land-use change and urbanization of adana, turkey

land degradation & development

Land Degrad. Develop. 14: 575–586 (2003)

Published online 2 September 2003 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/ldr.581

LAND-USE CHANGE AND URBANIZATION OF ADANA, TURKEY

H. ALPHAN*

Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Cukurova, Adana, Turkey

Received 26 February 2003; Revised 3 July 2003; Accepted 4 July 2003

ABSTRACT

This study analyses land-use/land-cover (LULC) changes in Adana city, Turkey, using satellite data of 1984 and 2000. Studyof the expansion of the city over adjacent agricultural fields and semi-natural areas was the major focus. The satellite imageswere classified using supervised classification prior to comparison of LULC on two different dates. The change map wasproduced by pixel-to-pixel comparison of the classified images. Urban and built-up area increased by a factor of 2�07 duringthe 16 years; about 30 per cent on agricultural land and 70 per cent on previously semi-natural land. Permanent immigrationand urban development strategies were the main driving forces. Some policy perspectives are also given. Copyright # 2003John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

key words: urbanization; land-use/land-cover change; Adana; Turkey; remote sensing

INTRODUCTION

Urbanization does not appear to be central to land-cover change, as it is still less than 2 per cent of the earth’s

surface. Yet it cannot be ignored in land-use/land-cover (LULC) change studies. The enormous expansion of urban

areas is a global phenomenon. By 2025, 60 per cent of the world population will be urban and the ‘ecological

footprint’ will be critical (Lambin et al., 1999). Urbanization in developing countries increases nearly 7 per cent

per year Masek et al. (2000). Xu et al. (2000) and Ji et al. (2001) note the potential threat to agricultural production

due to the constant loss of arable land.

Rural populations move to cities in the hope of raised standards. Hence LULC change is the product of

individual and community actions. Timely information on such change is the basis of policy for the anticipation of

problems that accompany growth (Ridd and Liu, 1998).

This study focuses on Adana metropolitan area by using satellite data of 1984 and 2000.

IDENTIFICATION OF LULC

Satellite data have long been available and are useful for urban LULC mapping and change detection (Quarmby

and Cushine, 1989; Yildirim et al., 2002). Landsat MSS images have relatively coarse spatial resolution. Landsat

TM with 7 spectral bands allows LULC mapping at a higher level of detail and finer urban change detection.

Landsat ETMþ provides panchromatic data with 15 m spatial resolution (Yang and Lo, 2002). One major

difficulty is the relatively short time span of the archived imagery (Logsdon et al., 1996).

Post-classification comparison is the most commonly used quantitative method of change detection. It requires

comparison of rectified individual classification results on a pixel-to-pixel basis (Dobson et al., 1995). This method

requires high classification accuracy (Rutchey and Velcheck, 1994). The advantage of post-classification

Copyright # 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

�Correspondence to: H. Alphan, Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Cukurova, Adana 01330, Turkey.E-mail: [email protected]

comparison is that it bypasses the difficulties associated with the analysis of images acquired at different times of

the year or by different sensors.

STUDY AREA AND THE DATASET

Adana is located in the Mediterranean region of Turkey about 30 m above sea-level (Figure 1). To the south is the

plain called Cukurova meaning ‘lower plain’, to the north are the foothills of the Taurus Mountain ranges. The city

core is lower than its vicinity (Figure 2). The River Seyhan rises in the Taurus Mountains and crosses the city of

Adana from north to south. North of the city, the Seyhan Dam was constructed in the late-1950s for hydraulic

power generation, potable water supply and agricultural irrigation. However, the lake scenery and bioclimate at the

dam recently attracted urbanization, and hence changed the environment. Figure 3 shows the change between 1984

and 2000.

