language culture and society

Language,

Culture,

and Society

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F I F T H E D I T I O N

L a n g u a g e ,

C u l t u r e ,

a n d S o c i e t y

An Introduction to

Linguistic Anthropology

Z D E N E K S A L Z M A N N ,

J A M E S M . S TA N L A W,

N O B U K O A D A C H I

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vC O N T E N T S

Preface ix

1 Introducing Linguistic Anthropology 1

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2 Methods of Linguistic Anthropology 17

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3 Language Is Sound: Phonology 31

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4 Structure of Words and Sentences 53

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C O N T E N T Svi

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5 Nonverbal Communication 73

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6 The Development and Evolution of Language 87

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7 Acquiring Language(s): Life with First Languages, Second Languages, and More 119

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8 Language Through Time 141

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C O N T E N T S vii

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9 Languages in Variation and Languages in Contact 169

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10 Ethnography of Communication 185

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11 Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization: Meaning and Language in the Conceptual World 205

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C O N T E N T Sviii

12 Language, Culture, and Thought 225

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13 Language and Ideology: Variations in Class, Gender, 257Ethnicity, and Nationality

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14 Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World 291

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Resource Manual and Study Guide 327Answers to the Objective Study Questions and Problems 371Glossary 377Bibliography 389Languages Mentioned in the Text and Their Locations (Map) 419Index 423

ix

P R E F A C E T O T H E F I F T H E D I T I O N

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Zdenek Salzmann, James M. Stanlaw, and

Nobuko Adachi

11

Introducing Linguist ic

Anthropology

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Why Should We Study Language? Language in Daily Life

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Chapter 1: Introducing Linguistic Anthropology2

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Modern Myths Concerning Languages 5

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Modern Myths Concerning Languages 7

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Brief History of Anthropology 9

Brief History of Anthropology

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B OX 1 . 1 S A P I R O N L I N G U I S T I C A N D

C U LT U R A L C O M P L E X I T Y

All attempts to connect particular types of linguistic morphology with cer-tain correlated stages of cultural development are vain. Rightly under-stood, such correlations are rubbish. . . . Both simple and complex typesof language of an indefinite number of varieties may be found spoken atany desired level of cultural advance. When it comes to linguistic form,Plato walks with the Macedonian swineherd, Confucius with the head-hunting savage of Assam.

It goes without saying that the mere content of language is intimatelyrelated to culture. A society that has no knowledge of theosophy needhave no name for it; aborigines that had never seen or heard of a horsewere compelled to invent or borrow a word for the animal when theymade his acquaintance. In the sense that the vocabulary of a languagemore or less faithfully reflects the culture whose purposes it serves it isperfectly true that the history of language and the history of culture movealong parallel lines. But this superficial . . . kind of parallelism is of noreal interest to the linguist except in so far as the growth or borrowing ofnew words incidentally throws light on the formal trends of the language.The linguistic student should never make the mistake of identifying a lan-guage with its dictionary.

from Edward Sapir, Language (1921), 234


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Brief History of Anthropology 11

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12 Chapter 1: Introducing Linguistic Anthropology

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Anthropology, Linguistics, and Linguistic Anthropology

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13Anthropology, Linguistics, and Linguistic Anthropology

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14 Chapter 1: Introducing Linguistic Anthropology

B OX 1 . 2 L I N G U I S T I C S C O N T R A S T E D W I T H

L I N G U I S T I C A N T H R O P O LO G Y

Unlike linguists, [linguistic] anthropologists have never considered lan-guage in isolation from social life but have insisted on its interdepend-ence with cultural and social structures. In this sense, their technicallinguistic analyses are a means to an end, data from which it is possibleto make inferences about larger anthropological issues. Hence, underthe . . . label language and culture, anthropologists study topics such asthe relations between world views, grammatical categories and semanticfields, the influence of speech on socialization and personal relationships,and the interaction of linguistic and social communities. . . . As Hymeshas aptly remarked, language is not everywhere equivalent in commu-nicative role and social value . . . [and] no normal person, and no normalcommunity is limited in repertoire to a single variety of [style], to an un-changing monotony which would preclude the possibility of indicatingrespect, insolence, mock-seriousness, humor, role-distance, etc., byswitching from one code variety to another. Consequently, the relationbetween languages and social groups cannot be taken for granted, but isa problem which must be ethnographically investigated.

