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Exam 2 Results

• Top Score: 49• Mean: 35.80• Bimodal: 34 and 37• Median: 36• Standard Deviation: 5.81• To calculate your approximate grade, divide 49 by

your score.– Example:

• 36/49 = 73.5% = C

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Learning

Chapter 8

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Learning

How Do We Learn?

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments Extending Pavlov’s

Understanding Pavlov’s Legacy

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Learning

Operant Conditioning Skinner’s Experiments Extending Skinner’s

Understanding Skinner’s Legacy Contrasting Classical & Operant

Conditioning

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Learning

Learning by Observation Bandura’s Experiments Applications of Observational

Learning

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Definition

Learning is a relatively permanent change in anorganism’s behavior due to experience.

Learning is more flexible in comparison to thegenetically-programmed behaviors of Chinooks,

for example.

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How Do We Learn?

We learn by association. Our mindsnaturally connect events that occur in

sequence.2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested thislaw of association. Then 200 years agoLocke and Hume reiterated this law.

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Stimulus-Stimulus Learning

Learning to associate one stimuluswith another.

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Stimulus-Stimulus Learning

Learning to associate one stimuluswith another.

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Response-Consequence Learning

Learning to associate a responsewith a consequence.

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Response-Consequence Learning

Learning to associate a responsewith a consequence.

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Ideas of classical conditioning originate from oldphilosophical theories. However, it was the

Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidatedclassical conditioning. His work provided a basisfor later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F.

Skinner.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

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Pavlov’s Experiments

Before conditioning, food (UnconditionedStimulus, US) produces salivation

(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, thetone (neutral stimulus) does not.

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Pavlov’s Experiments

During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)and the US (food) are paired, resulting in

salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutralstimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits

salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

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AcquisitionAcquisition is the initial stage in classical

conditioning in which an association between aneutral stimulus and an unconditioned

stimulus takes place.

In most cases, for conditioning to occur, theneutral stimulus needs to come before theunconditioned stimulus.

The time in between the two stimuli shouldbe about half a second.

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Acquisition

The CS needs to come half a second before the USfor acquisition to occur.

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Extinction

When the US (food) does not follow the CS(tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and

eventually causes extinction.

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Spontaneous Recovery

After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation)spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists

alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

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Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond tostimuli similar to the CS is

called generalization.Pavlov conditioned thedog’s salivation (CR) by

using miniature vibrators(CS) on the thigh. When he

subsequently stimulatedother parts of the dog’s

body, salivation dropped.20

Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguishbetween a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that

do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

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Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness,or mind, unfit for the scientific study of

psychology. However, they underestimatedthe importance of cognitive processes and

biological constraints.

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Cognitive Processes

Early behaviorists believed that learnedbehaviors of various animals could be reduced

to mindless mechanisms.

However, later behaviorists suggested thatanimals learn the predictability of a stimulus,

meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of astimulus (Rescorla, 1988).

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Biological Predispositions

Pavlov and Watson believed that laws oflearning were similar for all animals.

Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differin their learning.

However, behaviorists later suggested thatlearning is constrained by an animal’s biology.

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Biological Predispositions

John Garcia

Garcia showed that the durationbetween the CS and the US may be

long (hours), but yet result inconditioning. A biologically adaptiveCS (taste) led to conditioning and not

to others (light or sound).

Courtesy of John Garcia

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Biological Predispositions

Even humans can develop classically toconditioned nausea.

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Pavlov’s greatest contributionto psychology is isolating

elementary behaviors frommore complex ones through

objective scientificprocedures.

Pavlov’s Legacy

Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)

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Watson used classicalconditioning procedures to

develop advertisingcampaigns for a number of

organizations, includingMaxwell House, making the“coffee break” an American

custom.

Applications of ClassicalConditioning

John Broadus Watson

Brown Brothers

See also, “Little Albert” experiment28

Two Famous John Watson Quotes• “Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch

of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value ofits data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves tointerpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get aunitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between manand brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, formsonly a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation.”

• “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specifiedworld to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at randomand train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor,lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief,regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations,and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it,but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing itfor many thousands of years.”(1930)

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Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively)by reversing their positive-associations withalcohol.

Through classical conditioning, a drug (plusits taste) that affects the immune responsemay cause the taste of the drug to invoke theimmune response.

Applications of ClassicalConditioning

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Operant & Classical Conditioning

1. Classical conditioningforms associationsbetween stimuli (CSand US). Operantconditioning, on theother hand, forms anassociation betweenbehaviors and theresulting events.

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Operant & Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves respondentbehavior that occurs as an automaticresponse to a certain stimulus. Operantconditioning involves operant behavior, abehavior that operates on the environment,producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

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Skinner’s ExperimentsSkinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s

thinking, especially his law of effect. This lawstates that rewarded behavior is likely to occur

again.