The original seminomadic people in the Ottoman period had a pastoral lifestyle, living in small, dense villages

in lower parts of the region and seasonally utilizing the uplands. After the reform of 1865, they became settled and

adopted an agricultural lifestyle (Yilmaz, 1998). Since the 1950s Adana has become an important agricultural,

industrial and transportation centre. The urban population has increased by a factor of 13 to nearly 1�5 million

people during the past 67 years (Figure 4). Population growth between 1985 and 2000 was 22�5 per cent.

Figure 1. Location of the study area.

Figure 2. Typical north-to-south profile of the study area.

576 H. ALPHAN

Copyright # 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 14: 575–586 (2003)

Suburbanization emerged as a result of new space requirements. Semi-natural and agricultural areas, including

cotton fields, vineyards and olive groves, were built over. This resulted in losses of the natural drainage and

vegetation cover; consequently, lower parts of the area became prone to occasional flash-flooding.

The land is very fertile: approximately 70 per cent of the original dune area was replaced by agriculture and

afforestation in the Mediterranean coastal zone and gives high crop yields (Yilmaz, 2002). However, the major part

of the land around Adana city has recently been converted to an urban area.

The data used for the study are Landsat TM and ETMþ images (Path: 175/Row: 34) acquired on 29 September

1984 and 21 January 2000 respectively. Subscenes for the study area were produced from these cloud-free images.

Six reflective bands for each of the images were used in the classification and change detection procedure. The

thermal band was excluded in the analyses.

Figure 3. Classified images showing LULC categories of the study area in 1984 and 2000.

Figure 4. Population growth of the Adana city between 1935 and 2000. (Source: Anonymous, 2002).

LAND-USE CHANGE AND URBANIZATION 577


Digital Image Processing and Change Detection

The post-classification comparison procedure, as employed in this study, includes georeferencing, supervised

classification of satellite images and identification of change areas by comparing two classified images (Figure 5).

The five land-cover classes used in the classification are: (1) seminatural, (2) bare-exposed, (3) agriculture, (4)

urban and (5) water. Definitions for these are given in the Table I.

Since post-classification detection of changes relies on pixel-based comparisons, georeferencing is of great

importance to produce spatially reliable change maps. Both images of 1984 and 2000 were rectified and

georeferenced to the UTM map projection. The root mean square error (RMSE) was calculated to be not greater

than 0�4 pixels in the x and y directions for both images, which proved the accuracy of the registration.

Figure 5. Flow diagram of the change detection procedure used in this study.

Table I. Definitions of LULC classes used in the classification

Class name Definition

Semi-natural Characterized by high coverage of////macchia shrubs (e.g. Quercus coccifera, Pistacia lentiscus, Myrtus

communis) and pine forest (Pinus brutia). Open green spaces around the airports were also included in thisclass

Bare-exposed Areas of sparse vegetation cover (less than 20 per cent) that are likely to change or be converted to otheruses in the near future; including clearcuts, all quarry area, barren rock or sand along the river or streambeds (Yang and Lo, 2002)

Agriculture Arable lands with or without crops, including orchards and vineyardsUrban Approximately 80–100 per cent coverage of construction materials. Residential development residing in the

city core, commercial and industrial buildings, large and open transportation facilities (Yang and Lo, 2002).Newly developed residential areas with approximately 50 per cent coverage of very sparse vegetation arealso included in this class. High concrete buildings are typical to these new residential areas

Water Open water surfaces with almost 100 per cent cover of water including the dam lake, streams and the river

578 H. ALPHAN


Supervised classification of each image was implemented using a maximum likelihood classifier. ERDAS

IMAGINE software was used for image processing. Six non-thermal bands of each image were clustered into

spectral classes according to the statistics derived from the training pixels. Each spectral class was then assigned to

one of the previously defined LULC classes. Fields without crop were assigned to a class that was later recoded as

‘agriculture’. Urban and built-up areas were recognized by high albedo in the visible portion of the spectrum

whereas the semi-natural areas were identified by relatively high reflectance in the near-infrared band.

RESULTS OF MAP COMPARISONS

The following data were assessed by map comparisons

(1) LULC maps of each date (Figure 3).

