LAND DEGRADATION & REHABILITATION, VOL. 1, 209-216 (1989)

LAND USE, DEFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION IN THE ZAMBIAN COPPERBELT

E. N. CHIDUMAYO Biology Department, Universiq of Zambia, PO Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia

ABSTRACT

Temporal and spatial changes in land use, vegetation cover, deforestation and reforestation in the Zambian Copperbelt were studied using a combination of aerial photograph analysis, literature review and inquiries among relevant government institutions.

The study showed that between 1937 and 1984 loss of natural woodlands in the Copperbelt of Zambia (total area of Copperbelt: 9,615 km2) amounted to 41 per cent woodland area (8,419 km2). The major causes of this deforestation are woodfuel collection (for firewood and charcoal), cultivation and replacement of natural woodland with forest plantations. These accounted for 38 per cent, 37 per cent and 15 per cent of the total deforestation, respectively. Before 1962 the copper mining industry used large quantities of firewood to generate electricity and this resulted in the loss of 150,413ha of woodland between 1937 and 1961. When the mining industry switched to hydroelectricity, urban households became the major users of woodfuel. The urban population in the Copperbelt increased from 0.412 million in 1960 to 1.400 million in 1984 and its consumption of woodfuel led to the deforestation of at least 89,436 ha between 1962 and 1984.

Deforested areas are left to regenerate naturally. However, due to poor management about 34 per cent of the area deforested before 1962 has failed to regenerate. Although 50,200 ha have been reforested with exotic trees, only 5,020 ha of this is on land previously deforested. Thus only about 10 per cent of reforestation efforts have contributed to the rehabilitation of damaged land. Ninety per cent of the reforestation has actually replaced standing indigenous woodland.

Uncontrolled bushfires have destroyed forest plantations and have also caused the failure of woodland regeneration in deforested areas. These observations indicate that if forest resources in the Copperbelt of Zambia are to be properly managed it will be necessary:

(i) to effectively regulate land use changes and; (ii) to control bushfires.

KEY WORDS Deforestation Reforestation Zambian Copperbelt Bushfire damage Savanna woodland degradation Tree plantations Woodfuel supplyidernand

INTRODUCTION

Clearance for cultivation, woodfuel gathering and logging have all contributed to deforestation in Africa (Eckholm, 1977; Caufield, 1982; Brown and Wolf, 1985; Timberlake, 1985; Whitlow, 1987). Data on deforestation in Africa are often based on general estimates derived from crude surveys and/or vegetation maps (Timberlake, 1985; Whitlow, 1987). Attention has focussed more on deforestation of tropical moist forests (it is estimated that during the 1970s Africa was losing 1.3 million ha of these annually (Caufield, 1982)). Deforestation of drier forests and savanna woodlands is less well-studied. And yet larger human and animal (both wild and domestic) populations in these areas coupled with a lower forest standing stock imply higher rates of deforestation of drier forests and savanna woodlands in Africa.

Zambia is a country with extensive savanna woodland and deforestation has been identified by The National Conservation Strategy as one of the five main environmental problems facing the country (Anon., 1985). The woodland loss as a proportion of the total woodland area is estimated at 0.5 per cent

0898-5812/89/030209-08$05 .OO 0 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 3 July 1989 Revised 9 September 1989

210 E. N . CHIDUMAYO

(Anon., 1985). Caufield (1982) estimated that rates of annual deforestation of tropical moist forest in Africa range from 0.2 per cent in Zaire to 10 per cent in Nigeria and the Ivory Coast. Thus, compared with the continental scale, the rate of deforestation in Zambia is relatively low. However, the national deforestation rate masks a great deal of local variation in rates of deforestation. Understanding these spatial variations in deforestation is useful for identifying areas requiring conservation programmes.

This paper describes the deforestation problem in the most industrialized region of Zambia, the Copperbelt, and examines how this is linked to changes in land use, industrial development and urban population growth. The results are based on the analysis of aerial photographs, literature survey and personal inquiries. This approach enabled the construction of a profile of deforestation during the 48-year period from 1937 to 1984. It is hoped that the results will be useful in understanding the dynamics of deforestation in an area with high industrial development and a large urban population.

APPROACH AND METHODS

The Copperbelt of Zambia is located in the northwest of the country along the border with Zaire between latitude 12" 15'-13" 15's. and longitude 27" 15'-28" 45'E. Rainfall is distributed from November to April and ranges between 1000 and 1200mm per annum. The dry period from May to October is divided into two seasons: cool-dry (May-July) and hot-dry (August-October). The range in mean daily minimum and maximum temperatures during the cool-dry season is 5-8°C and 24-25"C, respectively. Mean daily minimum and maximum temperatures in October (the hottest month) are 21°C and 32"C, respectively.

