ENVIRONMENT ASSESSMENT TECHNICAL REPORTS

______________________________________

LAND COVER ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING

Pakistan

Volume 10-A

UNEP/EAP.TR/95-06DECEMBER 1998

Mountain Environment and Natural Resources’ Information SystemInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)

UNEP Environment Assessment Programme forAsia and thePacific, Bangkok

LAND COVER ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING

Pakistan

Volume 10-A

Mountain Environment and Natural Resources’ Information SystemInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)

UNEP Environment Assessment Programme for Asia and thePacific, Bangkok

Copyright United Nations Environment Programme 1998

ISBN : 92-807-1489-9

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational ornon-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, providedacknowledgment of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of anypublication that uses this publication as a source.

No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purposewhatsoever without prior permission in writing from UNEP.

DisclaimerThe contents of this volume do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNEP. Thedesignations employed and the presentations do not imply the expression of any opinionwhatsoever on the part of UNEP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, cityor area or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

FRONT COVER: NOAA AVHRR Mosaic of Pakistan in False Color Composite

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

As emphasized in Agenda 21, Chapter 40 of the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development dated 14 June 1992, in a broad sense everyone is a user andprovider of information in pursuing sustainable development. While considerable data alreadyexist, more and different types of data need to be collected at the local, provincial, national andinternational level, indicating the status and trends of the planet's ecosystem, natural resources,pollution and socio-economic variables. The availability, quality, coherence, standardization andaccessibility of data in the developing countries have been increasing with the improvement inthe capacities and willingness to make informed decisions concerning environment anddevelopment. UNEP's EAP-AP programs are taking a proactive role in improving theenvironmental capacities of countries in the Asia Pacific region.

This project is directed in providing information about land cover at a regional scale forselected countries in the Asian region. The investigation of the NOAA AVHRR satellite data isdirected towards the detection and monitoring of ecologically important vegetation types. Thissimilar activity also highlights the areas where there is a major change of land cover (i.e. "hotspots"), both in temporal and spatial aspects.

The NOAA AVHRR data was found very useful for assessment and monitoring of landcover transformation at a macro scale. The harmonization of land cover categories was adoptedin the interpretation of satellite data towards a more comprehensive regional resourceassessment and information aggregation, an important decision input for the regional andnational context. On a much wider scale, this kind of information could also be useful for globalresearch and modelling, macro-economic studies, and assessment of the earth's state ofenvironment. Major land cover types were enumerated as evergreen forest, deciduous forest,mangrove forest, scrubland, agricultural area, and water bodies. Site specific land categorieslike marshlands along the Mekong Delta in Vietnam and variations among agricultural practicesin Bangladesh were separately noted.

As shifting cultivation continues to play a dominant role in forest type conversion, thetypical transformation from one type of vegetation to another is apparent, especially for theincreasing proportion of open woodlands and dry deciduous group from the original evergreenor semi-evergreen type. Yet, the expansion of originally recognized scrubland that denotesmostly the presence of crop cultivation is the main feature of land degradation. Such landscapemodifications as discerned in the time series analysis of AVHRR data subsequently lead toincreased attention for a deeper investigation of the area. The use of high resolution satellitedata supplemented by field information are of vital importance. This will serve as an earlywarning system towards preventive measures in areas exhibiting major land transformation oractive deforestation. The availability of other thematic data such as elevation, climate and soiltype was also realized in trying to assist in understanding the various interacting factors thataffect land cover dynamics and clarify limitations realized in the error associated with the coarsespatial resolution data.

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Up to date information on land cover variables and their nature of transformationoffer a valuable guide in formulating appropriate policies and effective implementation ofprograms for several facets of resource management. The methodological guidelines andthe country results generated under this study will dispense a worthwhile source ofinformation in any future related-applications particularly in the Asian region. Theavailability of the AVHRR data in the South and Southeast Asian region was also evaluatedto assess their applicability for similar or related efforts in the future. Moreover, a need forsystematic data archiving policy that requires strengthening of the capabilities of a numberof receiving stations in the Asian region has been noted. Likewise, compatible software tohandle myriads of information about the complex ecosystem of the region is required toenhance data availability and accessibility.

Finally, information and expertise dissemination through training are found essentialin enhancing the sub-regional and national capability in perpetuating this valuable means ofresource assessment and monitoring.

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PREFACE

In line with UNEP’s new “management by results” policy, the restructuredDivision of Environmental Information and Assessment began to focus more onidentifying the needs and capabilities of its users. One of its major components isintended to produce overviews of status and trends, assessment of interactions ofinternational environment and development processes to support informed policymaking at the international level. This involves development of assessmentmethodologies, models and appropriate tools to produce global, regional and sectoralassessment reports, early warnings, and contributing efforts to agreed targets forsustainability.

In parallel, the development of this Land Cover Assessment and Monitoringproject serves as the actualization of the above concept. This project primarily aims todetermine the present status of land cover types and the nature of the land covertransformation for selected target countries in the Asian region at the scale of 1: 1million on a regular basis, a vital information for the regional monitoring of the landcover dynamics. It also provides an opportunity to identify areas of major land covertransformation (“hot spots”) which will serve as an early warning system that willallow for a more detailed analysis, and a sound link of information in order to derivecriteria for any future action plan governed by this valuable knowledge on land covervariables.

Major land cover resources of Bangladesh, Cambodia, Iran, Lao P.D.R.,Malaysia, Myanmar, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnamhave been investigated under two time frames i.e. 1985-86 and 1992-93. Therecognition of the potential and usefulness of the remotely sensed data, particularlyNOAA AVHRR in assessing and monitoring the land cover dynamics, in conjunctionwith ancillary data within a GIS structure have been fully underscored.

The basic principles, methodological background and overall summary behindthis activity can be found in Volume 1-A while each country’s result appear in separatevolumes (Vol. 2-A: Bangladesh, Vol. 3-A: Cambodia, Vol. 4-A: Lao P.D.R., Vol. 5-A: Myanmar, Vol. 6-A: Nepal, Vol. 7-A: Vietnam, Vol. 8-A: Thailand, Vol. 9-A:Malaysia, 10-A: Pakistan, 11-A: Mongolia). Specific observations and conclusionshave been presented on a country basis.

Follow-up activities such as repeating the same exercise for the selected Asiancountries in order to arrive at a more comprehensive land cover resource monitoringhas been scheduled for the activities set for 1998 and beyond. Brunei, and Sri Lankawere added for a wider scope of assessment in the Asian region. They are expected toperform the same exercise for their respective country/region starting 1998 and later bepart of the overall regional compilation of information. Methodological guidelines arealready documented for future information dissemination such as training among thetarget countries.

Pre-processing of the raw NOAA AVHRR data has been carried out by writingin-house programs. The possibilities of using the programs developed by EROS Data

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Center in US and PCI Software Company in Canada is being explored for harmonizedand standard pre-processing opportunities.

In order to come up with more standard and harmonized land coverclassification system for the region in the succeeding years, efforts will be placed toincorporate the general level land cover classification system recently agreed upon bythe IGBP-DIS group. Cooperation and collaboration established with Land CoverWorking Group of Asian Association of Remote Sensing (LCWG/AARS) and FAOregional office in Bangkok will definitely be an advantage in this regard.

Our heartfelt thanks to the UNEP EAP.AP staff Dr. Chandra Giri and Mr.Dolagobinda Pradhan who have put in many hours of dedicated effort into the overallanalysis of this project. Special thanks is also extended to Mr. Pradeep Mool ofICIMOD who analyzed the Pakistan data and prepared a draft report.

This study has been completed in consultation and collaboration with variousnational and international agencies in Pakistan and abroad. Data sources such as theDigital Chart of the World (DCW) have contributed in building the geographicaldatabase for the countries in this study. Most recently a Memorandum ofUnderstanding has been signed with the Land Cover Working Group of AsianAssociation of Remote Sensing (LCWG/AARS) regarding the exchange of data,outputs and experience.

Surendra ShresthaRegional CoordinatorUNEP Environment Assessment Programme for Asia and the PacificDecember 1998

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CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION 11.1 General 11.2 Pakistan: Study Area 1

1.2.1 Location and Physical Characteristics 11.2.2 Present State of Land Cover 21.2.3 Areas of Major Land Cover Transformation (Hot Spots) 31.2.4 Need for Monitoring 4

1.3 NOAA Satellite Series 41.4 NOAA AVHRR 51.5 Methods Used 14

2.0 STUDY AREA 152.1 Physiography 152.2 Climate 19

2.2.1 Temperature 192.2.2 Analysis of Temperate Regimes 202.2.3 Rainfall 202.2.4 Analysis of Precipitation Regimes 23

2.3 Soils 242.3.1 Parent Material 242.3.2 Soil Classification 24

2.4 Population 282.5 Forests and Land Cover 282.6 Protected Areas 302.7 Agriculture 31

2.7.1 Crop Calendar 322.8 National Energy Consumption 34

3.0 RESULTS 353.1 Land Cover Assessment: 1992-1993 35

3.1.1 Why NOAA-AVHRR Data? 353.2 Spectral Characterization and Land Cover Mapping 35

3.2.1 Classification Scheme 353.2.2 Land Use Distribution Assessment 36

3.3 Natural Vegetation: A Comparison 38

4.0 CONCLUSIONS 38

REFERENCES

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LIST OF MAPS

Map 1 Channel 1 6

Map 2 Channel 2 7

Map 3 Channel 3 8

Map 4 Channel 4 9

Map 5 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index 10

Map 6 False Color Composite (R2 : G1 : B1) 11

Map 7 False Color Composite (R1 : G2 : B1) 12

Map 8 Vegetative Cover of Pakistan 13

Map 9 Highlands and the Indus Plains of Pakistan 18

Map 10 Maximum Temperature Regime of Pakistan 21

Map 11 Minimum Temperature Regime of Pakistan 22

Map 12 Precipitation Regime of Pakistan 25

Map 13 Soil Types of Pakistan 26

Map 14 Landuse Categories 33

Map 15 Land Cover 37

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. AVHRR spectral ranges, their combinations and applications 14

Table 2. Maximum and Minimum Temperatures (oC) 20

Table 3. Mean Annual Rainfall (mm) 23

Table 4. Soil Types of Pakistan 27

Table 5 Population of Pakistan (millions) 28

Table 6. Forest Areas and Rangelands 30

Table 7. Protected Areas of Pakistan 30

Table 8. Land use Pattern of Pakistan (million ha) 31

Table 9. Land use Categories of Pakistan (000’ ha) 32

Table 10. Area and Production of Winter and Summer Crops 32

Table 11. National Energy Consumption by Source (000’ TOE) 34

Table 12. Landuse Categories of Pakistan (000’ ha) 36

Table 13. Natural Vegetation of Pakistan; a Comparison 38

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ABBREVIATIONS

AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution RadiometerEDC EROS Data Center (USA)FCC False Color CompositeGDP Gross Domestic ProductGIS Geographic Information SystemsGJ Giga JoulesGRID Global Resource Information DatabaseGTZ Gesellscaft fuer Technische Zusammenarbeit

(German Agency for Technical Cooperation)ha hectareHRPT High Resolution Picture TransmissionICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain DevelopmentIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureLAC Local Area CoverageLANDSAT US Earth Resource SatelliteLANDSAT TM LANDSAT Thematic MapperLST Local Solar Timemasl meters above sea levelNDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation IndexMENRIS Mountain Environment and Natural Resources Information

ServiceNOAA National Oceanographic Atmospheric AdministrationNOAA/NESDIS NOAA/National Environmental Satellite Data and Information

ServiceNWFP North Western Frontier Province (of Pakistan)PFI Pakistan Forest Institute (Peshawar)SPOT Systeme Pour l’Observation de la Terre

(French Earth Resource Satellite)sq. km square kilometreTOE Ton of oil equivalentsUNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP/EAP.AP United Nations Environmental Programme, Environment

Assessment Programme for Asia and the PacificUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentWFP World Food Programme

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Pakistan being one of the eight member countries of the International Centre forIntegrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), is actively engaged in its macro levelland cover assessment in collaboration with UNEP Environment AssessmentProgramme for Asia and the Pacific (UNEP/EAP.AP). With the limited resources andtime frame, however, it will not be possible to bring about a detailed micro-levelassessment of the land cover. Still, it has been endeavored to add as many parametersto the report as possible. Some of the data included in the report is as old as 10 years.However, this data could be used as a baseline for a comprehensive report to beprepared in the future. That would greatly facilitate the comparison between the oldand the new data and might be helpful in ascertaining the physical changes occurringparticularly in the land use pattern and look for possible corrective measures if thesituation so warranted.

1.2 Pakistan: Study Area

1.2.1 Location and Physical Characteristics

Pakistan has a great variety of landscapes with a diversified relief. It has all the majestichigh mountain ranges of the sub-Continental north: the Himalayas, the

Fig. 1 Location Map of Pakistan

Afghanistan

IranPakistan

Arabian Sea

India

China

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Karakorams and the Hindu Kush. The vast and rich irrigated plains of the Indus Basincovering vast tracts of the Panjab and Sindh, the stark deserts of Cholistan (Punjab!)and Thar (Sindh!), the inter-montane valleys of NWFP (North West Frontier Province)and the awe-inspiring rugged plateaus of Balochistan and the meeting point of theHimalayas, the Hindu Kush, and the Karakorams in the Northern areas are some of themost varied features of the country’s landscape.

Geographically, Pakistan lies between 24o and 37o N latitude and 61o and 75o Elongitude. It is bordered by China in the north, Arabian Sea in the south, Iran in thewest, Afghanistan in the north-west and India in the east (Fig. 1). It is a federation offour provinces: NWFP, Panjab, Sindh and Balochistan with its capital at Islamabad.The land area of Pakistan is about 796,000 sq. km and an estimated population of 134million (June 1996), having a population density of 168 persons per sq. km.

Of the 79.6 million hectares land area, only about 22 million hectares (23%) areavailable for cultivation: 18 million ha irrigated and 4 million ha rain-fed. Forests, bothnatural and man-made, cover about 4% of its land area.

1.2.2 Present State of Land Cover

The climate of Pakistan varies with altitude, which in turn affects the type ofvegetation. It has some of the world’s highest cold areas that occur above 5,175 maslin the Himalayas and the hottest low areas in the Indus Plains with many intermediateecological zones.

Pakistan has nine major Ecological Zones with the main ecological determinants asArid and Semi-Arid conditions. These conditions prevail over most part of the IndusPlains and the Balochistan Plateau. The Humid conditions exist over the hills andmountains in the north. In the Arid and Semi-Arid areas, most parts are bare ofvegetation. At riverbanks and deltas, Riverain and Mangrove forests have emerged. Onhumid hills and mountains, pines and coniferous forests occur that change withaltitude. The Dry sub-Tropical forests dominate up to an altitude of 1,000 masl, theConiferous forests from 1,000 to 4,000 m. Above tree line, Dwarf Alpine forestsfollowed by the Alpine Pastures occur up to snow line.

Based on the above classification, the following seven forest types are recognized:

1) Alpine Forests2) Coniferous Forests3) Sub-Tropical Forests4) Tropical Thorn Forests5) Irrigated Plantations (artificial!)6) Riverain Forests7) Mangrove/Coastal Forests

The Alpine Forests occur in the northern districts of Chitral, Swat, Dir and Kohistan.Because of long severe winters, dwarfed and stunted trees of Silver Fir (Abieswebbiana), Juniper (Juniperus spp.) take place.

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The Coniferous Forests occur from 1,000 to 4,000 m altitudes. Swat, Dir, Malakand,Mansehra and Abbottabad districts of NWFP, and Rawalpindi districts of the Panjabare the main areas covered with coniferous forests. Fir (Abies spp.) and Spruce (Piceasmithiana) occupy the highest altitudes, Deodar (Cedrus deodara) and Blue Pine(Pinus wallichiana), the intermediate heights, and Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii), thelower areas. The Coniferous forests also occur in Balochistan hills. Chilghoza Pine(Pinus gerardiana) and Juniper (Juniperous macropoda) are the two most commonspecies of Balochistan.

The sub-Tropical Dry Forests are found in the Attock, Rawalpindi, Jhelum andGujrat districts of the Panjab, and in the Mansehra, Abbottabad, Mardan, Peshawarand Kohat districts of NWFP up to a height of 1,000 m. In Balochistan, they areconfined to the Sulaiman mountains and other hilly areas. Dominant tree species arePhulai (Acacia modesta), Kau (Olea cuspidata) and Donoenia viscosa.

The Tropical Thorn Forests are dominated by Xerophytic Scrubs. They are mostwidespread in the Panjab plains. They also occupy small areas in southern Sindh andwestern Balochistan. Common species are Acacia spp., Salvadora oleodes, Prosopiscineraria, Capparis aphylla, etc.

The Irrigated Plantations were first developed in 1866 at Changa Manga (Panjab!).Today they occupy about 226,000 ha. Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), Mulberry (Morusalba), Babul (Acacia nilotica), Eucalyptus and Populus spp. are the common treespecies grown in the Irrigated Plantations.

The Riverain Forests grow in narrow belts along the banks of Indus and itstributaries. They are more commonly found in Sindh and to some extent in the Panjab.Babul (Acacia nilotica), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) and Tamarax dioica are themost common species. Prosopis cineraria, Tamarax spp. and Populus euphratica aresome other species found in these Forests.

The Mangrove Forests are located in the Indus delta. However, lack of fresh waterhas resulted in their stunted growth. Avecennia officanilis is the main species. Ceriopsand Rhizophoras are the other tree species but are fast disappearing because of humanpressure.

1.2.3 Areas of Major land cover Transformations (Hot Spots)

As a consequence to deforestation and changing land use patterns, the most criticallyaffected ecosystems of Pakistan are:

Juniper Forests of northern Balochistan, essentially categorized as Protected Forests,are heavily harvested for timber and fuelwood. The unrestricted grazing has furtherhampered the natural regeneration of trees.

Indus River Zone is the other such area where ecological changes have drasticallyaffected the Riverain Forests as also the Coastal Mangrove Forests. Large tracts ofriverain forests have been cleared for agriculture. The river Indus has been dammed

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and dyked and thus confined. The resulting drop in river level has left extensive areasof the riverain forests high and dry.

As a further consequence of the construction of upstream dams (in the northern parts)and barrages in the plains of the Panjab and Sindh, there has been considerable drop inthe Indus water. This has caused reduction of fresh water flow in the delta (at theconfluence of the Arabian Sea) resulting in increased salinity which in turn hasdamaged the mangrove forests and thus eliminated several tree species. Theuncontrolled cutting of trees for firewood and fodder needs has further accelerated thereduction and degradation of swamp forests.

The Himalayan Temperate Forests are also under severe pressure from logging fortimber and firewood and making clearings for agriculture; for the ever-increasingpopulation pressure.

1.2.4 Need for Monitoring

Satellite imageries at varying spectral, spatial, and temporal resolutions are useful tomap natural vegetation types and to detect and delineate major changes over time.

To carry out the inventory of the vast and scattered areas at macro scale, coarse spatialresolution scanners data with high temporal resolution are needed to reduce datavolume and increase the probability of cloud-free data. The source of information usedin this report is the digital data of NOAA AVHRR LAC format node having 1.1kilometre spatial resolution acquired during ascending node (1330 LST). Pakistan iscovered within one LAC format NOAA AVHRR imagery.

1.3 NOAA Satellite Series

The NOAA satellite series commenced with TIROS-N (Television and InfraRedObservation Satellite) (launched in October 1978) and continued with NOAA-A(launched in June 1979 and renamed NOAA-6) to NOAA-J (launched in 30 December1994 and renamed NOAA-14). At present two satellites, NOAA-12 and NOAA-14,are operational. NOAA satellite series are polar orbiting sunsynchronoumus satellitesorbiting at a height of 830 - 870 km above the Earth’s surface. The data can beacquired twice daily, one in ascending mode and the other one in descending mode.The even numbered satellites have daylight (0730 LST) north-south equatorialcrossing times and the odd-numbered satellites have nighttime (0230 LST) north-southequatorial crossing times. Alternatively, even numbered satellites have evening (1930LST) south-north crossing times and odd numbered satellites have afternoon (1330LST) south-north equatorial crossings. The crossing time of ascending and descendingnodes of NOAA-12 is 1915 LST and 0715 LST respectively, and that of NOAA-14 is1330 and 0130 LST respectively. The satellite has an orbital period of 102 minutescovering the Earth’s surface 14.1 times daily. The inclination of the satellite is 112degree with the scanning angle of 99 degrees. The sensors onboard the NOAASatellite series are AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer), TOVS-SSU (TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder Microwave Sounding Unit), TOVS-MSU(TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder Stratospheric Sounding Unit), TOVS-HIRS/2(TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder High resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder / 2),

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SAR (Search and Rescue), SBUV/2 (Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer/2), andERB (Earth Radiation Budget Experiment).

1.4 NOAA AVHRR

The AVHRR is a broad-band scanner that consists of four to five bands depending onthe models of the sensor on board NOAA Satellites. AVHRR data are archived inthree formats: HRPT (1.1 km spatial resolution at satellite nadir), LAC (1.1 km spatialresolution at satellite nadir), and GAC ( 4 km spatial resolution) formats. The AVHRRsensor provides global, pole to pole, data from all spectral channels. The swath widthis 2399 km with 2048 pixels per scan line. The entire Earth can be covered in just 14.5days. LAC data are also full resolution satellite images but are recorded on an on-board digital tape recorded for subsequent transmission. Though the spatial resolutionof the AVHRR HRPT and LAC data is 1.1 km at satellite nadir, the resolutiondecreases with the increase in the view angle off-nadir. The maximum off-nadirresolution along track is 2.4 km and across track is 6.9 km. The advantage of theNOAA AVHRR LAC data are: synoptic coverage and hence low data volume (swathwidth 2700 km), high radiometric resolution (10 bit), relatively low cost (Free!, onlyhandling cost), twice daily coverage and hence high possibilities of having cloud freedata. The major disadvantages are: coarse spatial resolution (1.1 km at the nadir), pre-processing is time consuming, the methodology is not well developed, and LAC datahas limited capability to record on-board. Designated originally for meteorologicalstudies, AVHRR data can be used for various land applications, such as land coverassessment and monitoring. Due to the coarse spatial resolution (1 km), the pixel mightrepresent different land cover types on the ground, but the spectral characteristic willbe representation of the predominant cover type within that pixel. One should be awarethat the minimum mapping unit for the NOAA AVHRR data is one square kilometer.That is, land cover features smaller than one square kilometer is not distinctive.