(2) Change map by overlaying one LULC map onto another.

(3) ‘From-to’ information from pixel-to-pixel comparison of the classifications.

Conversions can be seen by visual interpretation of the maps. It showed that development took place on the semi-

natural areas, vineyards and olive groves in the northwest and on agricultural fields in the south.

The urban area grew by 4872 ha between 1984 and 2000, or nearly by 300 ha yr�1 on average. The urban area

doubled, whereas semi-natural and agricultural areas decreased by 34 and 23 per cent respectively (Table II,

Figure 6). Approximately 58 per cent of the newly urbanized area was reclaimed from agriculture and two-thirds of

the area that converted to agriculture in this period was reclaimed from semi-natural areas (Table III, Figure 7).

Bold values on the diagonal axis in the Table III represent no change.

Built-up urban areas are generally expected not to change to other LULC types such as water or agriculture.

However, sometimes reflectance spectra are misleading, particularly in low-density urban areas, where vegetation

Table II. Changes in the area of LULC between 1984 and 2000

Class name 1984 (ha) 2000 (ha) Change (ha) Change (%)

Semi-natural 5 339�52 3 524�40 �1815�12 �33�99Bare-exposed 2 041�20 1 978�38 �62�82 �3�08Agriculture 13 003�38 10 014�48 �2988�90 �22�99Urban 4 528�44 9 400�23 4871�79 107�58Water 1 830�60 1 825�65 �4�95 �0�27

Total 26 743�14 26 743�14

Figure 6. LULC changes between 1984 and 2000.



grows over time. Then misleading classification may result. This may be the case for changes shown in Table III

from urban to semi-natural, agriculture or water; not to the change to bare-exposed.

URBANIZATION PATTERNS

The accelerated development of Adana city dates back to the investments that aimed to improve agriculture and

agriculture-based industries in the region in early-1950s. These measures included flood control in the lower

region, utilization of fertilizers and biocides, promotion of agricultural mechanization and introduction of new

plant breeds for agriculture.

Two factors promoted the residential development: (1) the migration of rural people from economically

undeveloped regions in the country to squatter settlements and (2) the demand for new peri-urban settlements near

the dam reservoir that had a better bioclimate (Figure 8). The northwards expansion of the city resulted from

planned action initiated in early-1990s to accommodate 200 000 new residents by the year 2010 (Figure 9).

In contrast, the development in the south has led to unplanned suburbs expanding over the agricultural fields.

Population increase in this region coincides with the incorporation of the country into the expanding world

economy and the quest for new employment opportunities like those in other large cities. Though much migration

is to cities in the west, Adana has been one of the centres in the middle of the country that received a great

proportion of permanent migration during this period. This resulted in an extensive increase of squatter

settlements. Urban encroachment upon arable lands in the southern part of the city has occurred due to this

movement.

The last development plan for Adana City was brought into force in 1969. The major focus of the plan, which

estimated the population would reach up to 1 million by 1985, was to keep urbanization away from the fertile

Table III. LULC conversion matrix

From 1984 to 2000 Semi-natural Bare-exposed Agriculture Urban Water Total (1984)

Semi-natural 1 961�64 501�75 1 482�03 1 377�27 16�83 5 339�52Bare-exposed 190�08 816�57 303�30 716�85 14�40 2 041�20Agriculture 1 327�23 558�00 8 184�60 2 903�85 29�70 13 003�38Urban 42�21 72�00 28�08 4 360�68 25�47 4 528�44Water 3�24 30�06 16�47 41�58 1 739�25 1 830�60

Total (2000) 3 524�40 1978�38 10 014�48 9 400�23 1 825�65 26 743�14

Figure 7. Amount and the composition of conversions to 2000 LULC classes.

580 H. ALPHAN


agricultural lands. However, it was revised several times because the population grew far more rapidly

than expected between 1974 and 1985. Increasing demands for new settlements and the high price of the

land also played an important role in the urbanization as they too led to successive revisions in the develop-

ment plans.