Yale U

niversity Library

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Operant Chamber

Using Thorndike's law of effect as a startingpoint, Skinner developed the Operant chamber,

or the Skinner box, to study operantconditioning.

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Operant Chamber

The operant chamber,or Skinner box, comeswith a bar or key that

an animal manipulatesto obtain a reinforcer

like food or water. Thebar or key is connectedto devices that recordthe animal’s response.

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Shaping

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedurein which reinforcers guide behavior towards the

desired target behavior through successiveapproximations.

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

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Types of Reinforcers

Any event that strengthens the behavior itfollows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a

meerkat’s behavior in the cold.

Reuters/ Corbis

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Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcingstimulus like food or drink.

Conditioned Reinforcer: A learnedreinforcer that gets its reinforcing powerthrough association with the primaryreinforcer.

Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

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Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer thatoccurs instantly after a behavior. A rat getsa food pellet for a bar press.

Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that isdelayed in time for a certain behavior. Apaycheck that comes at the end of a week.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers

We may be inclined to engage in small immediatereinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayedreinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require

consistent study.

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Reinforcement Schedules

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces thedesired response each time it occurs.

2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces aresponse only part of the time. Though thisresults in slower acquisition in thebeginning, it shows greater resistance toextinction later on.

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Ratio Schedules

Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a responseonly after a specified number of responses.e.g., piecework pay.

Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces aresponse after an unpredictable number ofresponses. This is hard to extinguish becauseof the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors likegambling, fishing.)

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Interval Schedules

Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces aresponse only after a specified time haselapsed. (e.g., preparing for an examonly when the exam draws close.)

Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces aresponse at unpredictable timeintervals, which produces slow, steadyresponses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

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Schedules of Reinforcement

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Punishment

An aversive event that decreases the behavior itfollows.

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Punishment

1. Results in unwanted fears.2. Conveys no information to the organism.3. Justifies pain to others.4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its

absence.5. Causes aggression towards the agent.6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in

place of another.

Although there may be some justification foroccasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind,

2002), it usually leads to negative effects.

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Extending Skinner’s Understanding

Skinner believed in inner thought processes andbiological underpinnings, but many

psychologists criticize him for discountingthem.

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Cognition & Operant Conditioning

Evidence of cognitive processes during operantlearning comes from rats during a maze

exploration in which they navigate the mazewithout an obvious reward. Rats seem to

develop cognitive maps, or mentalrepresentations, of the layout of the maze

(environment).

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Latent Learning

Such cognitive maps are based on latentlearning, which becomes apparent when anincentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

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MotivationIntrinsic Motivation:The desire to perform abehavior for its ownsake.

Extrinsic Motivation:The desire to perform abehavior due topromised rewards orthreats of punishments.

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Biological Predisposition

Biological constraintspredispose organisms to

learn associations thatare naturally adaptive.Breland and Breland(1961) showed that

animals drift towardstheir biologically

predisposed instinctivebehaviors.

Marian Breland Bailey

Photo: Bob Bailey

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Skinner’s Legacy

Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped byexternal influences instead of inner thoughts and

feelings. Critics argued that Skinnerdehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

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Applications of OperantConditioning

Skinner introduced the concept of teachingmachines that shape learning in small steps and

provide reinforcements for correct rewards.

In School

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Applications of OperantConditioning

Reinforcement principles can enhance athleticperformance.

In Sports

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Applications of OperantConditioning

Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companiesnow allow employees to share profits and

participate in company ownership.

At work 54

Applications of OperantConditioning

In children, reinforcing good behavior increasesthe occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring

unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

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Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

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Learning by Observation

Higher animals,especially humans,

learn through observingand imitating others.

The monkey on theright imitates the

monkey on the left intouching the pictures ina certain order to obtain

a reward.

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Mirror Neurons

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons inthe brains of animals and humans that are active

during observational learning.

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Imitation Onset

Learning by observationbegins early in life. This

14-month-old childimitates the adult on TV

in pulling a toy apart.

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Bandura's Experiments

Bandura's Bobo dollstudy (1961) indicated

that individuals(children) learn

through imitatingothers who receive

rewards andpunishments.

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Applications of ObservationalLearning

Unfortunately,Bandura’s studies

show that antisocialmodels (family,

neighborhood or TV)may have antisocial

effects.

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Positive Observational Learning

Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) modelsmay have prosocial effects.

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Television and ObservationalLearning

Gentile et al., (2004)shows that children in

elementary schoolwho are exposed toviolent television,videos, and video

games expressincreased aggression.

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Modeling Violence

Research shows that viewing media violenceleads to an increased expression of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

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