The soils of the Copperbelt are highly weathered and leached with a low base exchange capacity. The Department of Agriculture (1956) analysed soil samples (up to a depth of 3.0m ) from different parts of the Copperbelt. An average Copperbelt soil contains 43 per cent clay, 8 per cent silt, 27 per cent fine sand and 22 per cent coarse sand and has a pH of 5.3. The vegetation belongs to the Zambezian phytochorion, which in the Copperbelt is dominated by wetter Brachystegia-Julbernardia (miombo) woodland (White, 1983). According to Chidumayo (1987) this savanna woodland is dominated by Brachystegia spiciformis Benth., B. longifolia Benth., Isoberlinia angolensis Hoyle and Brenan., and Julbernardia paniculata Troupin. This woodland is interrupted along streams and rivers by wide strips of dambo grassland. Dambo is a local name which refers to depressions near streams and rivers that are seasonally or permanently waterlogged.

The present study focussed on an area covering 9615 km2 lying between latitude 12" 15'-13" 15's. and longitude 27" 30'-28" 45' E. Although this area represents only 35 per cent of the total area of the Copperbelt Province, within it are all the copper mines and virtually all the urban population. Copper mining started in 1910 and has since dominated the Zambian economy. Peak production of 718,000 t y-' of refined copper was reached in 1972 but production declined to 541,000 t y-' in 1984.

The study analysed vegetation cover and land use using the latest aerial photographs available (which were taken in 1984). The photographs are at a scale of 1 : 20000 and alternate photographs along each flight-run were selected for the analysis. This involved a total of 1090 photographs. A grid of 1 x 1 cm squares covering an area 12 X 12cm (with a total of 144 squares) was marked in the middle of a transparent sheet with a size equal to that of each photograph (25.4 x 25.4cm). The analysis consisted of placing the transparent sheet over each photograph and then classifying and enumerating each of the 144 squares in the grid according to the dominant:

(i) land form, (ii) vegetation cover,

(iii) land use.

Each of these divisions was further subdivided into the following classes:

(i) Land form clusses-dambo and/or water, plateau interfluve and hill/escarpment. (ii) Vegetation cover cfasses-grassland with or without trees, woodland, clear-felled woodland

(deforestation) and exotic forest plantation.

LAND USE IN THE ZAMBIAN COPPERBELT 211

(iii) Land use classes-cultivation (separated into dambo and plateau interfluve), urban settlement and mining (opencast mines, waste dumps, waste ponds, etc.).

The non-overlapping area covered by each photograph was marked on a 1 : 500000 base map and the dominant land use or vegetation cover (occurring in the largest number of the 144 squares on each photograph) was indicated on the map. This information was used to prepare a land use and vetegation cover map for the study area (Figure 1). The area actually analysed by the aerial photograph examination represented 55.3 per cent of the non-overlapping area on each photograph. This percentage also represents a sampling out of the whole study area of 9,615 km’.

Aerial photograph analysis results were supplemented by data from literature and enquiries made in relevant institutions in order to determine the changes in vegetation cover during the period 1937-1984.

LAND USE AND VEGETATION COVER

The land in the Copperbelt can be placed into three divisions: stateland, trustland and (forest) reserves. Stateland is largely reserved for urban settlement, mining and commercial farming and land holding is based on lease titles granted by the State. Trustland and reserves are occupied by local people and are administered by tribal chiefs and their village headmen who allocate land to their subjects. Land use and vegetation cover in the study area according to each land division are given in Table I, while their spatial

Figure 1. Map showing land use and vegetation cover in the Copperbelt of Zambia in 1984, based on the analysis of aerial photographs. Urban land use includes built-up area and mining (open-cast mines, waste dumps and waste ponds)

212 E. N. CHIDUMAYO

Table I . Land use and vegetation cover (km’) in the Copperbelt of Zambia in 1984 based on the analysis of aerial photographs and maps. (figures in parentheses show percent of total area in each land category)

Land usehegetation cover stateland trustland reserves total (km2) (km2) (km2) (km2>

urban land use: settlement mining

cultivation: dambo interfluve

dambo grassland: without trees with trees

woodland/forest : deforested woodland forest plantation

total

267 80

20 1,008

735 7

1,222 2,871

467

6,677

0 0

0 25

97 0

2 584

2

710

0 (0) 2 (0.1)

9 (0.4) 243 (10.9)

312 (14.0) 16 (0-7)

89 (4.0)

33 (1.5) 1,524 (68.4)

2,228 (100)

267 82

29 1,276

1,144 23

1,313 4,979

502

9,615 ~~

Source: author, 1989.

distribution is shown in Figure 1. In each of the three land divisions the Zambian government has established forest reserves which are administered by the Forest Department. The National Forest Law prohibits unauthorized harvesting of forest produce (i.e., wood, charcoal, honey, fungi, fruits, etc), settling, grazing, cultivating and burning in forest reserves. Forest reserves cover 3,775 km2 or 39.3 per cent of the study area. Of this total area in forest reserves, 68.1 per cent is stateland, 22.9 per cent is trustland and 9 per cent is reserve land.

The study area can be subdivided into two contrasting landforms: dambo and interfluve. Dambos and interfluves cover 12.4 per cent and 87.6 per cent, of the study area respectively. Tree growth in dambos is inhibited or impaired by seasonal or permanent waterlogging which has therefore resulted in the development of edaphic dambo grassland vegetation. This contrasts with the wooded well-drained soils of interfluves. The area of potentid woodland (interfluves) in the study area is 8,419 km2 but only 4,979 km2 (59.1 per cent) was woodland in 1984. The woodland loss of 3,440 km2 has been caused by urban settlement (7.8 per cent), mining (2.4 per cent), establishment of exotic forest plantations (14.6 per cent), cultivation (37.1 per cent) and woodfuel collection (38.1 per cent). Whereas cultivation is restricted to the land outside forest reserves, firewoodkharcoal harvesting occurs both inside and outside forest reserves (see Table 11).

TRENDS IN DEFORESTATION

The dynamics of deforestation in the Copperbelt between 1937 and 1984 is shown in Table I1 and Figure 2. The extent of deforestation between 1962 and 1984 given in Table I1 is based on the deforested area in 1984 as revealed by the analysis of aerial photographs minus the area appearing as deforested in 1984, but which had already been deforested before 1962. Thus the extent of deforestation between 1962 and 1984 may have been under-estimated for two reasons:

(1) The exclusion of the area deforested before 1962 in which regeneration appeared to have failed may include land in which the woodland regenerated but was re-cleared between 1962 and 1984. (2) Some areas cleared during the early part of the 1962 to 1984 period may have regenerated to the extent that deforestation may not show on the aerial photographs.

LAND USE IN THE ZAMBIAN COPPERBELT 213

Table 11. Temporal changes in the rate of deforestation in the Copperbelt of Zambia

period clear-felled area (ha) mean annual deforestation (ha) within outside within outside forest forest forest forest

reserves reserves total reserves reserves total

193746 343.0 9 170.0 9 513.0 34.3 917.0 951.3 1947-5 1 6 356.0 49 894.0 56250.0 1271.2 9978.8 11 250.0 1952-56 4 239.0 66 41 1.0 70 650.0 847.8 13 282.2 14 130.0 1957-61 9 506.0 4 494-0 14000.0 1901.2 898-8 2800.0 1937-61 20 444.0 129 969.0 150 413.0 817.8 5 198.8 6016.5 1962-84 25 372.0 64 064.0 89 436.0 1103.1 2 785.4 3 888.5 1937-84 45 816.0 194 033.0 239 849.0 954.5 4042.4 4996.9

Source: Based on Lees (1962) for 1937-1961; present study by author for 1962-1984

Before 1962 the copper mining industry was dependent on natural woodlands for woodfuel to generate electricity and produce charcoal for the copper refineries. For example, between 1947 and 1956 approximately 127,000 ha of woodland were deforested for electricity generation alone (Lees, 1962). Clear-felling of woodlands was usually preceeded by selective harvesting of mining timber and poles. Thus in addition to clear-felled areas (Table 11), an estimated 128,600ha of woodland had been selectively harvested for timber and poles between 1937 and 1961. The deforestation caused by the generation of electricity declined drastically during the 1957-1961 period due to a switch to hydroelectricity by the mining industry. However, the mining industry still uses a small amount of charcoal (about 2 , 0 0 0 ~ t-') in its copper refineries and this accounts for a small proportion of the deforestation that occurred between 1962 and 1984 (Table 11).

The major cause of deforestation between 1962 and 1984 was urban household use of woodfuel for cooking and space-heating. Charcoal was introduced as a household energy source in the Copperbelt in 1947 (Lees, 1962), and has since become the dominant cooking energy source for urban households (Chidumayo and Chidumayo, 1984).

