Lecture Overview

• Understanding Psychology

• Doing Research in Psychology

• Perspectives in Psychology

The Study of Psychology

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

• Psychology values empirical evidence• Psychology employs critical thinking• Psychology employs systematic research

methods

Pseudopsychologies• Pseudopsychologies are unreliable approaches

that do not use the scientific method• Examples of pseudopsychologies include:

– Astrology: system that tries to relate personality to the movement of the stars

– Palmistry: idea that reading a person’s character from the lines on their palms

– Psychokinesis: notion that humans can move objects through mental concentration

– Follicology: notion that personality characteristics are related to hair color

Goals of Psychology

–Description of behavior using careful observations

–Explanation involves identifying the cause(s) of behavior

–Prediction allows for specification of the conditions under which a behavior will occur or not

–Psychological knowledge can be used to assist changes in behavior

Psychological Research

• Two forms of psychological research:– Basic research seeks answers for theoretical

questions• E.g. How is hunger controlled by the brain?

– Applied research seeks answers for specific application problems

• E.g. Organizational psychology studies leadership, job satisfaction, job training, and development

Areas of Psychology

• Clinical

• Educational

• School

• Industrial/organiz-ational

• Developmental

• Social

• Comparative

• Neuropsychology

• Health psychology

• Cognitive

Psychology Degrees By Area

Overview of the Scientific Method

The Experiment

• An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aims to confirm a hypothesis

• Hypothesis refers to a statement of cause and effect:

• “Higher environmental temperatures lead to more aggression”

• “Exposure to marijuana increases appetite”

Experimental Variables• To test a hypothesis, an experimenter defines the

variables of the hypothesis:– Cause: Independent variable (IV)

• Marijuana: Plain cigarette versus cigarette containing 5 mg of THC (the active ingredient in marijuana)

– Effect: Dependent variable (DV)• Appetite: Grams of ice cream consumed in 1 hour

• The experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV to test the hypothesis

Research Issues

• Controls are important for determining causality– The only difference between the experimental

and control groups is the presence or absence of the IV.

Placebo Effects

•Placebo effects represent changes in behavior that are related to expectations of a treatment

–Placebo effects are controlled by a blind control group (the subject does not know whether the treatment was given or not)

Experimenter Bias•Experimenter bias refers to expectations that influence subject behavior

–Experimenter bias can be controlled using double blind procedures (experimenters and subjects are ignorant of treatment conditions)

Descriptive Research• Naturalistic observation refers to the systematic

recording of behavior in a natural state or habitat– Jane Goodall observing apes in the wild

• Surveys are instruments designed to sample attitudes or behaviors – Asking persons at a rally how they feel about animal

rights issues

• A case study is an in-depth study of a single person– Freud used the case study method to probe anxiety

Correlational Research• The correlation technique

indicates the degree of association between 2 variables

• Correlations vary in direction:– Positive association: increases in the

value of variable 1 are associated with increases in the value of variable 2

– Negative association: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with decreases in the value of variable 2

– No relation: values of variable 1 are not related to variable 2 values

Correlations• Correlations also vary in the strength of

the association– Zero correlation: no relationship between the

2 variables– Strong correlation: knowing the value of one

variable permits one to accurately estimate the value of the other variable

• Strong correlation can be positive or negative

• Correlations can be seen in scatter plots

Correlation Difficulties

Biological Research

• Dissections• Lesions• Case studies• Electrical recording• Electrical stimulation

• Split-brain surgery• CT scan• PET scan• MRI scan• fMRI scan

Ethical Issues in Research• Respecting the rights of human research

participants involves:– Informed consent is an explanation of a study and the

responsibilities of experimenter and participant– Deception involving the subjects must be justified– Confidentiality of study information must be maintained– Debriefing refers to explaining the research process to

the subjects at the end of the study

• Animal research must be justified and must minimize discomfort to participants

Early Pioneers of Psychology• Structuralism focused on sensations

and perceptual experiences• Functionalism investigated functions of

mental processes in adapting to the environment

• Gestalt psychology emphasized perception; the notion that the whole is more than the sum of the parts

Modern Psychology Views

• Psychoanalytic view emphasizes the unconscious mind

• Behaviorism focuses on objective and measurable behaviors

• Humanistic psychology emphasizes the inner-self and the importance of subjective feelings

• Cognitive psychology focuses on mental function and reasoning

Modern Psychology Views

• Biopsychology views behavior as reflecting brain processes

• Evolutionary psychology asserts that certain behavioral characteristics are subject to natural selection

• Sociocultural psychology examines the influence of culture and ethnic practice on people’s behavior

Copyright

Copyright 2004 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner.