Introduction

The Netherlands was a good choice as the venuefor the 28th International Geographical Congressbecause it offered the opportunity to focus attentionto the host country’s speciality. This includes itsexposure to sea, the exploitation of its location in thedelta of major rivers, the creation of a complex inlandwater system and the expertise in integrated water

management. If there would be a geopolitical visionshared by a majority of the Dutch people it wouldmost probably be centred around the position on thecross-roads of sea and inland trade relations (Dijkink1996). A position closely related to the battle againstthe water, the reclamation of the nearshore parts ofthe sea bed and the meticulous land-use planning inthe territory.

The theme of Land, Sea and Human Effort could

GeoJournal 42.1: 1–7. 1997 (May)

Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Land, sea and human effort: technicalachievement and territorial engagement

Terwindt, Joost H. J., Faculty of Geographical Sciences, UtrechtUniversity, P.O. Box 80.115, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands

Groenendijk, Jan G., Amsterdam Study centre for the MetropolitanEnvironment, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Prinsengracht 130, 1018VZ Amsterdam and Faculty of Geographical Sciences Utrecht University,The Netherlands

Abstract: Land, Sea and Human Effort was the central theme of the 28th IGU Congress inThe Hague, The Netherlands. This volume contains the key-note addresses highlighting thiscentral theme. Three major issues regarding low-land coasts came to the fore: land-use,environmental quality and safeguarding of the land. An interesting question is whether theconcentration of human activities in large urban nodes will continue, or that such nodes andhierarchies will no longer structure our world, because of the ever-increasing importance ofall means of communication and transport, as indicated by Johnston. Functions may disperseto specialised environments. A similar specialisation may be encountered in e.g. the devel-opment of tourism in the coastal zone. As Gormsen has elucidated, tourism has over timeextended in a sequence of spatial ‘peripheries’. Consequently, phases in development maybe identified with a growing impact and participation of local tourism interwoven with inter-national growth. The environmental quality of coastal zones is seriously under threat, dueto ever-increasing population pressure and human exploitation. The major problems arepollution and the availability of good quality water. Oudshoorn explored the world’s resourcesof drinking water, indicating the great need for political awareness of this huge problem.Cross-sectoral planning is advocated by Oudshoorn, even if water management oftentrespasses international boundaries and the harmonisation of the planning strategies is mostlydifficult. The environmental quality of the coastal zone is also affected by the exploitationof oil and gas resources. Odell demonstrates that the conditions for this exploitation in theNorth Sea are unique, especially because of the great impact of an international agreementon offshore exploitation. Planning in sea areas is becoming an issue of increasing impor-tance as it has to cope with the many, often conflicting interests, such as shipping, fishery,mining, waste disposal in relation to environmental and ecological constraints. The safe-guarding of the land against river floods and sea side storm surges under the threat of a risingsea level is another important issue in coastal low-lands. Callander reviews the present stateof human influence on climatic change and the associated sea level change. As indicated byHesselman et al. new remote sensing and associated GIS techniques have recently been devel-oped which are a great contribution in determining the fate of the coastal zones with respectto the threats induced by natural and human activities.

Key words: climatic change, coastal zone, hydrological system, territorial surveillance, waterresource

not have been the subject matter of a series of plenarysessions, however, and would not have been a topicof sessions of commissions, if it had not been clearfrom the outset that coastal positions, possibilitiesand associated problems are shared by a majority ofhumankind.

Although the coastal zone, defined as the domainfrom 200 m above to 200 m below sea level occupiesonly some 18% of the surface of the globe (Pernettaand Milliman 1995), especially the coastal lowlands,the productive deltas of major rivers and the low,easily accessible coastal areas are historically thesites where human activities have been concentrated.Today at least two-third of the world population liveswithin a 100 km from the sea. It is expected that by2020 three-quarter of the world population willinhabit the coastal zone and by the year 2000, 16 outof 23 worlds mega-cities of more than 10 millionpeople will be located at or near the coast (IPCCWorld Coast Conference 1994).

The coastal zone also hosts intensively used agri-cultural areas. It produces a significant proportionof the world food production as corn, rice and cattle.The shallow shelf part of the coastal zone is very pro-ductive. This zone accounts for 90% of the totalworld harvest of marine fisheries (ICSU 1996) andmore than 100 million people are directly of indi-rectly dependent on this resource (IPCC World CoastConference 1994).

In addition the fringe between land and sea hostsareas of great ecological and natural value such asmangrove swamps, coral reefs, wetland, inter-tidalareas, salt marshes and dune and beach areas. Theassociated tourism contributes some 5% of thecombined GNP’s of all nations with coastal areas.

Three major geographical issues in low-landcoasts are treated in this paper: • land-use; • environmental quality;• safeguarding of the land against the sea and the

river floods.

Land-use

Land-use is a battle-ground for conflicting interests:the location and size of harbour and industrial areas;the location of the urban and recreation areas; thespace needed for infrastructural facilities such asairports, roads, railways, shipping canals, pipelines;the space allocated for agriculture, waste disposal andrecycling. The coastal zone is subject to ongoingeconomic exploitation and ever growing densities ofhuman occupation.

The problem is that these spatial claims grow andchange in time so that continuously new solutionshave to be found. The need for extension of thefavourable spatial area is fostered by the develop-ments and regional shifts in the world economy

induced by rapid industrialisation, intensified pro-duction and shifts in the world flows of goods. Theneed for space in the coastal zones may be so urgentthat solutions are found by extension of the land intothe sea. Part of the sea bed might be filled up toaccommodate activities that are no longer toleratedinland such as in The Netherlands an airport (to theNorth of The Hague), or an extension of the coastalarea for residential and recreational purposes as wellas for horticulture under glass (directly west of TheHague and partly used for the extension of that city).

It must be questioned, however, whether all factorscurrently inducing the concentration of activities inlarge urban nodes in coastal areas remain at theirpresent location. In his paper in this issue, Johnstonpresents a new geographical paradigm of ‘restruc-turing the world’ which is different from the spatialconcepts that inspired recent generations of geogra-phers. Distance and the nodal region with the relatedconcepts of paths, nodes and hierarchies no longerseems to structure our world, since communicationcan be chiefly effectuated by electronic means.‘Being together in a node is declining in significancefor many of our transactions, especially economicones, whether involving the movement of goods orthe transmission of information’. As a consequence,functions disperse to specialised environments.Residential areas suitable for home based participa-tion in the economy attract activities. We may antic-ipate the rise of less densely settled patterns ofurbanisation of selective growth. In this context theenvironmental attraction of sites can be more freelyvalued. A tendency for the occupation of greenfieldsites further away from the nodes is already present.We may speculate that the negative aspects ofcrowding in coastal areas will create a feed-backmechanism which induces economic growth todisperse.

Whereas in the distribution and handling of goodsthe concept of distance retains more of its influence,even here the attraction of new areas is apparent. Inthe North Sea Port Symposium of the 28th IGC,when discussing the position of the seaport inattracting more highly value added industry it turnedout that although channels for new transport modesretain influence, port bound activities may settle atconsiderable distance (Venlo, Arnhem-Nijmegen atthe German border in this case related to the port ofRotterdam; Kreukels and Wever 1996, pp. 303/4). Asa larger share of activities related to the sea-landinter-modal change can be dispersed along infra-structural channels connecting with the hinterland,this might take pressure from densely settled coastalareas. In a transition period, however, traditionalport-cities will be left with some obsolete plants,causing problems to the environment, while newinvestment find its way further inland.

Activities that are becoming less place-bound willbe able to settle at locations preferred for their ameni-

2 J. H. J. Terwindt and J. G. Groenendijk

ties. These will be found in less crowded and lesscostly environments. In this way more general con-centration processes may lose their force and theexisting nodes might in turn suffer from negativefeed-back mechanisms. These may be furthered byplanning policy, although international competitionmay induce the reverse policy to concentrate oncemore on the existing nodes for development. This isthe case in the government papers in the Netherlandssince the mid eighties, where Amsterdam andRotterdam are considered to be ‘mainports’, withmajor spin-offs for economic development.

Traditionally seaside destinations form a consid-erable part of tourism. Growth of tourism as a sideeffect of economic development will put pressure tothe coasts in a narrower sense. Here the growth istowards peripheries further away from the homecountries of the relatively affluent holiday makersfrom where the interest in the seaside originated.In his paper Gormsen typifies the sequence of‘peripheries’ that accommodate tourists in successionfrom the initial North Sea and Baltic resorts viaMediterranean and Caribbean places of leisure to theshores of the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. Thetourist economy, especially the share local workerstake in it, changes over the phases. The globalisa-tion of coastal holiday-making is not simply aninvasion of western holiday makers into third worldcoastal areas; the local affluent have a dominant sharein the tourist streams as well though not concentratedin the same resorts.

Gormsen indicates that the negative impact oncoastal ecology is considerable, especially in thirdworld countries where exploitation of opportunitiesis not yet constrained by measures aiming at moresustainable development of the coast. Especially thescramble for undisturbed natural coasts at ever-increasing distances from the populated areas willhave a tremendous negative impact on coastal areaswith little carrying capacity. Escapism to unknownshores may be seen just as well as a flight fromresponsibility for scarce natural resources.

While the tourist pressure on earlier developedcoasts of North West Europe seems to be somewhatreduced by the attraction of sunnier coasts abroad,the growing awareness of loss of ecological richesleads on to restraint to further development. Thisfeed-back mechanism is especially seen where over-exploitation is most obvious. For the Belgian coast,nearly filled up by apartment buildings, the last openspace of the remains of the former Zwin estuary onthe Northern border is jealously guarded by theFlemish government, now qualified for planningpolicy.

A decree prohibiting building in the dunes nowoverrules existing rights of developers and theFlemish government is prepared to buy them out topreserve the last natural areas in the dunes. Incontrast, on the hardly developed Dutch coast

directly to the North authorities have yielded tomarket forces during the last decade. Directly to thenorth of the Belgian border and in the attraction areaKnokke-Het Zoute large scale hotel and recreationresidences are being developed after successful sub-mission for approval to the provincial administrationof Zeeland (e.g. the local Belgian newspaper HetLaatste Nieuws, 28-08-1993). This illustrates the lackof trans-boundary co-ordination and policy making,so often observed.

Environmental quality

Coastal areas with their dense populations dominatethe league table of metropolitan cities. The problemsof activities close to each other, creating externaleffects are manifold. Port-related heavy industry andintensive agriculture, contaminating the environmentwith their discharges in air, soil and water, motor-ways and airports, all encroach on the ecologicalqualities once in existence. Water as a resource isheavily used in these coastal areas (fresh water hardlyfor drinking water, but mostly for other domestic andindustrial use), rivers for transport but as well for dis-charging fluid waste and for cooling. The sea as atransport medium but as well for dumping waste inmany forms, and still exploited for its fish. The seabed used for building material and drilling for oil andgas.

While the market generally has been allowed abigger share in the determination of the economy,ecological constraints now urge governments to taketheir responsibility in view of the catastrophic marketfailure in that respect. Oudshoorn depicts a wholeplethora of uses of water that are causally linked aselements of one hydrological system.

Water management and pollution control are notspecific for the coastal zone. It is a global problem.But the problems of fresh water availability for allkinds of human use are especially severe in coastallow-lands and particularly in arid regions.

As indicated by Mickling (1996) world-wide 85%of the total volume of fresh water in the hydrosphereis contained in glaciers, 14.2% in ground water andonly 0.004% in rivers. The coastal low-landsnormally are dissected by some rivers and containquite substantial ground water aquifers, which are anessential prerequisite for the intensive use of thesezones. As indicated in Oudshoorn’s paper a majorproblem of supply of fresh water is the everincreasing population and the ever growing cities.

Using Oudshoorn’s estimate of a minimal ‘waterbarrier’ of 500 m3/cap./year. For a 10 million mega-lopolis this means a minimal need of 5. 109 m3/yearor 13,7. 106 m3/day, which is some 160 m3/sec. Thisis equivalent with the mean discharge of a river likethe Inn in Austria. If a normal water supply is takenthen the delivery should be some 300 m3/sec, com-

Land, sea and human effort 3

parable with the mean discharge of the river Maasor the Tiber.

Other great consumers of water especially incoastal low-lands are the mostly intensive agricultureand also the industry. The mere existence of agri-culture demands the provision of water during thegrowing seasons, thus in a specific part of the year;industry requires a continuous supply of water. Thetemporal variations in demand poses major problemsin supply; the rivers in most cases are not ‘just intime’ and then ground water is used as an additionalsource. This has lead in many areas to huge exploita-tion sometimes even over-exploitation of the groundwater resources as indicated by Oudshoorn and alsoby Mickling (1996). Artificial measures such as thewinning of fresh water out of sea water (as practisede.g. in Israel and in the Caribbean Islands) orrecharging aquifers by additional infiltration (asoccurs in the Dutch dune area with Rhine water) arecostly and limited in their extent.

A related problem is pollution. As stated byMickling (1996) world-wide an estimated 95% of theurban waste water is discharged into the surfacewaters without treatment. Plant nutrients, organicand inorganic chemicals, sometimes poisonous andundegradable, from agriculture and industry threatenthe quality of river and ground water and also havetheir influence on the coastal waters. This is anothermajor problem, resulting from reluctant and thought-less human exploitation of the coastal zone.

Most coastal zones accommodate fragile and pro-ductive ecosystems. Humans use these potentials inmany ways such as fishery, aqua-culture and eveneco-tourism. These ecological values are sometimesalso very detrimentally affected by the effluents ofpolluted matter from the industrial, agricultural andurban areas or from ships, by poldering and harbourextension, by dumping of spoil or by sand mining.Such activities may have an influence over largedistances along the coast far away from the affectedsites. As indicated in the paper of Gormsen, apartfrom economic exploitation the coastal area mayalso be threatened by intensive tourism, which mayfurther endanger the natural characteristics. Popula-tion pressure, pollution and water scarcity are themajor problems of the future of the coastal zone.Indeed human effort developed the coastal zone butalso created detrimental effects on the land and thesea.

The paper of Oudshoorn addresses the globalavailability and demand of water, analysing thequestion if there is enough fresh water to accommo-date the world’s needs for all kinds of uses. Theoutcome of his paper is that, although worldpopulation is still increasing which heightens thedemands, there may be enough water if water savingmeasures are implemented as soon as possible andthe management of the water sources is improved.

Oudshoorn also states that the awareness of the

huge and ever-increasing problems of water controland distribution is lacking. It is not as high on thepolitical agenda as it should be and the waste ofgood usable water is still going on. In some citieseven 40% of the drinking water is lost by leakageof the piping system. This confronts governmentswith problems of decision-making where impactof all uses of water has to be assessed takinginto account the entire hydrological system. Cross-sectoral planning is needed according to Oudshoorn,but it seems that balancing economic opportunitiesagainst ecological constraints is not simply achieved.Oudshoorn describes some cases where the worstabuses of the hydrological system have been checkedin the most affluent states where water managementhas long been established. In his account of a watercrisis in Massachusetts, Kasperson (1969) showedthat a solution may be found on condition that thepolitical elite has the right perception of wheatherhazards as they inflict upon the affluent life of fillingswimming pools, watering gardens and washing cars.The successful mayor outwits his predecessor byclaiming the surface water of recreational ponds byaptly bringing his case to the right level, the Stateof Massachusetts. These kinds of solutions now seemPyrrhic victories in the light of the scarcities thatOudshoorn describes.

A perception of scarcity leading to restraint inattitudes will not be so easily communicated to thepublic. The question how management of the waterresources can be optimised in the Netherlands hasbeen thoroughly debated several times in history.It has been argued by representatives of mid-levelgovernment (the Province), that the provincial gov-ernment, having already the authority for physicaland environmental planning, is in the right formalposition to integrate the water management. Howeverthis option of cross-sectoral planning was finallyturned down.

At present water management in the Netherlandsis organised at three vertically integrated levels. Atthe national level the Rijkswaterstaat, as part of theMinistry of Public Works, is responsible for thenational water policy, which includes flood protec-tion, water supply and water quality of the majorfluvial, estuarine and coastal waters. At the mid-levelthe Provinces are responsible for the ground watermanagement but are only coordinating the lowest(regional) level: the water boards. The traditionalwater boards, the oldest institutionalised form oflocal government in this country dating back tomedieval times, were strengthened. They are respon-sible for the flood protection system and for themanagement of the water quantity and quality andthe water levels of the regional surface waters. It isinteresting to note that important responsibilitieswere assigned to a functional organisation, governedby indirectly elected representatives of the local com-munities (not political parties), with the authority to

4 J. H. J. Terwindt and J. G. Groenendijk

raise contributions (taxes) and with considerablelegal power. The main argument for the modern adap-tation of the old water boards was that water man-agement at the local level should better not be thesubject of political bargaining and budgeting, becauseof its primordial interest, but should be regarded asa priority, more a constraint with which political andpolicy sectors have to comply. Hence water boards,which recently consolidated into large organisations,now play a major role in the water management inthis country (illustrated by their participation in the28th Congress in several exhibitions and scientificexcursions).

Cross-sectoral planning and co-ordination with thenational water management plan is brought about bythe provinces. The provinces are experimenting withforms of environmental planning which encompasstown and country planning along with an environ-mental and a hydrological plan. These institutionalimprovements, however, do not automatically giveenvironmental protection measures the upperhandover gainful exploitation of the provincial territory.For the sake of intensive agriculture water boardshave lowered water levels in their jurisdiction. Thisin turn causes desiccation. Influence of agricultureis such, that in the 2nd National EnvironmentalPolicy Plan (Ministry of Planning and Environment1991) desiccation is defined as a problem confinedto nature areas and not to agricultural areas.

Management of water, sea and coastal resources– as they are still seen more or less as ‘free goods’– is not easily achieved within states. In reality theseproblems are much aggravated because the hydro-logical system crosses right through the boundariesof many states. In this way many external effects aretransmitted between states by their shared use ofwater flows, and because many states are to share theresources of the sea. In this respect, Johnston’s paperpoints to the territorial strategies of states to retainprivileges for their subjects and to create a stableeconomic and social infrastructure for economicactors that in turn provide their host country withprosperity. The freedom of choice for places to workand live that is suggested by new ways of commu-nication is constrained by the authority of modernstates, effectuated by means of sovereign rights overterritories.

The co-operation of states with respect to thehydrological requirements of a river basin may seema technical matter, but Lowi (1993, p. 202) convinc-ingly demonstrates that these conflicts implicate thecore values of states. In none of the cases he studied(the Jordan, Nile, Euphrates and Indus basins), theresult has been ‘the “optimal” pattern of river basindevelopment – via unitary, basin-wide planning andmanagement’ (Lowi 1993, pp. 2–3). The mere factof resource needs and inter-dependence will inducestates to seek co-operative solutions, but the distrib-ution of power in the basin seems decisive for

the outcome and quality of a solution (Lowi 1993,p. 203). In the Euphrates basin the position of Turkeyis so powerful as compared to that of Syria and Iraqin every respect (the upstream partner and with con-siderable military power) that sharing of these waterresources on the basis of agreements seems highlyunlikely. The further enhancement of Turkey’sgeopolitical position by its proposal for a so-called‘peace-pipeline’ to its other Arab neighbours chieflymeets with distrust (Del Rio Luelmo 1996). Thisillustrates the very difficult geopolitical constraintsto the optimal utilisation of the water resources in theriver basins.

In contrast to the operational problems of aninternational legal framework for trans-nationalriver basins (Kliot 1994), the international watershave been the subject of several international con-ventions (Tromp et al. 1997). In 1972 the LondonConvention was agreed to prevent marine pollutionoriginating from dumping of wastes. Several regionalConventions tackle the problems of pollution in theNorth East Atlantic waters (Oslo Convention 1972)or those of the North Sea in particular (Bonn Treaty1983; North Sea Atlas, ICONA 1992). The ParisConvention (1974) regulates the discharges of sub-stances from ‘land-based’ sources, such as pipelines,offshore oil and gas drilling and riverine inputs.Integration of both Conventions (with the EU asmember) which is now underway will regulate pol-lution, disturbing activities like sand and gravelextraction and fishing activities. Tromp et al. (1997)report significant results for the marine environment.

The ideas described in the 17th century in HugoGrotius’ (1609) Mare Liberum now have evolved inthe present time to regulations for parts of the seasthat are under threat of exploitation. Since Grotiusreasoned that appropriation (of territory) is a condi-tion of utility to human beings, and the sea could notbe exhausted by navigation nor by fishing – as per-formed in the 17th century – (see Colombos asquoted by Gottmann 1973, p. 51), it follows that nowthat pollution of the seas and exploitation of the con-tinental shelf and major sections of the seas haschanged his premises, regulation and territorial incor-poration for some functions is necessary.

The exploitation of the continental shelf has beensuccessfully regulated by UN intervention (Rosenne1996). Although the United Nations Convention onthe Law of the Sea (1982) entered into force as lateas November 1994, the North Sea countries alreadyreached an agreement on the basis of the 1958Convention; in 1969 assisted by a ruling of theInternational Court of Justice.

Odell’s paper describes the tremendous impact ofthis early agreement on the off-shore exploitation ofNorth Sea oil and gas. This agreement provided afirm basis upon which the North Sea states were ableto negotiate conditions with oil companies preciselyat the time when many of them lost their Arabian

Land, sea and human effort 5

contracts. Odell demonstrates that the conditions inthe North Sea have been unique and that it is not tobe expected that similar off-shore reserves e.g. in theWest Pacific Rim can be exploited on short notice.The symbiotic relationship between states and trans-national oil companies has been both essential forexploiting North Sea oil and at variance with condi-tions elsewhere. The North Sea states profited highlyfrom their independence from OPEC states and theoil companies have been able to improve their tech-nical know-how in more difficult off-shore situations,thanks to the stable political and economic environ-ment offered to them.

This case throws more light on relations betweenstates and Trans National Corporations where statesusually are depicted as the dependent partner(Johnston in this issue, Painter 1995). Taylor (1993,p. 168) more aptly describes the symbiotic relation-ship between states that in their territorial surveil-lance guarantee properties and Trans NationalCorporations that provide economic development.

The North Sea has also an arrangement agreedwithin the EU for the fishing resources, with quotagiven to the riparian states (ICONA 1992). Theposition of Norway is of interest in this respect. Thelarge fishing grounds stay outside the EU arrange-ment since the 1994 referendum. This makes itpossible for this country to pursue more restraint toexploitation of these resources than is the case amongEU countries.

Norway’s perspective for economic independenceis greatly enhanced by the large reserves along itsenormous coastal belt. Holt-Jensen (1996) describesthe national interests that governed the Norwegianpolicy in the early years of off-shore exploitation.The impact of North Sea oil on the balance ofpayments and exchange rate as well as the interestsof Norwegian oil shipping has not been favourableto a high level of exploitation. But even in Norway– now that the EU directive on the liberalisation ofpublic procurement contracts is effective there aswell (by the European Economic Area agreementsigned by Norway in 1992) – exploitation is intensi-fied and more open to trans-national corporations.

Safeguarding of the land

Coastal lowlands also have safety problems. Thisregards not only the protection against river andstorm surges, but also against hurricanes andtsunamis in some areas. The necessity but also thepossibilities for protection vary with industrial,demographic and technical developments in thevarious coastal low-lands. The technical means forprotection are now well developed, but the feasibilityof the investments hamper a rapid increase of thelevel of safety.

Of prime importance in this respect is the esti-

mated rise in mean sea level in the coming decades,which are a clear threat for the development of thecoastal zone.

The paper of Callander critically summarises thepresent state of knowledge of the human influenceon climatic change by loading the atmosphere withgreenhouse gasses. His conclusion is that as yet noconclusive evidence on this human influence can beascertained. However human influence is discernibleand may influence the large scale climatic patterns.

It is a wide-held view, that climatic change mayresult in a sea level rise. A rough estimate presentedby an IPCC Working Group (1990, 1992) indicatesthat world-wide the minimal costs involved inmeasures of coastal protection for a 1 m rise of thesea level amounts to some $500 billion over thecoming 100 years. But more recent estimates indicatea triple of that amount of money. At present it wasestimated that between 100–200 million people livebelow the annual storm surge level (IPCC WorkingGroup 1992). Some 20% of this population experi-ences annual flooding. A sea level rise of 1 m woulddouble this number.

As stated by the IPCC World Coast Conference(1994) it may be noted, that a rise in sea level is notexpected to be uniform over the globe, due to dif-ferences in ocean circulation patterns, relative move-ments of the subsurface variations in wind climateetc. In addition it may be realised that sea level riseis a slow and gradual process. Adaptation of thecoasts by natural processes and by human interfer-ence can be exploited. Beach and underwater nour-ishment of the coastal zones and farther reachingmeasures like the creation of underwater sand depotsand other flexible facilities become more and morecost-effective. The prediction of the consequences ofsea level rise and other engineering measures in thecoastal zone is still a matter of continuous research.Although important achievements have been accom-plished in the development of coastal process mod-elling and coastal zone evaluation there is still muchuncertainty as to the reliable prediction of coastaldevelopments on a time scale of decades and more.One of the important issues for monitoring theprocess as well as for the management studiesnecessary for adapatation of policies is a properinventory of the characteristics of the coastal system.Remote sensing combined with GIS is more andmore becoming a valuable tool (Lucas 1996).Another interesting development is the combinationof remote sensing and process modelling. In thepaper of Hesselmans et al. some examples are givenof the present day possibilities of bathymetricsurveys, the characterisation of the wave climate, thewave predictions, the current patterns and the real-time flow calculations and of the sand inventoriesof beaches. New development of laser altimetryopens nice possibilities for monitoring beach profilesand beach changes. The temporal and spatial resolu-

6 J. H. J. Terwindt and J. G. Groenendijk

tions of these methods develop rather rapidly andalso the costs are declining, thus increasing theapplicability.

Conclusion

The fringe between land and sea can be seen as anintegrated system of actors and processes, whichforms an unique combination in every coastal zone.Geographically it is interesting to discover how theseeconomic, social and spatial developments are influ-encing each other and how this can be translated intoplanning. One of the great challenges of mankind isto integrate these complex interactions in such a waythat the development is sustainable and flexible.

Just as interesting for geographers is to analysehow and why this system differs in the various partsof the world and which influences are steering thedevelopment.

Indeed Land, Sea and Human Effort was a chal-lenging theme of this 28th IGU Congress.

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