la efectividad de la enseÑanza de la suma reagrupando a travÉs del uso de videojuegos educativos...

7/22/2019 LA EFECTIVIDAD DE LA ENSEANZA DE LA SUMA REAGRUPANDO A TRAVS DEL USO DE VIDEOJUEGOS EDUCATIVOS

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XEKWH\SK@M@ @H RXH\PO \KCO HE ROECH@HRM\PMAHEPO @H H@XCMCKE [ H@XCMCKE GSKCM

ROECH, RXH\PO \KCO

DM HGHCPKWK@M@ @H DM HESHMEYM @H DM SXAM \HMF\XRME@O MP\MWS @HD XSO @H WK@HOIXHFOS H@XCMPKWOS HE HSPX@KMEPHS @H

PH\CH\ F\M@O

Prmlmio soahtkò coao rhqukskto pmrckmd `hd curso Màkekstrmcke `h RrofrmamsPhceodfkcos Hùcmtkvos PHH@ 0226 Amhstro Hsphckmdkstm he Phceodofm

Hùcmtkvm

Ror9\utj A. Mrroyo Foezdhz

Cme`k`mtm m Dkcheckm `h Amhstro Hsphckmdkstm he Phceodofm Hùcmtkvm


2/41

< `h `kckhalrh `h


3/41

\hsuahe

Hd prhsheth òcuaheto `hscrklh hd prochso `h kethfrmcke `h dos vk`hoiuhfoshùcmtkvos md prochso `h heshmezm mprhe`kzmih coao jhrrmakhetm hùcmtkvm he

hd rhm `h amthatkcm he thrchr frmò. Hsth trmlmio sh `hsprhe`h `h dm vkske

`h quh hd hstu`kmeth hs ue shr kethfrmd, cmpmz `h hegrhetmrsh m dm vk`m coe uem

coeckheckm crtkcm quh do cmpmckth pmrm msuakr cmalkos y toamr `hckskoehs

m`hcum`ms he lhehgkcko `h dm sockh`m` m dm cumd phrthehch. Dm heshmezm tkheh

quh shr phrtkeheth md hùcmeò utkdkzmeò hstrmthfkms quh kecduyme hd uso `h dms

euhvms thceodofms (vk`hoiuhfos) pmrm goahetmr hd coeockakheto `h dms

mpdkcmckoehs hstu`km`ms he cdmsh. M trmvs `hd aksao sh jmch rhghrheckm m dm

kaportmeckm `h coetmr coe uem jhrrmakhetm mutorrhfudm`m, quh shm cmpmz `h

ah`kmr hetrh dms cmpmck`m`hs `hd mduaeo y dos coethekòs hùcmtkvos y

jmlkdk`m`hs `h iuhfo m dos cumdhs jm skò hxpuhsto.


4/41

Cmptudo =

Ketroùccke

Methch`heths

Dm sockh`m` puhrtorrkquhm jm sugrkò cmalkos sockmdhs, podtkcos y

hcoeakcos `hs`h dm pocm `h dm codoekzmcke hspmodm jmstm hd prhsheth.

Skheò hsto ms, eo hs `h hxtrmmr quh dm aksam sh jm vksto mghctm`m por hstos

cmalkos ym quh dm hùcmcke `hlh rhspoe`hr m dms ehchsk`m`hs y coe`kckoehs

quh phrehhe he stm. He coeshcuheckm sh crhm dm ehchsk`m` `h crhmr rhgorams

quh mfkdkche dos prochsos y provhme md hstu`kmeth dms jhrrmakhetms m`hcum`ms

pmrm dofrmr hd `hsmrroddo axkao coao shr juameo y proghskoemd.

Hs puhs dm hscuhdm, hd chetro hùcmtkvo, dufmr òe`h coevhrfhe dm k`hms,

hstrmthfkms, atoòs y rhcursos pmrm dofrmr dos cmalkos quh rhqukhrh o hxkfh

uem sockh`m`.

Shfe hd thxto9 Jkstorkm `h dm \hgoram Hùcmtkvm9 Prmesgoramcke `h dm

Hscuhdm Rldkcm Ruhrtorrkquhm =;;3-=;;; dm kevmske `h Ruhrto \kco por pmrth

`h dos hstmòuek`heshs trmio coeskfo uem shrkh `h dhyhs quh propkckmroe uem

shrkh `h cmalkos he euhstrm sockh`m` y por he`h he euhstro skstham `h

hùcmcke. Hs dm Dhy Gormnhr `h =;22 dm quh vkmlkdkzm hd hstmldhckakheto `hd

@hpmrtmaheto `h Kestruccke. Hsto phraktk quh sh rhmdkzmrme hstu`kos quh

myu`mrme m mctumdkzmr dm hùcmcke puhrtorrkquhm.

Hs he hd =;;2 quh sh crhm dm Dhy Orfekcm `hd @hpmrtmaheto `h Hùcmcke,

dm cumd phraktk uem rhhstructurmcke `h sth. Xeo `h dos prkeckpmdhs hegoquhs


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`h hstm dhy jm skò hd skfukheth9 Dm \hgoram Rrofrmatkcm o Sulstmetkvm9 Hd

rhor`hemakheto sh rhgkhrh he hsth cmso m dm cmdk`m` `h dos hstu`kos> kethfrmcke m

dms ehchsk`m`hs y mptktu`hs `h dos hstu`kmeths> m dm kecorpormcke `h gorams y

atoòs hghctkvos pmrm dm heshmezm `h k`koams> ckheckms y amthatkcms> m dm

utkdkzmcke `h dm coaputmòrm coao rhcurso hùcmtkvo . . .

Hd Rrofrmam `h Amthatkcm hstmldhch m trmvs `hd òcuaheto `h trmlmio9

Amrco Currkcudmr Rrofrmam `h Amthatkcm (=;;;) quh dm heshmezm `h dm

amthatkcm `hlh hstmr lmsm`m he dm heshmezm phrtkeheth9 Dm heshmzm

phrtkeheth usm hstrmthfkms y thceodofm pmrm goahetmr hd coeockakheto `h dms

mpdkcmckoehs `h coechptos hstu`kmòs he dm smdm `h cdmshs y prhpmrmr md

hstu`kmeth pmrm dm kethrprhtmcke cdmrm `h su rhmdk`m`. Sh dh gmckdktm md hstu`kmeth

dm k`hetkgkcmcke `h coehxkoehs hetrh smlhrhs y hd uso `h kestruahetos

thceodfkcos coao rhcursos pmrm hd `hsculrkakheto y hd medksks.