from Pier Paolo Giglioli, ed., Language and Social Context (1972), 910

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Summary and Conclusions

*OJUTNPEFSOGPSNMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZXBTUIFMBTUTVCGJFMEPGBOUISPQPMPHZ UPCFEFWFMPQFE BOE SFDPHOJ[FE BOEXBTQSBDUJDFEQSJNBSJMZ CZ/PSUI"NFSJDBOBOUISPQPMPHJTUT*UTCFHJOOJOHTHPCBDLUPUIFJOUFSFTUPGOJOFUFFOUIDFOUVSZTDIPMBSTJOUIFHSFBUWBSJFUZPG/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTPDJFUJFTBOEUIFMBOHVBHFTUIFZTQPLF-JOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUTWJFXMBOHVBHFJOJUTDVMUVSBMGSBNFXPSLBOEBSFDPODFSOFEXJUIUIFSVMFTGPSJUTTPDJBMVTFUIFBOBMZTJTPGJUTTUSVDUVSFJTUIFSFGPSFPOMZBNFBOTUPBOFOE#ZDPOUSBTUMJOHVJTUTJOUIFJSTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFTFNQIBTJ[FMJOHVJTUJDTUSVDUVSFBOEUIFIJTUPSJDBMEFWFMPQNFOUPGMBOHVBHFT

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15Summary and Conclusions

2Methods of Linguist ic

Anthropology

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Contrasting Linguistics with Linguistic Anthropology

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17

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18 Chapter 2: Methods of Linguistic Anthropology

The Fieldwork Component

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19The Fieldwork Component

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B OX 2 . 1 PA R T I C I PA N T O B S E R VAT I O N

During [Malinowskis] trip to do his first fieldwork, World War I broke out.When he landed in Australia, he learned that he was now the enemy, andthe Australians informed him that he was stuck for the duration. But heconvinced them that they should let him go and wander the territories,do a little ethno-exploring. He spent two extensive periods of time on a lit-tle string of atolls called the Trobriand Islands.

Malinowski became the patron saint of ethnography. He dived right in,lived with the natives, and learned their language as they spoke it whilethey went about their everyday business. He talked about the goal of itall in romantic tonesto grasp the natives point of view, his relation tolife, to realize his vision of his world, or, as he sometimes put it, to getinside the natives skin.

The name for this approach to fieldwork, a name that is now enshrinedin the jargon, is participant observation. You dont just stand around andwatch like a parody of a lab technician; you jump in and do everyday lifewith people to get a firsthand feel for how things go. At the same time, youkeep a third eye at an altitude of several feet above the action and watchwhats going on in a more distant way.

Never mind that this is difficult, to passionately commit to the flow ofexperience and keep your distance at the same time. The concept ex-presses the right contradiction. Besides, participant observation hides Ma-linowskis secret about culture. Like Boas and Whorf, he wrote aboutculture as what those people have. But participant observation carrieswith it a commitment to connect, to put your body and mind on the line,to engage what those people are doing and figure out why, at first, youdidnt understand. Participant observation signals that culture has to getpersonal.

Given the gregarious nature in general and his devotion to participantobservation in particular, its no surprise that Malinowski[s . . . ] first lovewas the real situations that made up the daily life of the Trobriand Is-landers. Language wasnt an isolated object that consisted of words andthe rules for stringing them together into sentences. Language was the waythat people came together in those situations and got things done.

from Michael Agar, Language Shock (1994), 92

A Checklist for Research in the Field

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27A Checklist for Research in the Field

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29A Checklist for Research in the Field

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Summary and Conclusions

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3Language Is Sound:

Phonology

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31

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32 Chapter 3: Language Is Sound: Phonology

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The Anatomy and Physiology of Speech

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33The Anatomy and Physiology of Speech

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35

F I G U R E 3 . 1 The Speech Apparatus. (a) A cross-section of the human head showing theprincipal parts of the vocal tract. The lungs and the diaphragm below them are not shown.

E esophagus (gullet) 5 velum (soft palate)L larynx (voice box) 6 uvulaN nasal cavity 7 molarsO oral cavity 8 lower lipP pharynx 9 lower teeth (incisors)T trachea 10 tongue tip1 upper lip 11 tongue blade2 upper teeth (incisors) 12 tongue root3 alveolar ridge 13 epiglottis4 (hard) palate 14 vocal cords

15 direction of outgoing air

(b) A view of the glottis (16), with a vocal cord on each side, during normal breathing. (c) The sameview, but with vocal cords vibrating during speech. Adapted from Bohuslav Hla: Uveden dofonetiky c1estiny, Prague, 1962, p. 63.