The urban population in the Copperbelt area increased from 412,000 in 1960 to 744,000 in 1969 and to 1.15million by 1980. With an annual population growth rate of nearly 5 per cent during the 1969-80 period, the urban population in the study area was estimated at 1.400 million in 1984. Chidumayo and Chidumayo (1984) estimated that Copperbelt urban households used a total of 183,316 tonnes of charcoal and 433,973 m3 of stacked firewood in 1983, which gave the overall equivalent of 496 kg of dry cordwood per person per year. Recent studies have shown that the woodlands in the Copperbelt contain on average 81 t ha-' of cordwood (Chidumayo, unpublished). Thus, deforestation due to urban household woodfuel use in 1984 in the Copperbelt is estimated to have been 8,573 ha with another 100 ha cleared for charcoal used in copper refineries. Total deforestation due to woodfuel was therefore about 8,673 ha in 1984. This rate of deforestation is approaching that observed during the whole of the 1947-1951 period (see Table 11). With the current urban population growth rate of 5 per cent per annum, the urban population in the Copperbelt will reach 2.4 million in 1995. Woodfuel requirements for such a population will imply the deforestation of 14,610 ha of woodlands each year. Consequently, the peak rate of deforestation of 14,130 ha per annum, observed between 1952 and 1956 will again be reached and exceeded by 1995.

'Woodfuel deforestation' occurs both in and outside forest reserves (see Table 11). By 1984 about 20 per cent and 80 per cent of this deforestation had occurred in and outside forest reserves, respectively. Over the 48-year period (1937-1984) the rate of deforestation averaged 954.5 ha per annum in forest reserves and 4,042.4 ha per annum outside forest reserves. Overall 13.6 per cent of the woodland in forest reserves had been deforested compared to 26.3 per cent outside forest reserves. It is apparent therefore that there has been less control over deforestation outside forest reserves than in forest reserves.

E. N . CHIDUMAYO 214

1937 - L6

1947 -51

1952 - 56

1957 - 61

1962-1984

Figure 2. Map showing temporal and spatial patterns in deforestation caused by woodfucl (firewood and charcoal) harvesting in the Copperbelt of Zambia between 1937 and 1984. 1937-1961 deforestation is based on LCCS (1962). Numbers indicate the following

towns: (1) Ndola, (2) Luanshya, (3) Kitwe, (4) Kalulushi, (5) Mufulira, (6) Chingola, and (7) Chililabombwe

THE FATE O F DEFORESTED AREAS

In order to understand the fate of deforested areas, changes in vegetation cover and land use in the areas clear-felled before 1962 were analysed. Out of a total of 150,413 ha deforested between 1937 and 1961 about 2 per cent had been converted to urban settlement, about 20 per cent was under cultivation, about 3 per cent was reforested with exotic pine and eucalyptus trees and about 75 per cent had been left to regenerate naturally by 1984. However, of the 112,664 ha left to regenerate naturally, regeneration had occurred on only 55 per cent of the land and had failed on 45 per cent of the land.

The Copperbelt has the largest concentration of forest plantations in Zambia. Large-scale planting of pines started in 1960 and with the later introduction of eucalyptus species, the area under plantation increased from 195 ha in 1960 to 53,590 ha in 1984 (Table 111). This estimate of forest plantation area (based on Forest Department records) differs from that of 50,200 ha derived from aerial photograph analysis. The difference may be due to the fact that the 53,590ha includes land that was re-planted following harvesting and/or destruction of plantations by fire (Table 111). Thus the area under plantation in 1984 will have been less than the area actually planted over the period 1960-1984.

It has been shown above that only 3 per cent of the area deforested before 1962 was under forest plantation in 1984. This shows that tree planting has not played a significant role in rehabilitating deforested areas in the Copperbelt. On the contrary, forest plantations have been established by clearing unused natural woodland. In this sense forest plantations have actually contributed to deforestation. Of

LAND USE IN THE ZAMBIAN COPPERBELT 215

Table 111. Progress in forest plantation establishment and area affected by bushfires in the Copperbelt of Zambia

~~ ~~

period area planted area affected area destroyed (ha) by fire (ha) by fire (ha)

up to 1960 196145 1966-70

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

1971-75

total

195 2 106 7 640

12 641 3 734 3 853 3 761 3 988 2 864 2 864 6 002 1971 1971

53 590

na na na na

98 394 454

1590 65 1 453

2 052 2 160 2 280

10 132

na na na na

17 187 132 294 280 155 460 427 590

2542

Note: na = data not available Source: Forestry Dept. data.

the 50200ha under forest plantation in 1984 only 9.8 per cent has contributed to the rehabilitation of deforested areas while 90.2 per cent (45 280 ha) has contributed to deforestation by replacing unused natural woodland.