Hd òcuaheto `h trmlmio9 Hste`mrhs `hd Rrofrmam `h Phceodofm Hùcmtkvm

(=;;8) hstmldhch do skfukheth9 Hd Rrofrmam `h Phceodofm hùcmtkvm he toòs

dos ekvhdhs, frmòs y amthrkms `hd skstham hùcmtkvo gmckdktm pmrm quh9

Hste`mr #


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Hste`mr # 09 hd hstu`kmeth coauekquh sus k`hms, proyhctos y hihrckckos

hvmdumtkvos usmeò dm jhrrmakhetm mpropkm`m shdhcckoem`m `hetro `h uem

frme vmrkh`m` `h tcekcms dms cumdhs òakem.

Hste`mr # 89 hd hstu`kmeth coestruym skfekgkcmòs y euhvos coeockakhetos,

coalkemeò `kghrheths tkpos `h kegoramcke, ah`kmeth hd uso `h dm euhvm

thceodofm.

Hste`mr # 79 hd hstu`kmeth `hsmrroddh uem mctktu` posktkvm jmckm hd

mprhe`kzmih, ah`kmeth su pmrtkckpmcke he proyhctos keeovmòrhs lmsmòs he

dos m`hdmetos thceodfkcos.

Dm Cmrtm Ckrcudmr Ea. :-


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coestructkvkstm y aucjo aheos mòptm dm thorm `h mprhe`kzmih cofeoscktkvo-

juamekstm quh rkfh dm rhgoram currkcudmr `h dos profrmams mcmàkcos

hùcmtkvos `hd @hpmrtmaheto `h Hùcmcke `h Ruhrto \kco.

Iustkgkcmcke

Hd proldham9 Dm m`qukskcke, `hsmrroddo y mpdkcmcke `h dm suam rhmfrupmeò

he ekos `h thrchr frmò hs `kgkcudtuoso> sh mfu`kzm cm`m vhz as porquh dm

hscuhdm cmrhch `h mtrmctkvo, phrtkeheckm y rhtos fheukeos pmrm hd mduaeo

puhrtorrkquho. Soaos pmrth `h uem cudturm quh jm sugrkò aucjos cmalkos he

ue corto phrkoò `h tkhapo9 stm sh jm aovkò `h uem cudturm/hcoeoam mfrmrkm

m uem keùstrkmd y mjorm jmckm uem thceodfkcm.

Euhstros ekos emche, crhche y sh `hsmrroddme `hetro `h uem sockh`m`

coestmethaheth cmalkmeth ym quh phrthehchaos m dm Hrm `h dm Kegoratkcm

Hstos soe kapmctmòs `h uem goram u otrm por dm thceodofm9 he hd coahrcko,

ckeh y me he hd aksao jofmr. Mjorm lkhe cmlh prhfuetmr9 Sh hst usmeò dm

thceodofm md axkao pmrm vkmlkdkzmr hd prochso `h heshmezm-mprhe`kzmih? Sh

hst phraktkheò quh hd mduaeo coestruym su propko coeockakheto?

@hshaphme dos amhstros dm guecke `h gmckdktmòths quh coethapdm dm thorm

coestructkvkstm?

Shfe Akfuhd `h Fuzae (OHK) dm heshmezm `h dm amthatkcm por s aksam

hs uem tmrhm `kgckd porquh9

hs uem ckheckm kethesmaheth `keakcm y cmalkmeth.


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dm hùcmcke jm `h jmchr ehchsmrkmaheth rhghrheckm m do as progueò `h dm

phrsoem, uem phrsoem me por coegoramr, m dm sockh`m` he hvoducke he dm quh

hstm phrsoem sh jm `h kethfrmr, m dm cudturm quh he hstm sockh`m` sh `hsmrroddm, m

dos ah`kos coecrhtos phrsoemdhs y amthrkmdhs `h quh he hd aoaheto sh puh`h o

sh qukhrh `kspoehr, m dms gkemdk`m`hs prkorktmrkms quh m hstm hùcmcke sh dh

qukhrm mskfemr, quh puh`he shr hxtrmor`kemrkmaheth vmrkm`ms.

Skheò hd iuhfo tme kaportmeth he dm heshmezm `h dm amthatkcm y dm

thceodofm hd kefrh`kheth keeovmòr y rhtmeth hs kaportmeth quh sh kethfrhe hetrh

hddos pmrm shr usmòs coao jhrrmakhetm hùcmtkvm por y pmrm dos hstu`kmeths.

@mò `kcjm kethfrmcke hs ue jhcjo, stm sh crkstmdkzm he dm crhmcke `h dos

vk`hoiuhfos hùcmtkvos. Hstos tkhehe frme mrrmkfo hetrh dos ekos y ivhehs.

Dos vk`hoiuhfos hùcmtkvos poshhe òs coapoeheths9

`ksgruth `hd iuhfo9 Hd eko `hlh `ksgrutmr pdhemaheth `h iuhfos y

rhcrhmckoehs, dos cumdhs `hlhe hstmr orkhetmòs jmckm dos gkehs phrshfukòs por

dm hùcmcke> dm sockh`m` y dms mutork`m`hs pldkcms sh hsgorzmre por proaovhr

hd foch `h hsth `hrhcjo.(@hcdmrmcke `h dos @hrhcjos `hd Eko (=;8;))

Hd iuhfo hs uem cmrmcthrstkcm `h dm hsphckh juamem, dos jkstorkmòrhs `hd iuhfo

(Jukzkefm, =;6


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propkos y `kghrheckmòs `h otros tkpos `h profrmams muequh luhem pmrth `hd

sogtwmrh hùcmtkvo mctumd kethetm shfukr dos `kshos `h dos iuhfos pmrm muahetmr

dm aotkvmcke `h dos usumrkos (Lhfom Fros Smdvmt).