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37

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Vow

els

Acc

ordi

ng

to P

lace

an

d M

ann

er o

f A

rtic

ula

tion

Pla

ce a

nd M

anne

rof

Art

icul

atio

nV

owel

Typ

es

If th

e ai

r ex

cape

sor

alth

roug

h th

e m

outh

If th

e ai

r es

cape

sna

sal(

ized

)al

so th

roug

h th

e no

seA

ccor

din

g to

the

part

of

fron

tce

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lba

ckth

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ngue

that

is r

aise

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the

unro

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edpo

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f the

lips

(spr

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)

Acc

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to th

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siti

onhi

gh (c

lose

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G

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an k

hl

Rus

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occ

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inu

boot

of th

e hi

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t poi

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to b

eTu

rkis

hof

the

tong

ue in

the

low

er h

igh

Ibi

tI

as in

just

(you

ubo

okm

outh

(acc

ord

ing

to th

ew

ait)

clos

enes

s of

the

tong

uem

ide

bait

; Ger

man

G

erm

an s

chn

th

e se

cond

o bo

at; F

renc

hto

the

roof

of t

he m

outh

)Se

e s

ea

love

ly

vow

el o

f sof

abe

au b

eaut

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lo

wer

mid

be

t

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ch p

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bu

tt

boug

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in L

ond

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us v

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pro

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whe

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39

TA

BL

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.2Ty

pes

of C

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nan

ts A

ccor

din

g to

Pla

ce o

f A

rtic

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Pla

ce o

fA

rtic

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Gen

eral

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crip

tion

Con

sona

nt T

ype

Exa

mpl

e(s)

Glo

ttis

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al fo

lds

are

posi

tion

ed s

o as

to c

ause

aG

lott

algl

otta

l sto

p th

at in

som

e d

iale

cts

clos

ure

or fr

icti

on.

of E

nglis

h re

plac

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e t s

ound

(-tt

-)in

suc

h w

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s as

bot

tle

Phar

ynx

Bac

k w

all o

f the

pha

rynx

art

icul

ates

wit

h th

ePh

aryn

geal

com

mon

in A

rabi

cro

ot o

f the

tong

ue.

Uvu

laB

ack

of th

e to

ngue

art

icul

ates

wit

h th

e uv

ula.

Uvu

lar

the

r so

und

freq

uent

ly h

eard

in G

erm

an(v

oice

d v

arie

ty) o

r Fr

ench

(voi

cele

ss)

Vel

um, o

rB

ack

of th

e to

ngue

art

icul

ates

wit

h th

e so

ftV

elar

init

ial s

ound

of c

alf

soft

pal

ate

pala

te.

(Har

d) p

alat

eFr

ont o

f the

tong

ue a

rtic

ulat

es w

ith

the

hard

Pala

tal

the

nal

sou

nd o

f the

Ger

man

pala

te.

ich

I

Are

a w

here

the

Bla

de

of th

e to

ngue

(and

som

etim

es th

e ti

p)Pa

lato

-alv

eola

rin

itia

l sou

nd o

f shi

ppa

late

and

the

arti

cula

tes

wit

h th

e pa

lato

-alv

eola

r ar

ea.

alve

olar

rid

geTi

p of

the

tong

ue, c

urle

d b

ack,

art

icul

ates

Ret

ro

exty

pica

lly, t

and

d s

ound

s in

mee

tw

ith

the

pala

to-a

lveo

lar

area

.E

nglis

h as

spo

ken

by E

ast I

ndia

nsA

lveo

lar

rid

geFr

ont o

f the

tong

ue a

rtic

ulat

es w

ith

the

Alv

eola

rth

e in

itia

l sou

nd o

f sit

alve

olar

rid

ge.

Teet

hTo

ngue

tip

arti

cula

tes

wit

h th

e up

per

teet

h.D

enta

lt a

nd d

sou

nds

of Ir

ish

Eng

lish

Tong

ue ti

p is

pos

itio

ned

bet

wee

n th

e up

per

Inte

rden

tal

the

init

ial s

ound

s of

thin

and

this

and

low

er te

eth.

