landscape planning for industrial agriculture: a proposed framework for rural areas

Landscapeand Urban Planning, 18 (1990) 215-287 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam-Printed in The Netherlands

275

Landscape Planning for Industrial Agriculture: A Proposed Framework for Rural Areas

K. KERKSTRA

Department ofLandscape Architecture, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen (The Netherlands)

‘P. VRIJLANDT

Directorate of Forestry and Landscape Planning, Ministry ofAgriculture. Utrecht (The Netherlands)

(Accepted for publication 22 August 1989)

ABSTRACT

Kerkstra, K. and Vrijlandt, P., 1990. Land- scape planning for industrial agriculture: a proposed framework for rural areas. Land- scape Urban Plann., 18: 27.5-287.

Developments in agriculture affect the landscape of the Pleistocene sandy areas in The Netherlands in a radical way. During recent decades the old landscape pattern has disappeared to a large extent. Deterioration contin- ues to be manifest, this in spite of efforts to pre-

serve remnants of the historical landscape. In addition to landscape conservation, new strate- gies for future development are essential. The proposed ‘framework” concept is meant to be an answer to the friction between agriculture and other land use claims, such as outdoor recreation, nature conservation and water supply. It is intended to help separate intensive and dynamic land use from extensive functions requiring more stability.

INTRODUCTION

The landscape of the sandy soils in the East- ern Netherlands (Fig. 1) has been subjected to drastic changes since the beginning of this century. The situation in 1880 shows a land pattern which still represents the main outlines of its Medieval origins. Its clear and coherent structure was the result of a balanced interaction between land use and physiographic conditions. Its visual character was determined by

the existence of alternating large tracts of open, rough, uncultivated land surrounding enclosed, intensively used parcels of farm land (Fig. 2).

All this has changed, and the reclamation of “wild land” such as heather, fens and marsh grounds, the layout of drainage systems, the expansion of the road patterns, and the in- creasingly intensive land use have resulted in a marked decrease in non-agrarian processes in the landscape (Fig. 3 ) .

0169-2046/90/$03.50 0 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

276 K. KERKSTRA AND P. VRIJLANDT

Fig. 1. Sandy soils in The Netherlands

THE PROCESS OF CHANGE: CONFLICTS AND REMEDIES

The impact of the changes in land use on the natural environment and on the visual character of the landscape can be summed up as follows.

(i) The natural variation in moisture content (wet/dry) and in nutrition levels (eu- trophic/oligotrophic) of the soil diminishes. Intensive drainage causes the extinction of most fens and marshes. In years of drought se- vere shortages of water occur. The abundant use of fertilizer and manure increases the amount of phosphate and nitrogen in the sub- soil to such a level that the quality of both surface water and deeper aquifers is at risk.

(ii) The disappearance of variation in ex- ternal conditions results in a decrease in vari- ety in plants and animal life. This process is

reinforced by the fragmentation of the origi- nally interconnected vegetation patterns. Fragmentation and isolation have a negative

effect on the opportunities for survival of ani- mals ( McArthur, 1967 ). Remaining copses, hedgerows and other minor natural elements

in the landscape are too small to resist destruc- tive outside forces.

(iii) The visual character of the landscape becomes more uniform. The original landscape units of rough, wild land have fallen apart. The contrast between the large open areas and the enclosed farm land has almost disappeared. The result is a landscape devoid

LANDSCAPE PLANNING FOR INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE 277


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of marked differences in openness and of a clear structural quality. The present day landscape presents a fragmented picture. Typical are the scattered copses, and destitute frag- ments of hedgerows.

Non-agrarian land use appears to be redun- dant in the eyes of farmers. Heather fields, peat areas, hedgerows and tree belts have ceased to be elements at home in the agricultural landscape. In reaction to this process government policy on these sandy soil areas is not only di- rected at an improvement of conditions for agricultural production, but simultaneously at the conservation and improvement of landscape character and ecologic quality. The main strat- egies are the interweaving of land use types and the preservation of landscape amenity and natural processes.

These qualities used to be an integral part of agrarian land use in the past, but at this mo- ment the combination of policies pursued by the Dutch government leads to a conflicting situation. The Administration must either meet the demands of the farmers or those of the nature conservation movement. The result in practice is mostly a compromise, obtained after prolonged negotiations. Some areas are pro- tected, others are left to agricultural exploita- tion. All parties concerned remain dissatisfied. In this way the process of change is being slowed down, but not really altered in a de- sired direction. In order to achieve this one should not only concern oneself with landscape preservation and strictly enforced envi- ronmental legislation but also with the implementation of landscape reconstruction projects. The primary objective should not be the restoration of circumstances that used to be, but a fundamental reorganization of land use types with an eye on the creation of a new landscape in which all objectives mentioned earlier can be attained and maintained in a harmonious way.