Shfe Lhfom `hs`h hd pueto `h vkstm kethdhctumd, dm coapdhik`m` `h dm amyor

pmrth `h dos iuhfos `h or`hemòr mctumdhs phrakthe `hsmrroddmr eo sdo msphctos

aotrkchs skeo, solrh toò, proch`kakhetos tmdhs coao dms jmlkdk`m`hs pmrm dm

rhsoducke `h proldhams, dm toam `h `hckskoehs, dm lsquh`m `h kegoramcke, dm

orfmekzmcke, htc. @hs`h hd pueto `h vkstm mghctkvo, dos iuhfos hihrche uem

kaportmeth aotkvmcke y puh`he utkdkzmrsh pmrm hd trmlmio `h msphctos rhdmtkvos m

dm mutohstkam. Dos iuhfos hùcmtkvos sh `kshme pmrm quh hd eko mprhe`m. Eo

sh trmtm `h "phr`hr" hd tkhapo iufmeò, jmy quh mprhe`hr mdfo ùrmeth hd iuhfo.

Dos vk`hoiuhfos soe dm puhrtm `h hetrm`m `h dm amyorm `h dos ekos y

mòdhscheths md aueò `h dm kegoratkcm. He hsth shetkò, Lhfom coesk`hrm quh

hstm puhrtm `h hetrm`m `hlh shr hxpdotm`m por dos hùcmòrhs por `kvhrsms

rmzoehs. He prkahr dufmr, sh trmtm h amthrkmdhs quh rhsudtme auy coeockòs por

dos hstu`kmeths. \hmdkzmeò uem luhem shdhccke, hstos profrmams eos phrakthe

trmlmime coe coethekòs currkcudmrhs, coe proch`kakhetos `kvhrsos y, m`has,

keck`kr he msphctos rhdmtkvos m dos vmdorhs quh dos propkos vk`hoiuhfos heckhrrme.

Dm `kaheske d`kcm `hd prochso hùcmtkvo eo `hlh quh`mr rhdhfm`m m dos

iuhfos trm`kckoemdhs, dos vk`hoiuhfos tmalke tkhehe ue pmphd kaportmeth he hd

mprhe`kzmih.


10/41

Cmptudo


11/41

thceodfkco mctumd, quh puh`me shr ue mpoyo m dm m`qukskcke `h dms

coaphtheckms ehchsmrkms pmrm hegrhetmr m`hcum`maheth hd guturo (Jhpp, =;;;).

@kvhrsos mutorhs mtrkluyhe uem frme kaportmeckm md iuhfo he hd `hsmrroddo

pskcodfkco y sockmd `h dms phrsoems, hsphckmdaheth `h dos ekos. Shfe \khfo

Fmoem ueo `h dos prkahros kevhstkfmòrhs quh rhmdkz hstu`kos goramdhs guh Nmrd

Froos, qukhe trmlmio lskcmaheth coe mekamdhs.

Su thorm `hd iuhfo sh lmsm he hd supuhsto prkeckpmd `h quh dm guecke `hd

iuhfo hs "dm hdkakemcke `h dos shetkakhetos jostkdhs y `h akhò" y tkheh coao

rhqukskto lskco dm iuvhetu`.

Froos amrcm hd kekcko `hd iuhfo he hd mekamd `hs`h dos prkahros ahshs

`hlkò m quh do `hgkeh coao ue prh-hihrckcko `h dos kestketos rhgdhios coe dos quh

hd mekamd emch, hs `hckr hd iuhfo hs uem mctkvk`m` quh tkheh coao gke hihrcktmr dos

kestketos, quh as tmr`h sh `hsmrroddmre y `mre dufmr m mctkvk`m`hs coao9

cmzmr, coahr, corrhr, htc., quh dh phraktkre solrhvkvkr he su ah`ko malkheth.

Ah`kmeth dm hdmlormcke sulshcuheth `h do hxpuhsto por Nmrd Froos, mdfueos

kevhstkfmòrhs ddhfmroe m dm coecduske `h quh hd iuhfo surfh cumeò hd mekamd

tkheh mshfurm`m su mdkahetmcke y dm prothccke `hd hehakfo> sh prhshetm

hetoechs uem mctkvk`m` quh eo chsm coe hd dofro `h uem ahtm, skeo quh sh rhpkth.

Coao `kch Fustmv Lmddy "... hs ue kr vhekr, ue coahezmr h kethrruapkr, ue mvmezmr

y rhtroch`hr."

Hstms kevhstkfmckoehs he mekamdhs jme shrvkò coao pueto `h pmrtk`m md

kethetmr `kduck`mr hd pmphd quh hd iuhfo `hshaphm he hd `hsmrroddo y he dm vk`m


12/41

sockmd `hd joalrh. Hs kethrhsmeth jmchr uem eotm `h m`vhrtheckm, sh `hlh thehr

cuk`mò md hxtrmpodmr dos rhsudtmòs olthekòs he ao`hdos mekamdhs hs `hckr,

toamr he cuhetm dms `kghrheckms lkodfkcms, pskcodfkcms y sockmdhs quh

cmrmcthrkzme md fehro juameo.

Shjme rhportmò hvk`heckms quh shmdme su pmphd `h ah`kmòr he dos

prochsos `h mprhe`kzmih y sockmdkzmcke (Lruehr, Ioddhy & Sydvm, =;67, he \ofogg,

=;;3, Wyfotsnk, =;6;). @h mcuhrò m Wyfotsnk (=;6;) hd iuhfo hs ue proaotor `hd

`hsmrroddo fhehrmd `hd eko, ym quh phrakth hesmymr rhfdms ms coao kevhstkfmr

sus propkms cmpmck`m`hs y dkaktmckoehs, do quh posthrkoraheth puh`h shr

hxtrmpodmò m sktumckoehs rhmdhs. He hd iuhfo hd eko fhehrm sus propkos

hspmckos y oportuek`m`hs quh dh phrakthe `hsmrroddmr dm kamfkemcke, sus

cmpmck`m`hs `h skalodkzmcke (m trmvs `hd "coao sk"), y coeshcuhethaheth

goahetmr tmeto dms jmlkdk`m`hs `h phesmakheto mlstrmcto ms coao dm

coaprheske y rhcoeockakheto `h rhfdms kapdcktms quh rkfhe hd iuhfo y dm

rhmdk`m`. @h mcuhrò m Lruehr, Ioddhy y Sydvm (=;67, he \ofogg, =;;3), hd eko

hesmym euhvms mctkvk`m`hs y rhgdhxkoem solrh k`hms ske dm prhske quh

grhcuhethaheth mcoapmm m dos kethetos as goramdhs `h mprhe`kzmih.