Low

er li

p an

dL

ower

lip

arti

cula

tes

wit

h th

e up

per

teet

h.L

abio

den

tal

the

init

ial s

ound

s of

fan

and

van

uppe

r te

eth

Lip

sB

oth

low

er a

nd u

pper

lips

art

icul

ate.

Bila

bial

the

init

ial a

nd

nal s

ound

of b

ob

40

TA

BL

E 3

.3

Type

s of

Con

son

ants

Acc

ordi

ng

to M

ann

er o

f A

rtic

ula

tion

Type

of

Subt

ype

ofC

onso

nant

Con

stri

ctio

nC

onst

rict

ion

Gen

eral

Des

crip

tion

Type

Exa

mpl

es w

ith

Des

crip

tion

CL

OSU

RE

Tota

lco

mpl

ete

clos

ure

at s

ome

poin

t in

the

Plos

ive,

the

init

ial s

ound

of p

ick;

clo

sure

voca

l tra

ct, w

ith

soft

pal

ate

rais

ed;

or s

top

at th

e lip

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dd

en r

elea

se o

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ssur

e

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lco

mpl

ete

clos

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t in

the

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e in

itia

l and

na

l sou

nd o

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;m

outh

, wit

h so

ft p

alat

e lo

wer

ed a

nd a

ircl

osur

e at

the

lips

esca

ping

thro

ugh

the

nose

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lco

mpl

ete

clos

ure

at s

ome

poin

t in

the

Aff

rica

teth

e in

itia

l and

na

l sou

nd o

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ge;

mou

th, w

ith

soft

pal

ate

rais

ed; g

rad

ual

the

tong

ue b

lad

e fo

rms

clos

ure

wit

hre

leas

e of

air

pre

ssur

eth

e fr

ont o

f the

har

d p

alat

e

Inte

rmit

tent

an a

rtic

ulat

or

appi

ng lo

ose

or o

neTr

illth

e r

soun

d in

Sco

ttis

h pr

onun

ciat

ion

arti

cula

tor

tapp

ing

agai

nst a

noth

eror

in th

e Sp

anis

h pe

rro

dog

; th

eto

ngue

vib

rate

s ag

ains

t the

alv

eola

r ri

dge

Inte

rmit

tent

a si

ngle

tap

by o

ne a

rtic

ulat

or a

gain

st th

eFl

apth

e r

soun

d in

Bri

tish

Eng

lish

roof

of t

he m

outh

pron

unci

atio

n of

ver

yor

in th

e Sp

anis

hpe

rob

ut;

the

tong

ue ta

ps th

eal

veol

ar r

idge

Part

ial

part

ial c

losu

re in

the

mou

th a

llow

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the

Lat

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the

init

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aw; t

he m

idd

leai

r to

esc

ape

arou

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ne o

r bo

th s

ides

part

of t

he to

ngue

touc

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the

top

of th

e cl

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the

mou

th

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RR

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ome

poin

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the

voca

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icat

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the

init

ial a

nd

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ound

s of

fuss

;op

enin

g is

nar

row

ed s

o as

to p

rod

uce

air

is fo

rced

bet

wee

n th

e lo

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lip

aud

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fric

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and

upp

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eth,

and

bet

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n th

efr

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tong

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nd th

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, res

pect

ivel

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From Phones to Phonemes

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41From Phones to Phonemes

B OX 3 . 1 A C R O B AT I C S O F S P E A K I N G

The sounds that we hear when spoken to and that we emit when speak-ing are produced by complex gymnastics executed by our lips, tongue,velum, larynx, and lungs. The activities of these independent anatomicalstructures are coordinated with a precision that should be the envy of themost highly trained ballet dancer; yet this truly remarkable exercise is per-formed at the drop of a hat by even the clumsiest person. In contrast, eventhe most adroit primates have never been able to master it, despite inten-sive training. These facts suggest that the ability to speak is linked to ourgenetic endowment, that it is one of the aspects in which humans differfrom all other mammals.

The gymnastic feats involved in speaking are clearly not the wholestory. Speech is not just some noise that humans are capable of emitting;it is a noise that is produced to convey meaning. And how speech conveysmeaning is surely one of the great puzzles that has intrigued thinkers forcenturies.

from Morris Halle, The Rules of Language (1980), 54

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