Maps 1 to 8 have been added to explain AVHRR spectral ranges and theircombinations and applications as listed in Table 1.

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7

8

9

10

11

12

13

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Table 1. AVHRR spectral ranges, their combinations andapplications

MapNo.

ChannelNumberOr Channelcombination

WaveLength (� m)

Spectrum

Applications

1 1 0.58 - 0.68 ReflectedVisible

Discriminating clouds, Daytime cloud and surface features mapping.

2 2 0.72 – 1.10 Visible / NearInfrared

Mapping land / water discrimination (water has lesser reflectance than otherland uses), discriminating daytime cloud.

3 3 3.55 - 3.93 EmittedThermalInfra- Red /ReflectedSolarInfraRed

Determining temperature of radiating surface, night cloud mapping

4 4 10.50 -11.50 Thermal IR /EmmitedThermalInfra Red

Determining sea surface temperature, day/night cloud mapping

5 11.50 - 12.50 ThermalInfraRed /EmmitedThermalInfraRed

Determining sea surface temperature, soil moisture, day/night cloud mapping

5 NDVI =((2-1)/(2+1))

NDVI NormalizedDifferenceVegetationIndex

Vegetation Index is ratio or difference of reflectance value in the visible (Red)and Near Infra Red region of the spectrum

6 FCC =R2:G1:B1

FCC False ColorComposite

Generated by compositing three multi-band images with the use of threeprimary colours: by assigning blue to Reflected Visible band, green toReflected Visible, and red to Visible/Near-Infrared band. Green vegetationsappears in different tones of red color. Snow & ice appears in white.

7 FCC =R1:G2:B1

FCC False ColorComposite

Generated by compositing three multi-band images with the use of threeprimary colours: by assigning blue to Reflected Visible band, green toVisible/Near-Infrared band., and red to Reflected Visible. Green vegetationsappears in different tones of green color.

To record spatial and spectral detail, however, high-resolution scanners data, such asSPOT XS and LANDSAT TM, with repeat cycles of about two weeks, are required. Thiswill be done sometime in future when a detailed micro-level land use assessment will becarried out.1.5 Methods UsedTen sets of the NOAA AVHRR data covering Pakistan were supplied by UNEP toICIMOD for processing. The digtial data of NOAA AVHRR in LAC formats of thefollowing dates were used in the present study: 14 Feb 1993, 20 Feb 1993, 28 Feb 1993,17 March 1993, 23 Apr 1993, 1 Dec 1992, 14 Oct 1992, 23 Oct 1992, 13 Apr 1993. Pre-processing was carried out for all the datasets. The NOAA AVHRR data Pre-processingconsists of data extraction and noise removal, radiometric calibration, geometriccorrection, and cloud masking procedures. AVHRR imagery of 14 October 1992 was usedas the base image owing to its least cloud coverage. The data set are resampled to onesquare kilometer spatial resolution (i.e. one pixel represents one square kilometer onground) after geometric correction. The country mask is generated using the countryboundary available in the Digital Chart of the World (DCW) vector map. Spectralcharacteristics of the individual bands, NDVI, and color composites were studied for landcover mapping. Unsupervised digital land cover classification was performed using

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spectral signature definition by iterative clustering technique and maximum likelihoodclassification method. Interactive labeling of this signature information into major landcover categories requires substantial field information, forest seasonality/ phenology andancillary data like topography and climate. Minor decision rules based on GIS overlayoperations were performed for the finalization of the classification generalization.Accuracy assessment of the classification result is done using other available information.

2.0 STUDY AREA

2.1 Physiography

The physical framework of Pakistan has been built by two major geomorphic processesthat have produced two distinct physiographic entities:

1. The Western Highlands produced by the mountain building movement extendedfrom the Makran Coast in the south to the Pamir Plateau in the extreme north.

2. The Indus Plains resulting from the deposition of sediments from the Indus riverand its tributaries.

The Western Highlands cover most of Balochistan, NWFP, Northern Areas (GilgitAgency) and parts of the Panjab. These can be further divided into five physiographicentities:

Mountainous NorthKoh-e-Safaid and Waziristan HillsSulaiman and Kirthar MountainsBalochistan PlateauPotowar Plateau and the Salt Ranges

The Mountainous North covers the northern parts of Pakistan and comprises parallelmountain ranges intervened by narrow and deep river valleys. East of the Indus River, themountain ranges in general run from east to west. To its west - from north to south - runthe following important mountain ranges:

The HimalayasThe KarakoramsThe Hindu Kush

The western most parts of the Himalayas fall in Pakistan. The sub-Himalayas - thesouthern most ranges - do not rise to great heights (600 - 1200 masl). The LesserHimalayas lie to the north of the sub-Himalayas and rise to 1,800 - 4,600 masl. The GreatHimalayas are located north of the Lesser Himalayas. They attain snowy heights (of morethan 4,600 m).

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The Karakoram Ranges in the extreme north rise to an average height of 6,100 m.Mount Goodwin Austin (K-2) - the second highest peak in the world - is 8,610 m andlocated in the Karakorams.

The Hindu Kush Mountains take off the western side of the Pamir Plateau that is locatedto the west of the Karakorams. These mountains take a southerly turn and rise to snowyheights. Some of the peaks rise to great heights like Noshaq (7,369 m), and Tirich Mir(7,690 m).

The Koh-e-Safaid Ranges have an east-west trend and rise to an average height of 3,600m. They are commonly covered with snow. Sikeram, the highest peak in Koh-e-SafaidRanges rises to 4,760 m. Similarly, the elevation of Waziristan Hills ranges from 1,500and 3,000 m.

Some rivers flowing in the region have formed passes through which armies, peoples andcultures have moved. Among them, the Khyber Pass is the most important. It connectsPeshawar in Pakistan to Kabul in Afghanistan.

The Sulaiman-Kirthar Mountain Ranges extending from south of Gomal River, liebetween Balochistan Plateau and the Indus Plains. On reaching the Murre-Bugti Hills, theyturn northward and extend up to Quetta. Further south, they meet the Kirthar Mountains,which merge in to the Kohistan area of Sindh. The Sulaiman Mountains rise to an averageheight of 600 m that decreases southward. Takht-e-Sulaiman (3,487 m) and Takatu (3,470m) are the highest peaks of the Sulaiman Ranges.

The Balochistan Plateau is located west of the Sulaiman-Kirthar Mountains. Its westernpart is dominated by a number of sub-parallel ranges: the Makran Coast Range (600 m),and the Central Makran Range (900 - 1200 m). The highest peak Ras Koh, attains a heightof 3010 m.

The Potwar Plateau and the Salt Range region are located to the south of themountainous north and lie between the Indus river on the west and the Jhelum river on theeast. Its northern boundary is formed by the Kala Chitta Ranges and the Margalla Hillsand the southern boundary by the Salt Ranges. The Kala Chitta Range rises to an averageheight of 450 - 900 m and extends for about 72 km. The main Potwar Plateau extendsnorth of the Salt Range. It is an undulating area 300 - 600 m high.

The Salt Ranges have a steep face towards the south and slope gently in to the PotwarPlateau in the north. They extend from Jhelum River up to Kalabagh where they cross theIndus river and enter the Bannu district and rise to an average height of 750 - 900 m.Sakesar Peak (1,527 m) is the highest point of the Salt Ranges.

The Indus Plains have been formed by the alluvium laid down from the river Indus and itstributaries. The Indus is a mighty stream about 2,900 km long with catchment areas ofabout 963,500 sq. km. From its source it flows from east to west between the Karakoramsand the Himalayas. It receives a number of tributaries from the west: Kabul river, Kurram,Tochi and the Gomal river. The left side tributaries are Jhelum, Ravi and Sutlej. They

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combine at Panjnad. The swelling of Indus and its tributaries during summer causes floods.Sometimes the rivers change their courses and spread fertile silts in some areas and coarsesands in others. All these processes have built the Indus plains and have made themagriculturally very important. The Indus Plains slope down from north to south. In thenorth, they rise to about 300 m and drop to about 75 m near Panjnad in the Panjab. Fromthere, they slope gently and cascade in to the Arabian Sea.The Indus Plains can be divided into the following physiographic entities:

Piedmont PlainsAlluvial TerracesActive Flood PlainsDeltaic PlainsRolling Sand Plains and Dunes

Extensive Piedmont Plains have developed between the Indus river and the Sulaiman-Kirthar mountains. They have been built by the alluvial fans along the Indus flowingeastward down the mountains. Most of the rivers rolling down the mountains becomeactive only when rainfall takes place. They flow down the slopes swiftly. On reaching thefoothills, they loose speed and drop part of their load within the streams, which split into anumber of narrow channels. These channels become so overburdened (with sediment load)that they die before they reach the Indus towards which they flow. The gravel, sand andsilt thus deposited, form the alluvial fans. The Piedmont plains, dominated by the alluvialfans, provide good soils and suitable topography for agriculture.

Alluvial Terraces are depositional and are separated from the adjoining flood plains bythe river-cut bluffs ranging in height from 5 to 15 m. The sediments of the terraces arecalled old alluvium and are composed of compact calcareous silty clays.

Active Flood Plains are narrow strips of land along the Indus and its tributaries varyingfrom 24 to 40 km in width. They are inundated almost every year, covered with richalluvium and are suitable for agriculture. Old flood plains cover extensive areas betweenthe active flood plains and the desert areas in the lower Indus Valley.

The Deltaic Plains have in fact been built by the Indus as a large delta at its mouth. Theapex of the delta is to the south of Thatta. The area bounded by the Kalri and Pinyari, thetwo distributaries of the Indus, is taken as the Indus Delta. The delta is scarred with oldand present channels of the Indus. At the coast, barrier bars have developed. There areextensive mud flats sliced by the tidal channels. The inland limit of the mud flats is markedby a cliff.

An extensive area in the south-west of Pakistan is covered with Rolling Sand Plains andDunes. It is separated from the Indus valley by the dry channels of Ghaggar River. Thisextensive desert is called Cholistan in the Panjab and Thar in Sindh. It is not drained by anyperennial stream. Therefore wind action is dominant in the formation of its topography. Avast expanse of sand plains with dunes dominates the scene. Agriculturally, it is a poorarea. Map 9 presents the highlands of Pakistan and the Indus Plains.

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2.2 Climate

Depending on the topography, there is an extreme variation in the temperature of Pakistan.The country is essentially arid except for the southern slopes of the Himalayas and the sub-mountainous tract where the annual rainfall varies between 760 and 1270 mm. This areahas humid sub-Tropical climate. In the extreme north - because of great heights - Highlandclimate prevails. The controlling factors of the climate are:

1. The sub-Tropical location of Pakistan that tends to keep the temperature high,particularly in summer.

2. The oceanic influence of the Arabian Sea that keeps down the temperature contrastbetween summer and winter at the coast.

3. Higher altitudes in the west and north that keep the temperature down throughoutthe year.

4. The Monsoon winds that bring rainfall in summer.

5. The Western Depression originating from the Mediterranean region and enteringPakistan from the west that brings rainfall in winter. These cyclones make a longland journey and are thus robbed of most of the moisture by the time they reachPakistan.

6. A temperature inversion layer at a low elevation of about 1,500 m in the southduring the summer, that does not allow the moisture-laden air to rise andcondensation to take place.

2.2.1 Temperature

Pakistan can be divided into four broad temperature regions:

1. Hot summer and mild winter: 32o C or more in summer and 10 to 21o C in winter.

2. Warm summer and mild winter: 21 - 32oC in summer and 10 to 21oC in winter.

3. Warm summer and cool winter: 21 - 32oC in summer and 0 - 10oC in winter.

4. Mild summer and cool/cold winter: Summer temperature between 10 and 21oC andwinter temperature between 0 and 10oC.

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Considering 10-year data (1974 - 1983), Table 2 contains the mean maximum and meanminimum temperatures at some selected meteorological centres:

Table 2. Maximum and Minimum Temperatures (oC)Station Mean Maximum Mean Minimum1. Quetta 24.3 7.42. Zhob 25.6 12.13. Khuzdar 28.1 14.24. Panjgoor 29.5 15.05. Dalbandin 31.0 13.56. Rawalpindi 28.4 14.17. Peshawar 29.7 15.88. Jhelum 31.2 13.49. Lahore 30.7 18.010. Sargodha 31.9 16.611. Faisalabad 30.8 16.212. D.I. Khan 31.3 16.813. Multan 33.0 18.114.Bahawalpur

32.6 18.0

15. Jacobabad 33.6 20.116. NawabShah

35.0 18.1

17. Hyderabad 34.4 21.318. Karachi 31.7 20.4

2.2.2 Analysis of Temperature Regimes

Proper analysis for the calculation of temperature regimes could not be carried out becauseof the lack of data and the proper methodology: application of linear equation, theinterpolation of the data on to the area by using raster GIS Module and a Digital ElevationModel (DEM). This is then followed by the removal of the influence of altitude on the datathrough the 0 masl altitude-equivalent temperature at each station.

Based on the maximum and minimum temperatures, the Longitude and Latitude, Maps 10and 11 have been created using Surfer and then transferring the image to ARC/INFO.Surfer is a grid-based contouring, 3-D surface plotting programme. It interpolates theirregularly-shaped XYZ data on to a regularly spaced grid and places it in a grid used toproduce contour maps and surface plots.

2.2.3 Rainfall

The major part of Pakistan experiences dry climate. Humid conditions prevail but over asmall area in the north. The whole of Sindh, most of Balochistan, the major part of thePanjab and central parts of Northern Areas receive less than 250 mm of rainfall in a year.Northern Sindh, southern Panjab, north-western Balochistan and the central parts ofNorthern Areas receive less than 125 mm of rainfall. True humid conditions appear afterthe rainfall increases to 750 mm in plains and 625 mm in highlands.

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There are two sources of rainfall in Pakistan: the Monsoon and the Western Depression.The former takes place from July to September and the latter, December to March.

Based on the average rainfall (in mm) between 1974 and 1983, Table 3 attempts to give apicture of the quantity of precipitation received in Pakistan.

Table 3. Mean Annual Rainfall (mm)

Station Mean Annual Rainfall1. Quetta 3782. Sibi 2173. Kalat 2744. Chaghi 1485. Zhob 2976. Khuzdar 2727. Panjgoor 1288. Dalbandin 1259. Rawalpindi 136410. Peshawar 44111. Kohat 59312. Bannu 41613. D.I. Khan 32714. Jhelum 96015. Sialkot 118616. Sahiwal 10917. Lahore 72918. Sargodha 52619. Faisalabad 48520. Multan 22521. Bahawalpur 26622. Jacobabad 13523. Nawab Shah 16224. Rohri 17425. Hyderabad 19326. Karachi 265

2.2.4 Analysis of Precipitation Regimes

Rainfall pattern and moisture regimes are subject to limitations: there is no clear altitudinaltrend of precipitation. As an example, the Dry Temperate Zone in the north of Pakistanand to the west of Balochistan (bordering Afghanistan) are highlands and mountainousregions but do not receive even a fraction of the precipitation of what the MoistTemperate Zone or even the sub-Tropical areas receive. Further, a relationship needs to bebuilt between the altitude, temperature, and the potential evaporation: the higher thealtitude, the lower the temperature and hence the evaporation.

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A simple methodology was therefore, applied by using the Mean Annual Rainfall data ofthe above stations and their geographic location. The software used was Surfer and later,ARC/INFO (Map 12).

2.3 Soils

Aridity prevailing over major part of Pakistan is the main climatic characteristic that affectsits soils. This has resulted in limiting the soil moisture and scantiness of vegetative cover.Soils in Pakistan are rich in Basic but poor in Nitrogenous matter.

2.3.1 Parent Material

The soils of Pakistan are derived from two types of parent materials:

1. Alluvium, Loess and wind reworked sands. They are of mixed mineralogy.

2. Residual material obtained from weathering of underlying rocks. Most of the rocksare Calcareous . In some areas, Granites have produced non-calcareous soilmaterial. Very small quantities of salts are released from most of the rocks. Thesoils are therefore, essentially non-saline.

2.3.2 Soil Classification

The soils of Pakistan have acquired distinct characteristics from the parent material and bytheir mode of formation. The river-laid sediments have developed into Alluvial Soils. Thedesert sands have turned into distinct soils. The hills, mountains and the plateaus haveproduced Residual Soils with patches of Alluvial, Loess and other soils. Accordingly, thesoils of Pakistan can be classified into the following six types:

Alluvial Soils of the Flood PlainsAlluvial Soils of the Bar UplandsSoils of the Piedmont PlainsDesert SoilsSoils of Potwar PlateauSoils of Western Hills

Based on these broad classes, Table 4 presents areas under different soil types inPakistan. Map 13 presents the 26 broad Soil Types of Pakistan.

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Table 4. Soil Types of Pakistan

Soil Type Area(000’ ha)

%tage

1. Loamy and sandy stratified soils 1.0 0.12. Loamy and clayey non-calcareous soils 4.6 0.63. MOUNTAINS: Loamy shallow soils VALLEYS : Loamy non-calcareous soils 18.6 2.34. Loamy sandy stratified soils 1.5 0.25. Loamy clayey non-calcareous soils 7.7 1.06. Loamy non-calcareous soils of alluvial/loess plains 18.2 2.37. MOUNTAINS: Loamy and shallow soils VALLEYS : Laomy soils 10.2 1.38. MOUNTAINS: Rock out-crops loamy and shallow soils VALLEYS : Loamy soils 17.0 2.19. Loamy partly gravelly soils 0.7 0.110. MOUNTAINS: Loamy shallow soils and rock out-crop VALLEYS : Loamy soils 2.7 0.311. MOUNTAINS: Rock out-crop and loamy very shallow soils VALLEYS : Loamy soils 41.7 5.212. MOUNTAINS:Rock outcrop, some loamy very shallow soilsVALLEYS : Mainly loamy soils 22.7 2.913. Laomy sandy stratified soils 18.8 2.414. Loamy clayey soils 90.4 11.415. Loamy soils of old river terraces 21.9 2.816. Laomy clayey mainly dense saline sodic soils 2.0 0.317. Loamy and clayey partly slaine sodic soils 52.7 6.618. Mainly loamy saline soils 15.3 1.919. Silty and calyey saline soils 5.6 0.720. Rolling to hilly sandy soils 116.9 14.721. Mainly loamy partly gravelly soils 46.6 5.822. Mainly loamy partly gravelly soils 16.7 2.123. MOUNTAIND: Rocky out-crop with patchy soils VALLEYS : Mainly loamy partly gravelly soils 244.5 30.624. Clayey and loamy severly slaine sodic soils 2.7 0.325. Glaciers and snow caps 3.4 0.426. Rivers 13.0 1.6 TOTAL: 796.1 100.0

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2.4 Population

The population of Pakistan is growing at a very rapid rate. From 16.6 million in 1901, itincreased to 84.3 million in 1981 (the last official census year): a five-fold increase in 80years (Table 5).

Table 5 reveals that the population of Pakistan was doubled from 1901 - 1951. Itdoubled again but during 1951 to 1972 thus resulting doubling time from 50 years to

. Between 1972 and 1981, it increased by another 28.3%. With the officiallyprojected growth rate of 3.1% per year (1981 onwards), the population of Pakistan

will be more than 150 million by the turn of the century.

Table 5 Population of Pakistan (millions)Year Population Inter-Censal

Growth RateAnnual Growth

Rate1901 16.58 - -1911 19.38 16.9 1.571921 21.10 8.9 0.851931 23.54 11.6 1.111941 28.28 20.1 1.851947* 31.44 11.1 1.781951 33.74 7.3 1.781961 42.88 27.1 2.431972 65.31 52.3 3.901981 84.25 28.3 2.871996 133.18 58.1 3.102000 150.48 13.0 3.10

* Projected

The alarming increase in the population from 1961 onwards can be attributed due mainlyto the improved health conditions causing reduction in the infant mortality rate.

2.5 Forests and Land Cover

Forests have been central in human history in that they provide critical ecosystem servicesfor climate, range and forage, wildlife habitat, biotic diversity, watershed protection, soilerosion control, etc.

Humans have left an impressive mark on the world over the past several centuries. Withthe dramatic growth in population - from around 1 billion in 1800 to 5 billion today-pressure on the land has greatly increased. The need for greater food production has led toa massive increase in cropland. By early 1990’s, almost 40 percent of earth’s land surfacehad been converted to croplands and permanent pastures. This conversion has occurredlargely at the expense of forests.

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Of the four forest cover percentage groups (> 70%, 40-69%, 10-39%, 0-9%), Pakistanlies in the last category: 0-9%. Between 1981 and 1990, there had been a 4.3% decrease inforest areas of the Tropical Asia and Oceania, which Pakistan is a part of. During the sameperiod, a 0.6% deforestation had been occurring each year. This is an alarming situationand needs to be stalled and then reversed, if possible.

As recognition of the multiple values of forests has grown, so have concerns for theirdisappearance. In Pakistan, subtropical, temperate, riverain and mangrove forests are beinglost because of questionable land use practices and the ever-increasing demand for timberand firewood. As a result, more responsible management approaches are being demandedthat can accommodate complex economic and ecological needs. Designation of selectedforestlands as national parks, area for agro-forestry practices and the development ofplantations and afforestation practices are needs of the hour.

Total Forest Area under the control of the Forest Departments (including Azad Kashmirand the Northern Areas) is 4.26 million hectares. The per capita forest area is only 0.037ha compared to the world average of ONE ha. Main reason for this is that more than 70%land area of Pakistan is Arid and semi-Arid with annual rainfall of 250-500 mm: too lowand erratic to sustain natural vegetation and to plan afforestation/regenerationprogrammes.

Due to diverse ecological conditions, a variety of forest types exist in the country. Thereare natural forests growing in the moist-and-dry temperate zones and on the foothills. Onthe other extreme are the mangrove forests in the Indus Delta and the Arabian Sea.Irrigated plantations and to some extent, riverain forests are man-made.

Of 4.26 million hectares (of forest area), only 1.12 million hectares (26.3%) producetimber and firewood: the rest are meant to protect the watershed areas and the erodablelands.

Besides forests, the forest departments also control 6.4 million hectares of Rangelands. Infact, there are about 51.3 million hectares of Rangelands in Pakistan. These ranges providesustenance to livestock population of about 98.6 millions. Being under incessant grazingpressure, these lands are producing hardly 10-15% of their actual potential. Over-grazinghas intensified the problems of desertification resulting in accelerated soil erosion anddegradation of plant communities.

Table 6 presents the Forest Area by Types and Rangelands in Pakistan (including AzadKashmir and the Northern Areas).

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Table 6. Forest Areas and Rangelands (in ha.)

Forest Type NWFP Panjab Sindh Balochistan NorthernAreas

AzadKashmir

Total

Coniferous 1105 29 - 131 285 361 1911Irr. Plantations - 142 82 - 2 - 226Riverain Forests - 51 241 5 - - 297Scrub Forests 115 340 10 163 658 1 1287Coastal Forests - - 345 - - - 345Mazri Lands 24 - - - - - 24Linear Pltns. 2 4 - - - - 6Private Pltns. 159 - - - - - 159Range Lands 150 2683 490 787 2104 195 6409TOTAL: 1555 3249 1168 1086 3049 557 10664

2.6 Protected Areas

There are three types of areas that have been declared as Protected.

National ParksWildlife SanctuariesGame Reserves

The National Parks are only meant for recreational purposes where no other activity cantake place.

In Wildlife Sanctuaries, no hunting is allowed as they have the endangered wildlifespecies.

As for the Game Reserves, hunting is allowed but only in certain months in a year andafter a hunting permit has been obtained from the Wildlife Department.

In Pakistan, there are 10 National Parks, 82 Wildlife Sanctuaries and 83 Game Reserves.They occupy a hefty 9% land area of Pakistan (Table 7).

Table 7. Protected Areas of Pakistan

Category No. Area (ha) % of Land Area

1. National Parks 10 954,246 1.22. Wildlife Sanctuaries 82 2,749,054 3.43. Game Reserves 83 3,535,284 4.4 TOTAL: 7,238,584 9.0

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2.7 Agriculture

Agriculture in Pakistan dates back to Neolithic times. It formed the base of the well-known Indus Valley Civilization. Of late, its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product(GDP) has decreased from 52% in 1950-51 to just 24% in 1993-94. This is primarilybecause of higher growth rates registered by other sectors, particularly, the Manufacturingand Mining.

Pakistan is a land of subsistence agriculture. The main emphasis is on the production offood crops that account for about 70% of the cropped area. Some cash crops (cotton,sugarcane, tobacco, etc.) are grown to meet other needs. About 23% of the total land areais cultivated. Still, the cropped area has increased from 14.6 million hectares in 1947-48 toabout 22.15 million hectares in 1993-94: a hefty increase of about 52%.

For the purpose of this study, the land area of Pakistan has been divided into FIVE majorcategories: Reported Area; Forest Area; Cropped Area, Cultivable Waste; UnreportedArea. The data has a time interval of 46 years: sufficient to determine the changed landusepattern, if any (Table 8).

Table 8. Land use Pattern of Pakistan (million ha)

Category 1947-48 1993-94 % Change

Geographical Area 79.61 79.61 0.00Reported Area 47.43 58.12 + 7.79Forest Area 2.84 3.44 + 21.13Cropped Area 14.60 22.15 + 22.92Cultivable Waste 11.50 8.84 - 16.84Unreported Area 32.18 21.49 - 16.35

There has been an appreciable increase in Forest-and Cropped Areas. A lot of wastelandhas been converted to productive uses. The un-Reported Area has consequently reduced.

According to a map prepared by the Soil Survey of Pakistan (published in 1988), ninemajor land use classes have been identified. Table 9.

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Table 9. Land use Categories of Pakistan (000’ ha)

Landuse Type Area %age1. Agriculture 21,733 27.32. Rangelands 25,475 32.03. Coniferous Forests 1,353 1.74. Irrigated Plantations 80 0.15. Scrub Forests 796 1.06. Riverain Forests 239 0.37. Wastelands including areas under Ice and Snow 28,501 35.88. Water Bodies (rivers only) 1,274 1.69. Others 159 0.2 TOTAL: 79,610 100.0

Map 14 presents the Land use Categories for the four provinces of Pakistan.

Compared to the data provided by the Forest and Agriculture Departments, the data ofSoil Survey Department (Table 9) differs in almost all the landuse categories. Thiswarrants a serious re-classification of the present landuse status.

2.7.1 Crop Calendar

Pakistan has two basic crop seasons: Winter Season and Summer Season. The WinterSeason crops include Cotton, Rice, Sugarcane, Maize, Sugar Beet and Gram. The Summercrops include Wheat, Millet, Sorgham, Barley, Tobacco, and various Pulses. Table 10presents the areas (in 000 ha) under different crops and their production (in 000’ tonnes)in 1993-94.

Table 10. Area and Production of Winter and Summer Crops

Winter Crops Summer CropsCROPS Area Production Area (ha.) Production

(tonnes)Cotton 2,805 1,440 - -Rice 2,187 3,995 - -Sugarcane 963 44,427 - -Sugar Beet 7 243 - -Maize 878 1,213 - -Gram 1,045 411 - -Pulses 432 202 - -Wheat - - 8,034 15,213Millet - - 303 137Sorgham - - 365 212Tobacco - - 57 100Barley - - 151 212

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2.8 National Energy Consumption

Like many other developing countries, Pakistan has not yet fully harnessed its energypotential. As a consequence, its national energy consumption is very low. With an annualgrowth rate of 3.9%, the energy consumption increased from 19.5 million TOE in 1980-81to 32.2 million TOE in 1993-94: a gross increase of about 65% and a yearly increase ofmore than 3.9% (Table 11). The per capita consumption - during the same period - wentup from 10.47 GJ to 11.10 GJ.

Table 11. National Energy Consumption by Source (000’ TOE)

Source 1980-81 Percent 1993-94 Percent

Commercial: 10,868 55.6 20,355 63.2

Oil 4,267 21.8 9,667 30.0Gas 3,200 16.4 6,082 18.9Coal 691 3.5 1,562 4.8Electricity 2,710 13.9 3,044 9.5non-Commercial 8,660 44.4 11,840 36.8

Wood 4,939 25.3 6,506 20.2Agric. Residue 3,721 19.1 5,334 16.6TOTAL: 19,528 100.0 32,205 100.0

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3.0 RESULTS

3.1 Land Cover Assessment: 1992-93

3.1.1 Why NOAA-AVHRR Data?

A problem common in development planning is the inadequacy of information on thecurrent landcover and available resource base. Without accurate information, policymakers often fail to make correct decisions. The frequent inadequacy of landcoverinformation may be due to lack of trained personnel, equipment, or funds to collectinformation. Rapid changes in the resource base such as high rates of deforestation causedby increased population pressure may be one of the other reasons of deficient database.

One tool in providing current reliable land cover data is Remote Sensing: the acquisitionof information without direct contact.

Although many types of remotely-sensed data of earth’s surface have been collected,NOAA AVHRR data have been used most frequently for the macro scale land coverassessments. This is because of its spectral bands that are well suited especially forthe detection of important vegetative attributes. The contrast between the first two

channels can be conveniently calculated to a measure of vegetation. VegetationIndex is one such ratio that has been shown to be highly correlated with vegetationparameters (plant species, leaf area, soil background reflectance and shadow) and

hence, is of considerable value for vegetation discrimination.

3.2. Spectral Characterization and Land Cover Mapping

3.2.1 Classification Scheme

After interpreting the NOAA AVHRR data covering Pakistan, the following SIX major .Land cover categories were identified:

1. Snow and Ice2. Forests: Coniferous, Scrub, Mangrove, Riverain, Irrigated

Plantations, Mazi lasnds3. Agricultural Lands4. Grazing/Rangelands (including degraded rangelands)5. Water Bodies6. Waste Lands (including deserts)

Snow and Ice areas are mostly confined to northern NWFP (Himalayas, Hindu Kush,Karakoram mountains), extreme southern NWFP (Waziristan hills), to some extent, north-eastern Panjab, and the north-western hills of Balochistan (Koh-e-Sulaiman).

Forest areas include dry/moist temperate forests, sub-tropical forests, foothill and plateauscrub forests, tropical thorn forests, irrigated plantations, riverain forests and the coastal

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forests. Rangelands in fact, start from the alpine pastures in the extreme north (> 4,000 m)down to the Indus Plains (< 100 m) and Balochistan Plateaus.

An extensive area in the south-east and south of Pakistan is covered with Rolling SandPlanes and Dunes. This desert is called Cholistan in the Panjab and becomes Thar(parkar)in Sindh.

There was not much difficulty in separating most of the landcover features except for theRiverain Forests in the Panjab and Sindh, Mangrove Forests in Sindh and some degradedrange/brushlands in north-western Balochistan (near the Pak-Afghan border). All thesethree categories of vegetation were giving the same reflectance values. Since there is anobvious degradation and reduction in the Riverain forests and Mangroves, it becomes allthe more important to have a reasonably good estimate of the present state of affairs inthese areas.

3.2.2 Land Use Distribution Assessment

Six major biomass types encompassing a variety of eco-systems (alpine to tropical) may berecognized (from the NOAA Imagery) for Pakistan including Northern Areas. Broadlyspeaking, they are lands under agriculture, rangelands (perennial and seasonal), coniferous-scrub-and other forest areas, riverain forests and finally, the mangrove forests). A varietyof forests featuring varying degrees of disturbances, imbalances and degradations dominatemost of the forest areas. Subsistence agriculture, fuelwood collection and grazing practicesseem to be the dominant features of degradation (of natural vegetation) both quantitativelyand qualitatively. Land area under snow and ice, water bodies and wastelands are someother features as derived from the NOAA imagery. Table 12.

Table 12. Landuse Categories of Pakistan (000’ ha)

Land use Category Area % age1. Snow and Ice 8,563 10.42. Agriculture 25,184 30.73. Rangelands 8,867 10.84. Rangelands; degraded 7,843 9.65. Coniferous, Scrub & other Forests 2,730 3.36. Riverain Forests including nfv* 1,801 2.27. Coastal Mangrove Forests 556 0.78. Water Bodies 93 0.19. Wastelands including Deserts 26,394 32.2 TOTAL: 82,031 100.0

* non-forest vegetation

Map 15 presents all the nine major land cover categories of Pakistan.

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3.3 Natural Vegetation: a Comparison

Like many other countries, different figures are available in Pakistan for different landcover types occurring in the country. The following table (Table 12) has been added toshow how the data obtained from the different sources in Pakistan differ from the NOAAclassification.

Table 13. Natural Vegetation of Pakistan; A Comparison

Vegetation Type AgricultureDepartment (ha.)

ForestDepartment(ha.)

SoilDepepartment(ha.).

NOAAAVHRR(ha.)

1. Forest areas 3,400 3,722 2,468 5,0872. Rangelands 51,300 51,300 25,475 16,710

There is considerable difference in the areas under natural vegetation as reported byvarious agencies in the country and the areas derived from the NOAA imagery. This meansthat a massive reclassification needs to be carried out. This is particularly true for forestareas that are almost 37% less than what the satellite imagery reports. There is also apossibility that the imagery data is too much on the higher side. This might be anothergood reason for reclassification: both at departmental as also at the imagery level.

4.0 CONCLUSIONS

At the national scale, the study revealed the usefulness of NOAA AVHRR data in theassessment of landcover information. This information when compared to historiclandcover data, became useful to detect changes in landuse pattern, such as increase in theextent of agricultural lands or decrease in forest areas. It can thus be used as a baselinedata for future monitoring. As for the future monitoring of landcover, one would findcloud free NOAA AVHRR LAC data as far back as say, 1984-85 when NOAA-9 waslaunched. Latest data pertaining to say, 1996 would give access not only to the up-to-datelandcover status, it will also help in ascertaining a trend of the changing landcover scenarioover a fairly large period of time.

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REFERENCESThe report is heavily based on the following reports.1. Anon. 1993-94. Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan.

2. Anon. 1984. Pakistan Statistical Year Book. Federal Bureau of Statistics, Karachi,Pakistan.

3. Anon. 1990. Pakistan Demographic Survey. Federal Bureau of Statistics, Karachi,Pakistan.

4. Anon. 1993. Crops Area Production (by Districts); 1989-90 to 1991-92. PrintingCorporation of Pakistan Press, Islamabad, Pakistan.

5. Anon. 1996. Economic Survey: 1995-96. Printing Corporation of Pakistan Press,Islamabad, Pakistan.

6. Anon. 1996. Banking on Biodiversity.ICIMOD - Nepal.

7. Anon. 1995. Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific. United NationsOrganization.

8. Anon. 1995. Land Cover Assessment and Monitoring. Volume 1-A. UNEPEnvironment Assessment Programme for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok.

9. Anon. World Resources. 1996. World Resources Institute, 1709, New York Ave.,N.W., Washington DC, 20006, USA.

10. Haack, Barry; Richard English. 1996. National Landcover Mapping by RemoteSensing.

11. Khan F. Karim. 1991. A Geography of Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Karachi,Pakistan.

12. McKendry et all. 1992. Exploration in GIS Technology. Vol. 2. UNITAR EuropeanOffice, Geneva, Switzerland.

13. Shaw Isobel. 1996. Odyssey Illustrated Guide to PAKISTAN.

14. Siddiqui, K.M. 1996. Wood Energy in the National Energy Perspective. InProceedings of the National Training Workshop on Fuelwood Trade in Pakistan.Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar.

15. Sthapit, K.M. and R. Bhattarai. 1989. Agro-climatic Classification System for Nepal.HMGN/UNDP/FAO.

16. Trapp Hubert. 1995. Application of GIS for Planning Agricultural Development inGorkha District. MENRIS/ICIMOD - Nepal.