He pmdmlrms `h \kvkrh (=;;7), hd iuhfo phrakth md eko susphe`hr hd shetkò

dkthrmd `h dms rhfdms, mpdkceòdms m coethxtos hxtrmos, posklkdk`m` eo phraktk`m

he hd aueò jmlktumd `h dms rhdmckoehs sockmdhs y `h dm kethrmccke coe olihtos.

He otrms pmdmlrms, hd iuhfo lrke`m md eko ue hspmcko `h hesmyo `h rhfdms


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(kapdcktms) quh posthrkoraheth puh`h mpdkcmr ym shm he ue shetkò dkthrmd o

fhehrmdkzmldh.

@mò quh hd iuhfo hs uem mctkvk`m` fukm`m kethremaheth, hd eko crhm

muteoamaheth do quh Wyfotsnk (=;67) `heoakem coao dm Yoem `h @hsmrroddo

Rrxkao, corrhspoe`kheth m dm `kstmeckm hetrh dms cmpmck`m`hs ahetmdhs mctumdhs

`hd eko y dms quh potheckmdaheth puh`h mdcmezmr coe myu`m `h ue ah`kmòr.

He hsth shetkò, sk dos `kshmòrhs kestrucckoemdhs prhthe`he dhfktkakzmr hd rod `hd

iuhfo he hd cmapo `h dm thceodofm hùcmtkvm, stos `hlhe `kshmr mpdkcmckoehs

quh proporckoehe md eko oportuek`m`hs `h iuhfo quh phraktme coestrukr hd

me`makmih `hd prochsmakheto cofektkvo y prhstmr dm mskstheckm ehchsmrkm pmrm

quh hd eko dofrh ue ekvhd suphrkor `h gueckoemakheto ahetmd. @h hstm goram, dos

ekos coetrklukrme m su propko `hsmrroddo m trmvs `h su aotkvmcke pmrm iufmr,

òakemeò ms dms hxphrkheckms `h mprhe`kzmih y dm coestruccke `h euhvos

coeockakhetos m pmrtkr `h dos ym hxkstheths (\ofogg, =;;3).

Shfe Gktzfhrmd` (=;;=), pmrm quh hd coaputmòr shm uem jhrrmakhetm

hùcmtkvm hghctkvm `hlh shr cmpmz `h `mr rhtromdkahetmcke y corrhfkr ske jmchr

egmsks he dos hrrorhs, y m`has shr mtrmctkvo pmrm hd mduaeo. Jullmr` (=;;=)

`hstmcm dm kaportmeckm `h coesk`hrmr hsth dtkao pueto- hd `h shr mtrmctkvo pmrm

dos mduaeos- he hd aoaheto `h `kshmr sogtwmrhs y iuhfos hùcmtkvos

coaputmckoemdhs.

"Sdo cumeò hd proldham m rhsodvhr, dm coaphtheckm, hd tkhapo y/o hd puetmih

prhshetme `hsmgos keah`kmtos h kethrhsmeths- `hs`h dm phrsphctkvm `h dos


14/41

mduaeos, "do hetrhthekò"- hs quh ue iuhfo, as quh ue hihrckcko ph`mffkco, jm

skò crhmò" (Jullmr`, =;;=, p.


15/41

dos vk`hoiuhfos he s coao ue Cmlmddo `h Proym, òe`h hd coethekò hùcmtkvo

shm ketroùckò ocudto he uem hstructurm `h iuhfo, quh thefm sus propkos

olihtkvos coao iuhfo, m`has `h dos olihtkvos kestrucckoemdhs. @h hstm goram, hd

coethekò shrm mprhe`kò `h coetrmlmeò, ske coeochr dms rhfdms sulymcheths m

sth y oe`h dm mctkvk`m` prkeckpmd eo hs mprhe`hr skeo iufmr. He cumeto m dos

mduaeos, dms kevhstkfmckoehs (Lhcehd, =;;=> Nrkscjhr, Cohehe, Jhcnehr,

Johppehr y Ahksshe, =;;0> \mpp y Fkttkefhr, =;;3> Nudkn, =;;0) `hauhstrme quh

hd uso `h sogtwmrh hùcmtkvo gmvorhch hd `hsmrroddo `h `hstrhzms cofektkvms

hsphcgkcms y dm aotkvmcke `h dos mduaeos por mprhe`hr. Dm mthecke y

coechetrmcke tmalke sh gmvorhch coe dm jhrrmakhetm coaputmckoemd. Dos

mduaeos quh usme sogtwmrh hùcmtkvo pmsme as `h su tkhapo potheckmd `h

mprhe`kzmih coechetrmòs quh dos hstu`kmeths ske sth, skheò as hvk`heth he

mduaeos coe proldhams `h coechetrmcke y lmio rhe`kakheto (proghsorhs he

Euhz, =;;7). Auy rhdhvmeths soe dos hghctos `h dm thceodofm he dos cmsos `h

ekos coe `kgkcudtm`hs `h mprhe`kzmih, qukhehs suhdhe sugrkr ue ldoquho

haockoemd grheth m dms tmrhms hscodmrhs (Akdkckc, =;;8). Coe myu`m `h thceodofm

hstos ekos rke`he ahior y dofrme dms aksams mctkvk`m`hs quh hd rhsto `h sus

coapmhros. He dms cdmshs mskstk`ms por coaputmòr, dos hstu`kmeths `haorme

aheos he mprhe`hr, `ksgrutme as y `hsmrroddme mctktu`hs as posktkvms jmckm dm

hscuhdm y dm heshmezm (Nudkn, =;;0).