In the 19th century conditions were such that a cohesion existed between the variation in physiographic conditions, human use and eco-

logical qualities. Soil conditions and water supply determined opportunities for farming, and this sort of interaction resulted in a diver- sified flora and fauna. In other words: farming implied nature management, and vice versa. The farmer made and managed the landscape.

Nowadays this interaction has disappeared and farmers tend to neglect, or even remove, elements such as hedgerows. However, these hedgerows are very important from an ecologic point of view, especially when they are part of an interconnected pattern and form what nowadays is called an “ecological infrastructure”. The question arises if the maintenance of these structural elements can be left to the responsibility of individual citizens. There is evidently a task for the government here, as has been recognized for a number of years. But the division of responsibilities and tasks between government and private citizens has not been resolved so far. If we want to create a better situation in the future by implementing landscape reconstruction and consolidation projects we must also solve social and administra- tive questions at all levels of government.

THE FRAMEWORK CONCEPT

One possible solution to the problem of conflicting interests in land use is a segregation in space between intensive use requiring a flexi- ble layout and the more extensive types of use requiring stability. This involves the planning of a durable and stable framework, an interconnected pattern of zones in which nature management, forestry, outdoor recreation and water control is concentrated. This framework envelops large open areas in which optimal agricultural production is made possible. The planning of such a framework requires a long term vision and a carefully conceived set of objectives. In the agricultural areas short term planning cycles are wanted in order to warrant a timely adaptation to changes in production. Within the zones and corridors of the framework multiple land use will help in achieving


visual and functional differentiation and also in meeting demands in society. This last point must be emphasized because the high costs of construction and maintenance of such a layout requires a recognized need and an acceptance on the part of the population. The management of nature areas stands a better change when it is combined with certain types of other use, as was the case with traditional land- scapes. The framework concept gives opportunities for a better division of tasks between government and private citizens. The government is able to manage the durable zones inside the framework more effectively on the long run and can guarantee a minimum standard of

quality. Inside the new agricultural land units however the government should not interfere in the sense of owning and maintaining elements that contribute to landscape amenity and/or nature quality.

The location of major interconnected elements of the framework could be based on -or adapted to - existing major physiographic elements, this in combination with actual land use. The dimensions of the framework should be such that any conceivable development in agriculture could be contained within its inte- rior boundaries, in order to avoid a recurrent process of adaptation.

-ig. 4. The Achterhoek region. Map showing rivers, major brooks and main towns.

LANDSCAPE PLANNING FOR INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE

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LANDSCAPE PLANNING FOR INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTUKE 283


Fig. 8. Example 1. Top: Birds’ eye view of present situation. Bottom: The proposed framework

PILOT STUDY ACHTERHOEK

The landscape plan for the region of Achter- hoek in the Eastern part of The Netherlands (see Figs. 4 and 5) is an elaboration of the framework concept in realistic circumstances and serves as a test case. The framework de- signed for the Achterhoek consists of a pattern of large nature areas and forest units covering between 5000-8000 ha and interconnected by a network of “veins” of uncultivated land. The form and location of the larger units are in most cases related to the existing macro-relief, that is the range of river dunes on the eastern side of the river Oude IJssel, other large wind-blown sandy ridges and the higher parts of the pla- teau of the Eastern Netherlands.

The following deliberations underly the choice of this location: - The maintenance and restoration of a di-

versity in physiographic conditions is de-

cisive for the development of a varied animal and plant life. Existing physical conditions which tend to change for the worse as a result of agricultural exploita- tion, such as a low nutrient content and high water table in the soil are of primary importance. Higher areas are most suitable in the long run for the maintenance of relatively low nutritious soils because of their hydrologi- cal isolation from low-lying farmland. The upper reaches of rivulet systems and higher plateaus with impermeable layers of boulder clay offer the best opportunities for the development of wetlands with a good water quality. The chosen location does the least damage to agricultural production. The areas selected are less suitable for farming, due to their vulnerability to drought or their poor drainage.

LANDSCAPE PLANNING FOR INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE

- The selected areas are at present largely covered by scattered woodlands. By ex- panding and connecting these elements one can lay out larger continuous forest and nature areas.

The minor network of interconnected zones within the agricultural production areas is linked to that of the roads and water channels, which together constitute the relatively stable infrastructure. Drainage channels mostly are located at the rear of the farm holdings, that is the relatively quiet and extensively used part. Roads are usually at the front of the farms, they create access to farm buildings and land. This frontage has a more dynamic character and therefore is ill-suited for the growth of more stable environments. Only the verges of roads, whether or not with road side planting, are po- tential refuge areas for flora and fauna, especially if they are overdimensioned.

The minimum size of the individual holding

285

in an agricultural production zone is 25 ha. In view of expected delays in the land acquisition procedures the implementation of the project described hereafter is planned in phases.

Phase one, as illustrated in Fig. 6, gives an impression of the possible situation in case of a limited change in land use, in which case 5% of the land is assumed to be available for non- productive purposes.

Phase two, illustrated in Fig. 7, is based on the assumption that 15% of the land could be withdrawn from agricultural use. It gives an impression of the long term development of the framework.

PHASE ONE

In this phase natural conditions are fostered in the upper reaches of creek valleys, along the edges of the higher plateaus. In places where surface water runoff is slowed down by shal-

Fig. 9. Example 2. Remainder of caption as in Fig. 8.


Fig. 10. Example 3: Remainder of caption as in Figs. 8 and 9.

low layers of boulder clay or loam, conditions are favourable for the growth of marshy scrub- land. Open water bodies may occur locally. Along the upper reaches of brooks the planting of belts of trees and shrubs will help in estab- lishing a more natural profile. Shade giving trees along creeks help slow down the growth of water plants and their roots protect the shoreline against erosion. In the lower reaches of the creeks the development of marshy zones with a minimum width of 15 m on either side, is proposed. This implies the relocation of existing levees. Within the nature zones variation can be stimulated by local excavation of sand or clay, resulting in numerous changes in ground surface level and the emergence of ponds in some places. Water quality could be maintained by the layout of the so-called water purification marshes at points where runoff from farmland enters the brook bedding ( Meuleman, 198 7 ) .

The natural zones along the lower reaches of

the brooks run into the flood plain of the river IJssel. In these areas a large scale development of marshes and riverain woodlands is foreseen as proposed in the so-called “Ooievaar Proj- ect” (De Bruin et al., 1987).

The proposed road side planting is in har- mony with the differences between the older parts of the landscape and the more recently developed areas. In the older parts of the landscape all roads have been planted up and in the more recently cultivated land only the main ones. The result is a more differentiated landscape: enclosure versus openness and a pro- nounced orientation. A pattern of foot paths and cycle tracks could be laid out parallel to the roads and water channels. The larger creeks could be used for canoeing.

PHASE TWO

In this phase the larger forests and nature areas on the plateaus are expanded consider-


ably. This will have a positive effect on water retention and helps creating aquifers of high quality. In the valleys of the larger brooks catchment basins are constructed with an eye on water provision for farm land during the growing season. The plan shows some possible locations (Figs. 8-10).

DISCUSSION

The plan presented here for the Achterhoek region must be seen as a mere illustration of the possible direction in which developments could be guided. The intention is to raise rele- vant questions and to point to uncertainties. It is not a ready-made proposal to be imple- mented as drawn here, but it is part of the process of search towards a more definite solution (Kleefmann, 1984).

The ideas sketched are applicable in locations of a similar character elsewhere in the country. The translation into more definite plans will vary however from place to place. In this way the framework concept will not lead to uniform results. Every region or locality has its own specific layout, its own problems and its own specific opportunities, and these can be exploited. The proposals concerning water control and management are based on a number of assumptions, which need further inves- tigation and verification. The question remains if we can improve water management by

the careful location of certain types of land use in the way as proposed here. The question also remains if the described combination of nature management and water retention is a realistic proposal. We are not certain if in this plan all the water requirements of agriculture, nature management and drinking water supply are being met in an adequate way. The plan also presumes the existence of effective anti-pollu- tion measures, including a ban on the exces- sive use of manure and an adequate quality control of effluents of water purification plants.

REFERENCES

Bruin, D. de, et al., 1987. Ooievaar; de toekomst van het rivierengebied. Gelderse Milieufederatie, Arnhem.

Hazendonk, N.F.C. and Veen, P.J., 1988. Het landschap van de zandgebieden; probleemverkenning in de ruilverkavel- ing Strijper Aa-Budel. Directorate of Forestry and Land- scape Planning, Ministry of Agriculture, Utrecht, and Wageningen Agricultural University.

Jonge, J.M. de, 1988. Het landschap van de zandgebieden; probleemverkenning in de ruilverkavelingen Zieuwent- Harreveld en Aalten. Directorate of Forestry and Land- scape planning, Ministry of Agriculture, Utrecht, and Wageningen Agricultural University.

Kerkstra, K. and Vrijlandt, P., 1988. Het landschap van de zandgebieden; probleemverkenning en oplossingsricht- ing. Directorate of Forestry and Landscape Planning, Ministry of Agriculture, Utrecht, and Wageningen Agri- culture University.

Kleefmann, F., 1984. Planning als Zoekinstrument. Uitgev- erij Vuga, s’cravenhage.

McArthur, R.M. and Wilson, E.O., 1967. The Theory of Is- land Biogeography. Princeton University Press.

landscape planning for industrial agriculture: a proposed framework for rural areas

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