Often clearing of natural woodland for plantations is done by machines which break up the soil and make it unsuitable for charcoal production using the traditional earth-kiln method (described by Chidumayo and Chidumayo, 1984). Since all the charcoal used in Zambia is produced by the earth-kiln method, all the wood in areas cleared for forest plantation is simply burnt and wasted. Furthermore, little, if any, of the woodfuel used by the urban population in Zambia comes from forest plantations.

The major management problem in deforested areas and forest plantations is the frequent occurrence of late dry-season (August-October) bushfires which retard regeneration of the natural woodland (Trapnell, 1959; Chidumayo, 1989) and destroy forest plantations (see Table 111). It is apparent from Table I11 that the area of forest plantations destroyed by bushfires has steadily increased from 17 ha in 1976 to 590 ha in 1984.

The Zambia Forest and Forest Industries Corporation (ZAFFICO) which manages forest plantations in the Copperbelt has monitored the causes of plantation fires. During 1976-1984 ZAFFICO recorded 490 plantation fires and of these 14 per cent were caused by hunters, 8 per cent by charcoal producers, 5 per cent by ZAFFICO workers, 3 per cent by lightning and 6 per cent were caused by stray fires spreading form adjacent natural woodlands. The cause of 64 per cent of the fires could not be determined.

In order to reduce the fire hazard, annual early burning is carried out during April-June. This reduces levels of ground fuel which minimizes the destruction caused by late dry-season fires. This early burning programme is applied effectively in forest plantations by ZAFFICO and to a limited extent in deforested areas in the forest reserves by the Forest Department. However, due to various constraints facing the Forest Department early burning in forest reserves is now largely confined to the vicinity of roads. There is no organized control of bush burning outside forest reserves and yet it is here that rates of deforestaion are highest. This lack of a comprehensive bushfire control programme in deforested areas will have serious environmental and socio-economic consequences for the future of the forest industry in the Copperbelt.

216 E . N. CHIDUMAYO

CONCLUSIONS

Mining is a minor cause of deforestation because a relatively small amount of deforestation is nowadays necessary for mineral extraction. However, when mineral processing is based on energy derived from firewood, mining can be a major cause of deforestation, as was the case in the Copperbelt between 1937 and 1961. Nevertheless switching from woodfuel-generated electricity to hydroelectricity has not saved the woodlands from deforestation because of the high increase in the urban population which is dependent on woodfuel. With the current high rate of urban population growth of 5 per cent per annum, rates of deforestation similar to those caused by the mining industry when it was most demanding of woodfuel between 1952 and 1956 will be repeated, and possibly exceeded by 1995.

The establishment of 50,200 ha of forest plantations has been a major achievement in that it provides forest products for industry. But forest plantations have been established at the expense of indigenous woodland which has been cleared in order to be replaced by exotic trees. Forest plantations have thus contributed to deforestation and have made little contribution to the supply of woodfuel for urban people.

Natural woodland is a potentially renewable resource but its ability to regenerate depends on how deforested areas are used and managed. In the Zambian Copperbelt both changes in land use and poor management have contributed to the permanent loss of woodland. For example, conversion of deforested areas to cultivation and urban settlement has resulted in the permanent loss of 22 per cent of the area deforested between 1937 and 1961. While 45 per cent of the 112,664ha left to natural regeneration has failed to regenerate due to poor management.

The major management problem regarding the recovery of woodland in deforested areas appears to be the lack of a comprehensive bushfire control programme. As a result bushfires have destroyed forest plantations and impaired woodland regeneration. This situation has worsened over the years (shown by the increase in the area of forest plantation destroyed by fire as a proportion of the area planted per annum, which has risen from 0.5 per cent in 1976 to 30 per cent in 1984). It is apparent therefore, that good management of forest resources in the Zambian Copperbelt will depend on the enforcement of stricter regulation of land use changes and control of bushfires.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank the Zambia Forest and Forest Industries Corporation and the Forest Department for data on forest plantation and plantation fires. The 1984 aerial photographs were provided by the Energy Department through the Zambia Household Energy Strategy Project funded by the World Bank.

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