Shfe Mem Dkdkme Dkcoem Whfm y @hekzh Rkccodotto Cmrvmdjo Dhvy cumeò hd

eko iuhfm, sth sh `hsmrroddm kethfrmdaheth m ekvhd lkopskcodfkco, gskco y sockmd


16/41

(Fmrmkforòlkd, =;;2). Kfumdaheth, lmseòeos he dos kevhstkfmòrhs

aheckoemòs, sh jm coaprolmò quh cumeò hd eko iuhfm coe vk`hoiuhfos

`hsmrroddm jmlkdk`m`hs y `hstrhzms propkms `h dm pskcodofm sockmd quh keck`he hd

prochso heshmezm-mprhe`kzmih, `h dms cumdhs sh aheckoeme dms skfukheths9

Su cmpmck`m` pmrm hapdhmr salodos muahetm, ym quh por ah`ko `h hstos

iuhfos, puh`h rhprhshetmr `kghrheths gheaheos, memdkzmr sus hxphrkheckms

coesckheths, pdmehmr, kamfkemr y mctumr `h amehrm prhvksorm.

Hd iufmòr, utkdkzm sus prochsos `h mutorrhfudmcke `h tmd amehrm quh puh`h

coetrodmr, shdhcckoemr y orfmekzmr dms kegduheckms hxthrems `h aoò quh eo sh

dkaktm m rhmcckoemr meth dms sktumckoehs d`kcms quh tkheh ùrmeth hd iuhfo.

Hd suihto kethrmctm coe hd hetoreo, `h goram quh ùrmeth hd iuhfo dm phrsoem

amehim dms rkhe`ms `h dm sktumcke y hstmldhch dos dakths `h su mutoeoam.

m. Dm aotkvmcke y hstkaudmcke vksumd y mu`ktkvm `h dos vk`hoiuhfos phrakth

md iufmòr dm rhsoducke `h `kghrheths ekvhdhs `h proldhams y `kgkcudtm`hs,

coe do cumd sh oltkheh hd òakeko `h jmlkdk`m`hs y `hstrhzms propkms `h dm

thceodofm.

M`has `h do methrkor, sh jm ddhfmò m coegkramr quh dos vk`hoiuhfos eo

`hshecm`heme dm `hcm`heckm `h dms rhdmckoehs sockmdhs, he cmalko, hstkaudme

dms mctktu`hs posktkvms `h sockmdkzmcke. (Gkdhek, =;::, Hstmddo, =;;0), he dos quh

sh jm hecoetrmò quh dos usumrkos `h dos vk`hoiuhfos tkhehe uem amyor vk`m


17/41

sockmd, prhgkhrhe iufmr he frupo o pmrhims, vhe ams m sus makfos, y tkhehe amyor

kekckmcke sockmd.

Hstmddo, (=;;0) he su kevhstkfmcke rhsphcto m dos hghctos `h dos vk`hoiuhfos m

dmrfo pdmzo he dos iufmòrhs rhfudmrhs, amekgkhstm quh shfe dos `mtos mrroimòs

por hd hstu`ko, eo hxksth uem kegduheckm ehfmtkvm `hd vk`hoiuhfo he dms rhdmckoehs

sockmdhs, he cmalko dm the`heckm hs ahiormrdms. M`kckoemdaheth, dm frme amyorm

`h dos suihtos, (cuym cmrmcthrstkcm prkeckpmd hrm thehr ams `h ckeco mos `h shr

iufmòr rhfudmr y coetmr coe uem aqukem `h vk`hoiuhfo òastkco por hd tkhapo

meths shmdmò) amekghst quh prhghrme iufmr mcoapmmòs.

Cod`whdd, Frm`y y \jmktk (=;;8), rhmdkzmroe ue hstu`ko rhsphcto m dos

vk`hoiuhfos `h or`hemòr y su rhdmcke coe dm sockmlkdk`m`. Hddos ak`khroe dm

sockmlkdk`m` `h dos iufmòrhs `h vk`hoiuhfos ah`kmeth prhfuetms rhsphcto m dm

grhcuheckm `h vksktms quh jmcme m sus makfos ms coao dms gorams `h iuhfo quh

prmctkcmlme. Dos rhsudtmòs ke`kcme quh hxksth uem rhdmcke posktkvm hetrh dm

ah`k`m `h sockmlkdk`m` y hd uso `h vk`hoiuhfos. Hsth rhsudtmò sh mchetumlm he

mquhddos suihtos `hd shxo amscudkeo quh hrme as mskùos md vk`hoiuhfo, ym quh

hstos amekghstmroe vhr coe amyor grhcuheckm m sus makfos guhrm `h dm hscuhdm.

Htxhlhrrm (=;;;) do mgkramlm ùrmeth su poeheckm he dh Coefrhso Emckoemd

`h Duòthcms9 "dhios `h supoehr ue olstcudo pmrm dm prctkcm `h dms rhdmckoehs

sockmdhs, pmrhch quh dos vk`hoiuhfos hste rhdmckoemòs coe uem amyor

hxtrovhrske, uem amyor grhcuheckm `h trmto coe dos makfos y uem amyor

sockmdkzmcke. Muequh eo sh coecduym coao uem cmusmdk`m` hd jhcjo `h quh dos


18/41

vk`hoiuhfos goahetme dm sockmlkdk`m`, s sh puh`h mgkramr quh jmy uem guhrth

rhdmcke (vk`hoiuhfo-sockmdkzmcke), ym quh mquhddos soe as iufm`orhs tkhehe

uem vk`m sockmd, vhe ams m sus makfos, `hauhstrme shr as hxtrovhrtk`os y coe

amyor kekckmcke sockmd". (Htxhlhrrm, =;;;. =


19/41

vk`hoiuhfos uem emturmdhzm hsheckmdaheth shesoaotorm, jmckeòdos mpmrhchr

coao skapdhs iuhfos `h coor`kemcke cudo-ameumd, mshfureòsh dm eo

kethrvhecke `h dm kethdkfheckm. Ske halmrfo jhaos `h rhcoeochr dm kaportmeckm

pmrm hd `hsmrroddo cofektkvo kegmetkd `h dms mptktu`hs shesoaotrkchs, hetrh dms quh

sh kecduyh dm coor`kemcke cudo-ameumd, coestktuyheò he dm thorm `h Rkmfht dm

lmsh pmrm posthrkorhs hstm`kos `hd `hsmrroddo kegmetkd.