The revised plan put into practice in 1985 was a milestone in the historical development of Adana city because it

allowed high dwelling density. The potential green spaces for recreation and wildlife conservation were built over

following the routine revisions between 1985 and 1992. This trend caused more green spaces, such as woods,

orchards and vineyards, to be urbanized and thus led to diminishing green space.

The northeast and the northwest development sectors, as proposed in the 1992 plan, were designated to protect

productive soils from urbanization. However, the land allocated to building construction in the north gained an

extremely high value, to an extent that cannot be achieved even under the best agricultural practices and

productivity. This phenomenon revealed an increasingly growing pressure for revisions in the development plans

and led not only the non-productive, but also to the productive soils being urbanized due to the high price of the

land.

There has been a significant decrease in the amount of green space available. The 1969 development plan

suggested 7�66 m2 green space per head while the 1992 revision suggested only 3�14 m2. Moreover, further

revisions resulted in even less green space, and only 12 per cent of that suggested in the development plans was

realized by the year 2000, which meant that there was only 0�65 m2 per head.

Figure 8. Spatial distribution of the urbanized areas and ‘from-to’ change categories.



The Seyhan River divides the city into two geographical and municipal subregions. The western subregion,

namely Seyhan, has a greater population due to recent developments with high dwelling density. Population

density increased from 1600 to 2031 persons km�2 in Seyhan and from 241 to 297 persons km�2 in the eastern

subregion between 1990 and 2000.

LOSS OF SEMI-NATURAL AREAS

Semi-natural areas adjacent to cities are generally considered as reserves for recreation and wildlife conservation.

The development in the north has also taken place on the semi-natural areas: about 1400 ha of semi-natural areas

were replaced by urbanization.

The study area is located in the Mediterranean phytogeographical region, which has high species diversity. The

(semi-)natural areas adjacent to the city are characterized by high////macchia shrubs such as kermes oak (Quercus

coccifera), terebinth tree (Pistacia terebinthus), lentisc (Pistacia lentiscus), sweet bay laurel (Laurus nobilis) and

myrtle (Myrtus communis). Fire pine (Pinus brutia), wild olive tree (Olea europaea var. sylvestris) and carob tree

(Ceratonia siliqua) are the characteristic native tree species. Dwarf shrubs such as sage (Salvia officinalis), rock

rose (Cistus salviifolius), brooms (Genista spp.) and thyme (Thymus capitatus) are also common. Thorny burnet

(Sarcopoterium spinosum) is the commonest pioneer species of the////macchia and is typical to bare areas with

limestone outcrops. The oleander tree (Nerium oleander) and plane tree (Platanus orientalis) are the two dominant

species of the riverbanks. Lever wood (Ostrya carpinifolia), common fig tree (Ficus carica), venus’ hair

(Adiantum capillus-veneris) and common ivy (Hedera helix) are also important species of the watercourses.

The north of the city is a transition zone between the alluvial Mediterranean coast and the Taurus Mountains. Of

vascular plant taxa 415 belonging to 265 genera were identified in this zone. Woody species account for 15 per cent

of total number of the species (Turkmen, 1987). The coastal zone of the province also has great diversity of plant

species. There are 560 plant species reported in the coastal zone, 21 of which are endemics. According to the list of

threatened species in Turkey, as described by Ekim et al. (2000), five of these endemics are ‘critically endangered’

while the number of ‘endangered’ and ‘vulnerable’ species are three and two respectively (Cakan, 2001).

Figure 9. Urban development through the northern fringe of the city (1998).

582 H. ALPHAN


LOSS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND FOOD SECURITY

Turkey’s population increased almost 2�5-fold between 1960 and 2000 (Anonymous, 2003a). In this period, the

total cropland area of the country increased by 5�98 per cent to 26 672 000 ha while total production of the primary

crops such as wheat, barley, maize, potatoes, chickpeas, groundnuts, olives, seed cotton, chillies and peppers and

watermelon increased by a factor of 3�45 to 114 006 956 t (FAO, 2003). Per capita arable cropland area in Turkey

was about 0�4 ha in 2000, below the 0�5 ha required for food security and above the average per capita world

cropland of 0�27 ha. (Bio)technological improvements, and increases in the harvest indices of crops, uses of

fertilizers and biocides, irrigation and mechanization have enabled the food supply to keep pace with the

increasing food demand in Turkey (Evrendilek and Ertekin, 2002). The population still increases at a rate of

approximately 18 per cent per year. This means that demand for food will also increase in the future. The growth of

the population is directly linked to urbanization, which is generally responsible for depletion of nearby croplands.

Identification and monitoring of urban and agriculture-related LULC changes are thus of critical importance.

Decline of agricultural production may be avoided by increased food imports, high crop yields through

agricultural intensification and/or expansion of croplands over marginal areas where environmental conditions are

harsh and the productivity is limited. According to the FAO (2003), Turkey’s cereal imports increased almost

three-fold to 2 681 679 t between 1960 and 2000 while exports reached up to 2�5 million t in 2000.

The agricultural intensification that emerged as a result of growing demand for food has been responsible for

concomitant increases in energy- and water-intensive management practices and monoculture in Turkey.

Salinization and waterlogging degraded the productivity of about 2�9 per cent (0�83 million ha) and 6�9 per cent

(1�97 million ha) of croplands in 1980, respectively. Excessive use of groundwater resources resulting not only in

higher pumping costs in the short term, but also depletion of aquifers in the long term is one of the major

consequences of agricultural expansion and intensification (Evrendilek and Ertekin, 2002). The expansion of

croplands has negative impacts on fragile (semi-) natural habitats such as coastal wetlands and sand dunes. Sand

dunes were destroyed due to expansion of agricultural fields and improper management activities in the

southeastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey (Uslu and Bal, 1993; Ozaner, 1996; Yilmaz, 1998).

The total coverage of Adana Province is about 1�4 million ha, 38 per cent (540 000 ha) of which is arable

cropland. The region makes the highest contribution to gross value of Turkey’s agricultural crop production

(5 per cent of the gross value in 1995). The main crops are wheat, cotton, watermelon, citrus crops, soybean and

maize. The fertile alluvial soils and mild climate allow high crop yield twice a year. Wheat production in 1997 was

1�05 million t at 3410 kg ha�1 while cotton and maize productions were 215 438 and 961 463 t respectively

(Anonymous, 2003b and c).

Between 1984 and 2000, the urbanization on the most productive lands that took place was as large as 1555 and

2176 ha for Class I and Class II soils respectively (Table IV). Spatial information about soil productivity with

regard to urbanized areas is given in Figure 10.

Because total acreage of arable croplands is limited and crop yield can be increased only to a certain extent even

under the best agricultural practices protection of the arable lands is crucial to provide self-sufficiency for food.

The need for conservation of croplands in Adana Province may be seen more clearly as the crop yield per unit area

and the coverage of arable lands in the region are considered.

Table IV. The amount of urbanization with regard to soil productivity

Soil classes Productivity Area converted to urbanbetween 1984 and 2000 (ha)

Class I Productive 1555Class II Productive 2176Class III Moderately productive 451Class IV Moderately productive 424Class V Moderately productive 0Class VI Non-productive 265



The urbanization of Adana city is related to underlying socio-economic facts and the outcome of local policies.

Urbanization tends to grow as the populations increase and the development plans are revised on a routine basis.

Speculative processes that took place during earlier urbanization seem to be neglected by the authorities. Though

the productive soils in Turkey are protected the malpractice of land trade and the unobstructed use of fertile land

have occurred due to lack of monitoring. Timely and reliable data on LULC may facilitate the formation of

integrated resource management policies. A monitoring mechanism must be introduced to better understand the

nature of LULC changes and urbanization.

Land-use policies and regulations related to urbanization must be reviewed and updated to provide a basis for

conservation strategy of arable croplands and rationale for sustainable use of environmental resources. For

example, proposed development areas may be included in environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedure

regardless of the scale of development.

The population increase of the city can be controlled by widespread public campaigns aiming to reduce

migration by means of improved rural infrastructure and services (Gultekin and Ortacesme, 1996). As the primary

basis for ensuring that permitted developments are environmentally sustainable, environmental risk analysis

should be used to meet the integration requirement of the management system (Berberoglu, 2003).

A new revision plan for the Adana city, which takes the northeast and the northwest development sectors into

consideration, is still in the design stage. Areas around the dam lake are the only available semi-natural areas in the

vicinity and they must be kept free from development to provide a large and continuous green space. Green spaces

in the new development areas should be planned in connection with nearby green areas in order to increase their

Figure 10. Spatial distribution of soil productivity in respect to urbanization.

584 H. ALPHAN


functionality and aesthetics. The amount of green space suggested in development plans can be increased by

covering its establishment cost out of the land price, given that the land price generally shows a sharp increase as

the land gains excessively high values after development decisions. A certain amount of the extra revenue obtained

from sale of land may be returned to urban system to create more liveable urban environments. This may also help

in diminishing the unrealistic demands for development made by landowners and speculators.

CONCLUSION AND PROSPECTS

Identification of LULC trends is not difficult when pairwise comparison is performed. The time series of a

particular urban area can be analysed to determine trends more accurately and depletion of agricultural and semi-

natural areas adjacent to city can be proven. Two Landsat datasets with 30 m ground resolution were classified and

compared to detect LULC changes in the study area for a 16-year period. The frequency of change detection may

be increased to decadal or half-decadal intervals depending upon the magnitude and extent of the changes. This

study has shown that this is an accurate, rapid and cost-effective method for detecting LULC changes in urban

areas in a rapidly developing country, where areas of high economic and ecological importance around cities are

subject to severe destruction due to an unprecedented increase of urban population.

Information on changes and trends in urban environments makes an invaluable contribution to appropriate

decision-making, which is essential to wise use of the resources and sustainable development. State-wide action is

required in order to determine current and preceding states of LULC in urban environments. Monitoring of

planned or unplanned expansion of urban areas is vital both to assure validation of land-use plans and to prevent

formation of new squatter settlements around cities. Remote sensing offers wide scope to determine LULC

changes. It also provides important savings in the cost of monitoring. Provision of timely, consistent and reliable

LULC information helps in achieving sustainable development of urban environments. Landsat TM and ETMþdatasets allow an efficient LULC mapping and change detection. However, high spatial resolution imagery such as

IKONOS, QuickBird and OrbWiev-3 may be used in the future for finer change detection in urban environments.

references

Anonymous. 2002. Adana ilinin yillara gore nufusu. T.C. Basbakanlik Devlet Planlama. Teskilati (DPT): Ankara.Anonymous. 2003a. 2000 Genel Nufus Sayimi. http://www.die.gov.tr/konularr/nufusSayimi.htmAnonymous. 2003b. Adana Tanitim Sitesi. http://adana.cu.edu.tr/ilinarazi.aspAnonymous. 2003c. Tarimsal uretim degerleri (1995). http://ekutup.dpt.gov.tr/bolgesel/1997-11/tarim1.htmlBerberoglu S. 2003. Sustainable management for the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Environmental Management 31: 442–451.Cakan H. 2001. Cukurova Deltasi’nin tehlike altindaki endemik ve nadir bitki turleri. Turkiye’nin Kiyi ve Deniz Alanlari III. Ulusal KonferansiBildiriler Kitabi, Ozhan E, Yuksel Y (eds). Ankara.

Dobson JE, Bright EA, Ferguson RL, Field DW, Wood LL et al. 1995. NOAA Coastal Change Analysis Program (C-CAP): guidance forregional implementation. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 123. Scientific Publications Office, National Marine Fisheries Service: Seattle,WA.

Ekim T, Koyuncu M, Vural M, Duman H, Aytac Z, Adiguzel N. 2000. Red data book of Turkish plants (Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta).Turkish Association for the Conservation of Nature and Van Centennial University: Ankara.

Evrendilek F, Ertekin C. 2002. Agricultural sustainability in Turkey: Integration food, environmental and energy securities. Land Degradation& Development 13: 61–67.

FAO, 2003. FAOSTAT Agriculture Data. http://apps.fao.orgGultekin E, Ortacesme V. 1996. Land degradation in Adana city within a historical perspective. In Proceedings of the First InternationalConference on Land Degradation, Kapur S, Akca E, Eswaran H et al. (eds). Adana; 279–289.

Ji CY, Liu Q, Sun D, Wang S, Lin P, Li X. 2001. Monitoring urban expansion with remote sensing in China. International Journal of RemoteSensing 22: 1441–1455.

Lambin EF, Turner BL, Geist HJ, Agbola SB, Angelsen A, Bruce JWet al. 2001. The causes of land-use and land-cover change: moving beyondthe myths. Global Environmental Change 11: 261–269.

Logsdon MG, Bell EJ, Westerlund FV. 1996. Probability mapping of land use change: a GIS interface for visualizing transition probabilities.Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 20: 389–398.

Masek JG, Lindsay FE, Goward SN. 2000. Dynamics of urban growth in the Washington DC metropolitan area, 1973–1996, from Landsatobservations. International Journal of Remote Sensing 21: 3473–3486.

Ozaner FS. 1996. Accelerated Coastal Erosion in the Eastern Mediterranean Coast of Turkey. Coastal Management and Habitat Conservation,European Union for Coastal Conservation: Leiden; 443–451.



Quarmby NA, Cushine JL. 1989. Monitoring urban land cover changes at the urban fringe from SPOT HRV imagery in southeast England.International Journal of Remote Sensing 10: 953–963.

Ridd MK, Liu J. 1998. A comparison of four algorithms for change detection in an urban environment. Remote Sensing of Environment 63:95–100.

Rutchey K, Velcheck L. 1994. Development of an Everglades vegetation map using a SPOT image and the global positioning system.Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing 60: 767–775.

Turkmen N. 1987. Cukurova Universitesi Kampus Alaninin dogal bitkileri, hayat formlari ve habitatlari. Yayinlanmamis Master Tezi. C.U. FenBilimleri Enstitusu Biyoloji Anabilim Dali. Adana.

Uslu T, Bal Y. 1993. Coastal dune management of Seyhan Delta. In MEDCOAST’93, Ozhan E (ed.). Proceedings of the First InternationalConference on the Mediterranean Coastal Environment, Antalya, Turkey Vol. 1. 199–216.

Xu H, Wang X, Xiao G. 2000. A remote sensing and GIS integrated study on urbanization with its impact on arable lands: Fuqing City, FujianProvince, China. Land Degradation & Development 11: 301–314.

Yang X, Lo CP. 2002. Using a time series of satellite imagery to detect land use and land cover changes in the Atlanta, Georgia metropolitanarea. International Journal of Remote Sensing 23: 1775–1798.

Yilmaz KT. 1998. Ecological diversity of the Eastern Mediterranean region of Turkey and its conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 7:87–96.

Yilmaz KT. 2002. Evaluation of phytosociological data as a tool for indication coastal dune degradation. Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 50:229–238.

Yildirim H, Ozel ME, Divan NJ, Akca A. 2002. Satellite monitoring of land cover/land use change over 15 years and its impact on theenvironment in Gebze/Kocaeli-Turkey, Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 26: 161–170.

Yuan D, Elvidge CD. 1998. NALC land cover change detection pilot study: Washington DC area experiments. Remote Sensing of Environment66: 166–178.

586 H. ALPHAN


land-use change and urbanization of adana, turkey

Documents