonesians

Analyze the suffix in the following words:

- Bananas - Southwestern

- Honeymoons - Asians


- Basketballs - Helpers

- shopping - Manufacturers

- Backpacks - Jackfruits

- Buildings - Newspapers

- Sweaters - Swimming-pools

- Profits - Railways

- Sailor - Indonesians 74

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Analyze the prefix in the following words:

- Underline - Southwestern

- Honeymoons - Subcontinent

- impossible - Non-American

- Basketballs - Anti-fascism

- Dehydrate - Hillside


- Overcook - Newspapers

- Sunday - Swimming-pools

- Surplus - Railways

- Sailboat - Telescope

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Which morpheme is derivational/inflectional?

- Underlines - Southwestern

- Honeymoons - Subcontinents

- impossible - Non-American

- Basketballs - Anti-fascism

- Dehydrates - Hillsides


- Overcook s - Newspapers

- Sundays - Swimming-pools

- Surplus - Railways

- Sailboats - Telescopes

Write the meaning of the prefixal morphemes:

1. defrost

2. demigod

3. diacid

4. disappear

5. hypermarket

6. maltreat

7. monologue

8. Nonstop

9. rewrite

10. subway

Write the meaning of the suffixal morphemes:

1. writer

2. refugee

3. handful

4. solution

5. socialism

6. victory

7. importance

8. homeless

9. Chinese

10. greatly

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IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS Immediate constituents are any of the two

meaningful parts forming a larger meaningful unit.

Four sorts of morphemes – bases, prefixes, infixes, and suffixes are put together to build words. When we analyze a word, we usually divide a word into two parts of which it seems to have been composed.

Ex: un gentle man ly

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IC division:

+ If a word ends in an inflectional suffix, the first cut is between this suffix and the rest of the word.

Ex: develop s

+ One of the IC’s should be, if possible, a free form. A free form is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.

Ex: enlarge ment NOT en largement

in dependent NOT independ ent

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+ The meanings of the IC’s should be replaced to the meaning of the word.

Ex: teach er NOT tea cher The ultimate constituents are the

morphemes of which the word is composed.

Give the morphematic division (root, prefix, suffix) of these words:

1. unpredictable

2. cooperation

3. multidimensional

4. leadership

5. Impression

6. Forecast

7. Fortune-teller

8. Discovery

9. Undercooked

Why are a and an called allomorphs?

- A and an mean “one”. A stands before singular countable noun beginning with consonant sounds. An stands before singular countable noun beginning with vowel sounds. So they are phonologically conditioned allomorphs in complementary distribution.

Why are the forms of BE conjugated in present simple called allomorphs?

- The forms of BE conjugated in present simple are AM, IS and ARE. They have the same meaning. AM follows the first person singular, IS follows the third person singular and ARE follows the second person both singular and plural and the third person plural. So Am, IS and ARE are morphologically conditioned allomorphs in complementary contribution.

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Processes of word formation

1. Compounding Compounding is the joining of two or more

words into a single word. Compounds may be written as one word (without a hyphen or a space), as a hyphenated word (with a hyphen), or as two words (with a space).

Ex: sunflower, school-girl, high school, skateboard, whitewash, cat lover, self-help, red-hot, etc.

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2. Derivation, conversion or functional shift Derivation is the forming of new words by

combining derivational affixes or bound bases with existing words.

Ex: teacher, re-ask, abuser, refusal, untie, inspection, pre-cook, etc.

Zero derivation: (also called conversion or functional shift): Adding no affixes; simply using a word of one category as a word of another category. Examples: Noun-verb: comb, sand, knife, butter, referee, proposition.

Stress shift: no affix is added to the base, but the stress is shifted from one syllable to the other. With the stress shift comes a change in category.

Noun Verb Noun Adjective cómbine combíne cóncrete concréte ímplant implánt ábstract abstráct réwrite rewríte tránsport transpórt

Affixation: adding a derivational affix to a word.

Ex: abuser, refusal, untie, inspection, pre-cook.

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3. Clipping or contraction

Clipping is the forming of new words by cutting off the beginning or the end of a word, or both, leaving a part to stand for the whole.

Ex: laboratory lab dormitory dorm

brother bro professional pro

professor prof. mathematics math 4. Acronymy or abbreviation Acronymy is the forming of new words from the

initials or beginning segments of a succession of words.

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Ex: MP: military police/member of parliament TOEFL: Test of English as a foreign language radar: radio detecting and ranging NASA: National Aeronautics and Space

Administration NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Scuba: self-contained underwater breathing

apparatus. ASEAN: Association of South East Asian countries

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5. Blending or mixture

Blending is the forming of new words by joining the first part of one word with the last part of another word.

breakfast + lunch brunch

smoke + fog smog

motor + hotel motel

television + marathon telethon

modulator + demodulator modem

Spanish + English Spanglish

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6. Back-formation or reversion

Back formation is the forming of new words from the one that looks like its derivative.