Aucjos vk`hoiuhfos kecorporme kaportmeths hdhahetos `h tkpo phrchptkvo y

`hùctkvo. He hd cmso `h dos hdhahetos phrchptkvos, hstos kapdkcme ue eotmldh

hetrhemakheto he dm phrchpcke `keakcm `h kafhehs, jmlkdk`m` he dm quh dos

ekos `h joy `m jme `haostrmò uem cdmrm suphrkork`m` m dos mùdtos. Hd

rhe`kakheto `h ekos y mòdhscheths he hd prochsmakheto pmrmdhdo hs

eotmldhaheth suphrkor md `h dos mùdtos, quh pmrthe `h ue prochsmakheto shrkmò

`h dm kegoramcke (Rmtrkckm Amrns, =;:8).

He otros cmsos sh jm puhsto he egmsks he hd phso `h dm mthecke shdhctkvm

(Dogtus y Dogtus, =;:3), coesk`hrmeò coao tmd dm cmpmck`m` pmrm shdhcckoemr

hetrh adtkpdhs hstaudos (mu`ktkvos y vksumdhs) mquhddos quh rhsudtme rhdhvmeths

pmrm hd iuhfo. @hstmcme tmalke hdhahetos aeskcos (rhdmtkvos m dm ahaorkm)

coao dm ahaorkm m corto pdmzo y dm ahaorkm m dmrfo pdmzo. Hstm dtkam tkheh ue

phso hsphckmd he hd mprhe`kzmih `h euhvos vk`hoiuhfos, òe`h m`has puh`he

proùckrsh kethrghrheckms hetrh mquhddos vk`hoiuhfos mprhe`kòs coe

methrkork`m`, o dos methrkorhs puh`he vhrsh kethrghrkòs por hd euhvo iuhfo.


20/41

Otrm dehm `h kevhstkfmcke he hd tham `h dos vk`hoiuhfos dm jme coestktukò

dos hstu`kos solrh dos coapoeheths kethdhctkvos sulymcheths m hsth tkpo `h

mctkvk`m`, trmtmeò he mdfueos cmsos `h hxpdkcmr dm prhghrheckm por hsth tkpo `h

iuhfos ah`kmeth dm hxkstheckm `h mptktu`hs cofektkvms prhvkms quh gmvorhchrme dm

shesmcke `h òakeko. Mdfueos mutorhs pdmethme dm jkpthsks kevhrsm, sufkrkheò

quh dm prctkcm `h vk`hoiuhfos coetrklukrm m potheckmr `kghrheths mptktu`hs

kethdhctumdhs. Hxksth uem thrchrm jkpthsks (Ioehs, @uedmp y Lkdo`hmu, =;:6), quh

pdmethm dm hxkstheckm `h jmlkdk`m`hs cofektkvms aovkdkzm`ms he hd iuhfo `h hsth

tkpo y quh ske halmrfo sh vhrme heamscmrm`ms he dos thsts `h dpkz y pmphd

coevheckoemdhs. @h hsth aoò dos mutorhs pdmethme uem sufhstkvm jkpthsks

rhsphcto md potheckmd hxpdormtorko y hvmdumtorko `h mptktu`hs cofektkvms `h dos

vk`hoiuhfos. @h hsth aoò hd vk`hoiuhfo MCA (MPM\K) `haostr shr mdfo

ams quh uem ah`k`m `hd miusth coaphesmtorko, coevkrtkeòsh he ue m`hcumò

prh`kctor pmrm hd xkto `hd hetrhemakheto `h guturos pkdotos he ue skaudmòr `h

vuhdo. Hstos mutorhs coesk`hrmroe coao dos prkahros vk`hoiuhfos ("Mrcm`hs")

po`rme kethfrmrsh he uem lmthrm `h hvmdumcke `hd rhe`kakheto kestruahetmd.

Ske halmrfo hsth pdmethmakheto ym jmlm skò hghctumò coe methrkork`m` por

Ioehs (=;:0), qukhe keck`m he dms vhetmims quh supoem dm hxkstheckm `h ue

skstham `h puetumcke olihtkvo y rhfdms coauehs m toòs dos iufmòrhs m do quh

`hlhrmaos mm`kr su gckd amehio, rolusthz, lmio prhcko, htc.

Otros mutorhs (Dowhry y Nekrkn, =;:3> @orvmd y Rhpke, =;:7) keck`he he mquhddms

jmlkdk`m`hs quh sh poehe m pruhlm md iufmr vk`hoiuhfos y mctkvk`m`hs quh


21/41

puh`he lhehgkckmrsh `h hsth hetrhemakheto, coao puh`h shr dm coeùccke `h

vhjcudos, dm emvhfmcke, htc.

Sh jm jmldmò `h dm jkpottkcm rhdmcke quh pu`khrm hxkstkr hetrh dm prctkcm

`hd iuhfo coe vk`hoiuhfos y hd ekvhd `h kethdkfheckm fhehrmd. Solrh hsth msphcto

dm kevhstkfmcke hs hscmsm, ske halmrfo sh jm po`kò coestmtmr coao dos suihtos

ams lrkddmeths kethdhctumdaheth hrme dos quh sh shetme ams caoòs coe dos

or`hemòrhs, prhgkrkheò dos vk`hoiuhfos `h skaudmcke y `h mvheturms solrh dos

iuhfos `h "Mrcm`h" (AcCdurh y Ahmrs, =;:0). Rhsh m toò eo jm skò poskldh

hstmldhchr `kghrheckms he cumeto m dm grhcuheckm `hd iuhfo coe vk`hoiuhfos y hd

ekvhd kethdhctumd fdolmd.

He hsth aksao shetkò, tmalke jm skò poskldh hstmldhchr uem cdmrm vhetmim

`h dos iufmòrhs `h vk`hoiuhfos he hd gmctor `h rmzoemakheto mlstrmcto grheth m

dos eo iufmòrhs (Ahdmecoe y Pjoapsoe, =;:8).

@h aoò fhehrmd po`haos coesk`hrmr coao dm mchptmcke `hd vk`hoiuhfo

coao gheaheo `h amsms puh`h ahiormr hd rhe`kakheto kethdhctumd y myu`mr m

dos hstu`kosos `h dm phrchpcke m uem ahior coaprheske `h dos ahcmeksaos

kapdcktos he hd prochso `h dm kegoramcke y he hd coeockakheto `h dms

jmlkdk`m`hs aotrkchs (Lrowe y cods., =;;


22/41

Dos heshm m hegrhetmrsh coe toò tkpo `h `hsmgo y m soducke proldhams.

Jmch rhghrheckm Lmrtodoa Rkem solrh Ghrrs do skfukheth9 cumeò jmldmaos `h

"`kvhrske" y hetrhthekakheto, hstmaos jmldmeò `h uem trkpdh frmtkgkcmcke

(Ghrrs, =;;0)9 dm frmtkgkcmcke shesorkmd por dos hstaudos vksumdhs y soeoros, dm

frmtkgkcmcke ahetmd `hrkvm`m `h dm gmludmcke y dm gmetmsm, y dm frmtkgkcmcke

psqukcm provkeheth `h dm dklhrmcke cmtrtkcm quh provocme dos prochsos `h

k`hetkgkcmcke y proyhccke. Hs `hs`h hstm trkpdh phrsphctkvm quh po`haos

memdkzmr dm `kvhrske quh sh hecuhetrm he ue vk`hoiuhfo, puhs eo sh trmtm `h quh

dos vk`hoiuhfos hùcmtkvos shme "vk`hoiuhfos shrkos", skeo quh dm mctkvk`m` `hd

suihto coe hd aksao thefm uems coeshcuheckms hùcmtkvms.

Xe hstu`ko `h Rmtrkckm Frhhegkhd` auhstrm quh, m`has `h `hsmrroddmr dos

rhgdhios y dm phrchpcke vksumd, he aucjos vk`hoiuhfos sh `hsmrroddm dm

cmpmck`m` `h kethrprhtmcke y rhmccke meth hd ah`ko `h ue aoò auy skakdmr md

`h dm vk`m rhmd.

Cmptudo 39

Ahtoòdofm

Rmrtkckpmeths y Hschemrko


23/41

Dm hxphrkheckm rhvmdk`mcke `h dm jhrrmakhetm sh `hsmrrodd `urmeth hd ahs `h

eovkhalrh `h


24/41

Hd prkahr pmso guh màekstrmr uem prh pruhlm solrh dm suam rhmfrupmeò pmrm

`hthrakemr hd coeockakheto prhvko quh poshme dos hstu`kmeths.

Hd shfueò pmso guh hxpdormr he goram mlkhrtm coe dos ekos hd coeockakheto

prhvko quh poshme. Sh hscrklkhroe vmrkos hihrckckos he dm pkzmrrm pmrm quh

voduetmrkmaheth guhrme m dm pkzmrrm y dos rhsodvkhrme.

Hd thrchr pmso guh prhshetmr coe ao`hdos shakcoecrhtos hd prochso `h

rhmfrupmr.

Hd cumrto pmso guh ketroùckr hd iuhfo `h vk`ho/or`hemòr9 Jorsjoh Poss Hd

olihtkvo `hd aksao hs suamr y rhstmr eahros cmr`kemdhs. Hsth iuhfo tkheh

ckeco evhdhs `h `kgkcudtm`. Dos mduaeos coahezmroe he hd ekvhd 3 he hd quh

mm`krme eahros `h 2 md ;. Hstos mvmezmrme m su propko rktao jmstm ddhfmr

m dtkao ekvhd he hd quh mm`krme eahros `h 2 md 32. Prmlmi ue hstu`kmeth

por pdmystmtkoe/or`hemòr y m su vhz sth sh coevhrtm he tutor `hd prxkao

hstu`kmeth quh iufmrm. Sh rotmlme dos hstu`kmeths cumeò pmrm quh toòs

puskhrme thehr mcchso m dm kethfrmcke `h dm thceodofm. Hd rhsto `hd frupo

coetkeumlm trmlmimeò `h goram pmskvm coe dm amhstrm.

Hd dtkao pmso guh màekstrmr uem post pruhlm solrh dm suam rhmfrupmeò pmrm

`hthrakemr hd òakeko quh poshme dos hstu`kmeths `hspus `h jmlhr skò

kapmctmòs coe hd vk`hoiuhfo Jorshsjoh Poss.

Xe pmso auy kaportmeth quh phrah m trmvs `h toò hd prochso guh dm

olshrvmcke por pmrth `h dm amhstrm.


25/41

Cmptudo 09

Medksks hstm stkco


26/41

Hd hstu`ko rhmdkzmò mrroi dm skfukheth kegoramcke9

Rrh pruhlm

Dm prh pruhlm quh sh màkekstr solrh dm suam rhmfrupmeò `haostr quh `h

dos =; hstu`kmeths m qukhehs sh dh màkekstr `kcjm pruhlm theme ue ;8% `h eo

òakeko y ue sodo hstu`kmeths them hd oakeko h dm aksam, hsto hqukvmdh m ue 8%

coe rhsphcto md frupo (vhr frgkcm #3). Hsth rhsudtmò hs auy lmio thekeòsh he

cuhetm quh hstm `hstrhzm sh coakhezm m trmlmimr he shfueò frmò.

Md coapmrmr dms eotms quh oltuvkhroe dos ekos y dms ekms he dm prh pruhlm sh

`hthrake porckheto `h eo òakeko `h dms ekms guh amyor quh hd `h dos ekos (vhr

frgkcm #3).

2

=2


27/41

Rost Rruhlm

Duhfo `h jmlhrsh mpdkcmò hd trmtmakheto9 uso `hd vk`hoiuhfo pmrm dm

m`qukskcke `h dm `hstrhzm `h suam rhmfrupmeò, sh màkekstr dm post

pruhlm y sh jkckhroe dos skfukheths jmddmzfos9

=. Julo ue muaheto coesk`hrmldh `h :


28/41

7. Md coapmrmr dos porckhetos `h kecrhahetos `h hetrh ekos y ekms sh

`hthrake quh hd kecrhaheto `h dms ekms solrh dos vmroehs guh `h ue


29/41

Rruhlms Ruhrtorrkquhms `h Coaphtheckms Hscodmrhs y Rost Rruhlm

Md coapmrmr dos rhsudtm`os `h dm R.R.C.H. coe dm post pruhlm sh puh`h

olshrvmr quh jmy uem rhdmcke hetrh hd porckheto `h eo `oakeko9 R.R.C.H. ==.8%

y dm post pruhlm =


30/41

Hstm tmldm prhshetm dm ah`km, ah`kmem y ao`m `h dm prh y post pruhlm

m`akekstrm`ms m dos hstu`kmeths `h thrchr frm`o.

Ah`km Ah`kmem Ao`m

Rrh Rruhlm


31/41

Coecduskoehs

Duhfo `h rhmdkzmr dm kevhstkfmcke lmio hd tham9 Hghctkvk`m` `h dm heshmezm`h dm suam rhmfrupmeò m trmvs `hd uso `h vk`hoiuhfos hùcmtkvos he

hstu`kmeths `h thrchr frmò puhò coecdukr do skfukheth9

Dos hstu`kmeths aostrmroe uem mdtm aotkvmcke por coeochr y utkdkzmr hd

vk`hoiuhfo hùcmtkvo ym guhrm he dm coaputmòrm o he dm coesodm `h Rdmy

Stmtkoe.

Hd vk`hoiuhfo hùcmtkvo usmò corrhctmaheth goahetm hd trmlmio codmlormtkvo,

trmlmio hetrh pmrhs y por he`h dm sockmlkdk`m`.

Hd vk`hoiuhfo hùcmtkvo phrakth quh hd hstu`kmeth coestruym su propko

coeockakheto y mvmech m su propko rktao y `h mcuhrò m su cmpmck`m` pmrm

mprhe`hr. (Phorm Coestructkvkstm)

Dm kethfrmcke `h dm thceodofm md prochso `h heshmezm-mprhe`kzmih myu`m m

dm m`qukskcke, òakeko y mpdkcmcke `h `hstrhzms y coeockakhetos.

Dos mduaeos sh ametkhehe mdtmaheth coechetrmòs he hd iuhfo.

Hd iuhfo hs uem jhrrmakhetm quh toò amhstro `hlh usmr he sus cdmshs> coao

ke`kcm hd atoò `h heshmzm Aoethssork9 Hd iuhfo hs hd trmlmio `hd eko.

Hd vk`hoiuhfo hùcmtkvo dofrm mtrmhr ue mdto ekvhd `h kethrs hetrh dos ekos,

quh sh ametkheh h kecduso muahetm he rhdmcke md frmò `h òakeko

suchskvmaheth mdcmezmò `h dm aqukem y dos iuhfos.


32/41

Dos amhstros coesk`hrme md vk`hoiuhfo hùcmtkvo coao ah`ko kestrucckoemd

hetrhthekò, rhdmtkvmaheth gckd `h amehimr pmrm dos ekos, y quh puh`h

coapdhahetmr otros amthrkmdhs y rhcursos ph`mffkcos usmòs por hd ocheth.

Rmrm quh hstm jhrrmakhetm shm hghctkvmaheth kapdhahetm`m `hetro `h dm smdm

`h cdmshs, hs gue`mahetmd quh dos proghsorhs proauhvme su uso

coestktuyeòsh he ah`kmòrhs mctkvos smcmeò hd axkao provhcjo `h sus

potheckmdk`m`hs hùcmtkvms md rhdmckoemrdm `krhctmaheth coe dos olihtkvos y

coethekòs kapmrtkòs he hd rhsto `h dm mctkvk`m` hscodmr. Rmrm hddo, hd proghsor

`hlh poshhr eo sdo ue luhe òakeko `h dm aqukem, skeo tmalke `h dos

olihtkvos hùcmtkvos quh cm`m iuhfo goahetm. Ms, puh`h kecdukrdos

m`hcum`maheth `hetro `h dm pdmekgkcmcke `hd mo hscodmr y usmrdos

hghctkvmaheth coao ue coapdhaheto m otros amthrkmdhs kestrucckoemdhs. He

coeshcuheckm, hs hsheckmd uem cmpmcktmcke m`hcum`m `hd proghsor y hd mpoyo

`krhcto he dm htmpm kekckmd `hd prochso `h trmesghrheckm thceodfkcm pmrm

m`hcumr hd uso `h dm jhrrmakhetm m cm`m coethxto hùcmtkvo pmrtkcudmr y rhùckr

hd thaor quh hsth tkpo `h thceodofm tkhe`h m provocmr he qukhehs dm

`hscoeoche.


33/41

Lkldkofrmgm

Gmimrò, Wctor.(=;;;). Jkstorkm `h dm \hgoram Hùcmtkvm9

Prmesgoramcke `h dm hscuhdmRldkcm Ruhrtorrkquhm. Ruhrto \kco

@hpmrtmaheto `h Hùcmcke (


34/41

\khfo, A. M. (=;:7) Mctkvk`m`hs `h Heshmzm Dm Coaputm`orm9 Xe Iufuhth

@k`ctkco Xsm`o he dm Heshmzm `h dm Coaputmcke

\khfo, A. M. (=;:7) Phorms `hd Iuhfo y `hd Iufuhth

\khfo, A. M. (=;:7) Phorm `h Ihme Rkmfht mchrcm `hd @hsmrroddo Cofeoscktkvo

`hd Eko y su rhdmcke coe hd Mprhe`kzmih

Frkhegkhd`, R. (


35/41

Poamò `h jttp9//www.ohk.orf.co/ohkvkrt/hùamt.jta#M

@hcdmrmcke `h dos @hrhcjos `hd Eko toamò `h

jttp9//www.amrfhe.orf/ekeos/`hrhcj0=.jtad


36/41


37/41

@hpmrtmaheto `h HùcmckeHscuhdm `h dm Coauek`mùrhm H. \kvhrm Coddmzo

Rrh Rruhlm

Eoalrh9 Ghcjm9

Srm. \. Mrroyo Ruetumcke 1 Rorckheto 1

Jmddm dms suams. Jmz ue chrco mdrh`hòr `h coethstmcke corrhctm.

86+37

_______

:6+=:

_______

726+


38/41

@hpmrtmaheto `h HùcmckeHscuhdm `h dm Coauek`mùrhm H. \kvhrm Coddmzo

Rost Rruhlm

Eoalrh9 Ghcjm9

Srm. \. Mrroyo Ruetumcke 1 Rorckheto 1

Jmddm dms suams. Jmz ue chrco mdrh`hòr `h coethstmcke corrhctm.

30+80

_______


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