Ex: beggar to beg

editor to edit

resurrection to resurrect

enthusiasm to enthuse

burglar to burgle

hamburger burger

7. Adoption of brand names as common words (coinage/invention/neologism): a proper name becomes the name for the item or process associated with the name. The word ceases to be capitalized and acts as a normal verb/noun (i.e. takes inflections such as plural or past tense). The companies using the names usually have copyrighted them and object to their use in public documents, so they should be avoided in formal writing (or a lawsuit could follow!) Examples: xerox, kleenex, Cola, 7 up.

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8. Onomatopoeia or sound imitation or reduplication: words are invented which (to native speakers at least) sound like the sound they name or the entity which produces the sound.

Ex: hiss, sizzle, cuckoo, cock-a-doodle-doo, buzz, beep, ding-dong.

9. Borrowing: a word is taken from another language. It may be adapted to the borrowing language's phonological system to varying degrees.

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Ex: tomato (from indigenous languages of the Americas), sushi, taboo (from Pacific Rim languages), macho, spaghetti, psychology, telephone, physician, education (from European languages), yam, banana (from African languages).

10. Antonomasia or words from names: The formation of a common word from the name of a person or place.

Ex: sandwich, champagne

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11. Isolation on word formation: a new word is obtained by isolating the plural form which is then with its own particular meaning.

Ex: colours (flags), glasses (spectacles)

Conclusion: English speakers coin new words every day. We can find them in newspapers, magazines or daily speech, but to use them, we should be more careful because not all these are accepted in standard English.

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Assignment 6

Which process is used to form the following words?

1. user

2. overcrowded

3. classroom

4. DRV

5. footstep

6. buzz

7. mew

8. read

9. gas

10. VIP

11. Amerindian

12. denim

13. roar

14. medicare

15. memo

16. daybreak

17. exporter

18. ad

19. care

20. Tom

SAMPLE TEST I. For a view of the three classes of words, identify

the following items with these symbols: (2ms)

S simple word Cx Complex word

Cd Compound word Gs Grammatical structure

1. generation 2. classroom 3. singing 4. non-government 5. whitewash

6. dehydration 7. hot dog 8. microwave

9. ebook 10. beautiful girls

1. Generation: Cx

2. classroom: Cd

3. singing: Cx

4. non-government: Cx

5. whitewash: Cd

6. dehydration: Cx

7. hot dog: Cd

8. microwave: Cx

9. ebook: Cx

10. beautiful girls: Gs

II. Give the informal words/phrases/clauses for the following: (2ms)

enter, commence, however, later, employer, sleep-walker, get, people say, they reported, one after the other.

enter – go in(to)

commence - begin

however - but

later - subsequently

employer - boss

sleep-walker - somnambulist

get - obtain

people say – it is said

they reported – it was reported

one after the other – at regular intervals

III. Name the word formation process of each of the following words: (2ms)

1. textbook 2. play 3. UNESCO 4. handful 5. smog 6. rattle 7. Alex 8. TV 9. Mon 10. Singlish

1. textbook: Compounding

2. play: Back-formation

3. UNESCO : Acronymy

4. handful: Derivation

5. smog: Blending

6. rattle: onomatopoeia

7. Alex: Clipping

8. TV: Acronymy

9. Mon: Clipping

10. Singlish: Blending

IV. The following is a list of AE words. Find their BE equivalent: (2ms)

1. lawyer 2. elevator 3. drugstore 4. high school 5. school

6. bill 7. The Senate 8. estrogen 9. fender 10. ballpoint

1. Lawyer - solicitor

2. elevator - lift

3. Drugstore – chemist’s

4. high school – secondary school

5. School - faculty

6. bill - note

7. The Senate - The House of Lords

8. Estrogen - Oestrogen

9. Fender – mudguard/wing

10. Ballpoint – biro/ball point

V. Analyze the ICs of the following words: (2ms)

Americans, anti-fascism, receptionist, savings, collaboration, counterpartner, managers, dehydration, liners, humanities.

Americans anti-fascism receptionist

- Initally, the base is “Americ”. Then we add suffix “an” to have “American” and then “Americans”.

- Fascist is the base. A suffix is added to make up “fascism”. Finally, a prefix is added to have “anti-fascism”.

- The base is receive. Then suffix “tion” is added to make up “reception”. At last “ist” is added.

savings collaboration counterpartner

- The base is “save” that is added with suffix “ing”. Finally, “s” is added.

- “Labor” is the root. “Co” is added to have “collabor”. Suffix “ate” is added to make up a verb. A noun is made with suffix “ion”.

- “Part” is the base. “Part” is added with “er”. The prefix “counter” is added finally.

managers dehydration liners humanities

- The base is “mange”. Suffix “er” is added and “s” is added at last.

- “Hydrate” is the base. “Dehydrate” is a verb and “ion” is added to make a noun.

- The root is “line”. Suffixes “er” and “s” are added.

- “Human” is the root. Suffix “ity” is added. Plural suffix “s” is added at last.

Good luck!

lexicology -summary

Education