WEST'S LAW SCHOOL ( ) ADVISORY BOARD ( ) JESSE H. CHOPER Professor of Law, ( ) University of California, Berkeley ( , ) DAVID P. CURRIE Professor of Law, ( ) University of Chicago ( ) YALE KAMISAR Professor of Law ( ) , University of San Diego ( ) Professor of Law, ( ) University of Michigan ( ) MARY KAY KANE Chancellor, Dean and Distinguished Professor of Law, , University of California, ( ) Hastings College of the Law ( ) LARRY D. KRAMER Dean and Professor of Law, Stanford Law School ( ), WAYNE R. LaFAVE Professor of Law, ( ) University of Illinois JONATAN R. MACEY Professor of Law, ( ) Yale Law School ( )

ARTHUR R. MILLER Professor of Law, ( ) Harvard University ( ) GRANT S. NELSON Professor of Law, ( ) University of California,Los Angeles ( , ) JAMES J. WHITE Professor of Law, ( ) University of Michigan ( )

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CONCISE HORNBOOK SERIES

THOMSON WEST

Thomson/West . , . Thomson/West . , . CONCISE HORNBOOK SERIES Westlaw, and West Group 2006 Thomson/West 610 Opperman Drive P.O. Box 64526 St. Paul, MN 55164-0526 1-800-328-9352

. - , , , , , , , , , . . : , , (, ,.). , . , , . . , . , . , . , , . . . - , . 2006 .

...............................................................................................................................v .........................................................................................................xvii .............................................................................................................xix 1. o.3 . ..3 : 3 : 6 : .7 / : ..9 .10 ..10 12 ...............................................................................13 ...............................................................................................................15 / ...............................................................16 . ..........................................................................18 ......................................................................................................18 ..............................................................................................20 .............................................................................21 ...........................................................................................23 ........................................................................24 ................................................25 ..................................................................................................29 2. ................................................................31 . ......................................................................................................................31 ...........................................................................................32 ...................................................33 ..............................................................................................35 ......................................................37 ....................................................................37 ...39 . ....40 ...............................................................................................................40 ..........................................................................................................42 .................................................................................................43 ........................................................................................45 ............................................................................................50 ...................................................................53 . ...........................................................................................58 . ...............................................................................................60 . ().......................................................................................62 ....................................................................................................64 3. ........................................................65 . ...................................................................................................................65 .........................................................................................................................65 ?.............................................................................67 ...........................................................................................68 ...................................................................................71

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.....................................................................................74 , ..........................................................76 ..78 ..78 78 ..80 ...81 ...81 83 ...85 .86 : ..88 ...89 .........................................................................................................................89 ? .................90 : ........................................................................................91 ( )......................................................96 ......................................................................96 .....................................................98 ......................................99 ...............................101 ............................................................................................108

4. ...........109 . , , .........................................................110 ...........................................................................................................110 ..........................................................................................113 .......................................................................................113 .....................................................................................115 ..............................................................................................................115 ...........................................................................................................116 .............................................................................................................117 ..................................................................................117 .................................................................................120 ...........................................................................121 .............................................................................................................123 ....................................................................123 ...............................................................................124 .......................................................................132 ....................................................................132 ...........................................134 .............................................................................136 ............................................................140 .....................................................................................142 .....................................................................................142 ...........................................................................143 - ..........................................................144 ..............................................................................145 .....................................................146 ................................................................................................147 .......................................................................................................................147 : ....................................148

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.....................149 .................................................................................................151 5. 153 . .154 154 .156 156 157 ..158 ..161 .163 ..166 ...167 167 ..170 ...171 171 ..174 .175

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.............................................................................................178 6. ...........................................................179 . . . . .....................................................................180 ............................................................181 ................................................................................................183 ....................................................................184 ..............................................................................................................185 ...........................................................................................................185 .........................................................................................................187 ......................................................................................................................187 ................................................................................188 .......................................188 ...........................................................................................................193

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.................................................................................................196 7. ................................................................................................................................199 . ...................................................................................................199 ......................................................................................................199 ........................................................................................................203 ...........................................................................................................215 - ..................................................................................218 .................................................................218 ....................................219 ............................................221

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.................................................................................221 ................................223 ............................................224 : ..........................................227 / ..........................................230 .................................................................................................235 8. , ...237 . . ...................................................237 ...............................240 ..........................................................................................................240 .................................................................................241 .....................................................................................242 .................................................................................244 ...............................................................................................245 ....................................................................................246 .........................................................249 ............................249 ...........................................250 ..........................................................................252 , .............................253 ....................................................................................253 .....................................................................................253 ...................................................................................254

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.................................................................................................257 9. ........................................259 . ....................................................................259 .................................................................................................259 ...........................................................................................260 .............................................................................................262 .................................................262 ......................................................................................263 ......................................................................................264 ..................................................................................................266 ..............................................................266 .......................................................................................267 ................................................269 ...........270 .....................................................................................................273 .........................................................................273 .....................................................................275 .............................................................................277 ......................................................................................279 .................................................................280 .................................................................................282 ........................................................................................283 .................................................................................283 .......................................................................................284 ...................................................................284

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.....................................................................................................285 ..................................................................................286 .................................................................................................290 . 10. .........................................................................................293 . . .......................................................................................................................293 ......................................................296

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................................................300 .............................................300 ............................................................303 (ICCPR ICESC)....................................................305 ......................................................308 ........................316 .............................................................320 ..................................................................................320 ......................................................................323 ............................................................325 .....................................326 / ...................................326 .....................................................................................................................326 ...................................................................................................................329 ....................................................................................................................332 .............................................................................................334

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.................................................................................................337 11. ........................................................................................339 . . .......................................................................................................................339 ............................................................................................340 .........................................................................340 ................................................................................................343 .........................................................................................................345 ............................................................................................346 ........................................................................................................349 .............................................................................351 ................................................................................................352 ........................................................................353 .................................................................................356 ......................................................356 ............................................................................................356 ...................................................................................................................358 ..................................................................................................360 ..........................................................................361 ............................................................................................363 ?...........365

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.................................................................................................368

12. ..............................................369 . ................................................................................................369 ...............................................................................................369 .................................................................................373 ..................................................................376 .....................................................................................................379 .............................................................................381 .............................................................382 ................................................................................390 ......................................................................390 ................................................................................392 ........................................................................................395 ........................................................................................397 ...........................................................................397 ........................399

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.................................................................................................403 13. .................................................................405 . . . .......................................................................................................................405 ...............................................................405 ( )........................................405 ...........................................................................................................408 ...............................................411 ...............................................................................................................411 ...............................................................................................................412 .................................................................................................................413 ..........................................................................................414 ..........................................................................................415 ..................................................................................416 ............................................417 ........................................................................................418 .................................................................................................420 ...........................................................................421 ...................................................................................................................422 ........................................................................423 d hoc ...............................................424 .....................................................................425 ....................................................................................................430 .............................................................................430 ..................................................................432 .................................................................................433 ..................................................................................434 ............................................................................434

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.................................................................................................437 14. ..................................................................439 . Jus Ad Bellum..........................................................................................................439 ....................................................................439 ......................................................................441

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.........................................447 ......................................449 ....................................................................451 .........................................................................................451 : 2003.................................................................453 Jus In Bello...............................................................................................................455 .............................................................................455 ....................................................................458 : 2003 .........................................................464 .............................................................................466 ..................................................................................................................466 ..........................................................................................466 ...................................................................................468 ....................................................................................................469

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.................................................................................................473 15. M ..........................................................475 . . ..............................................................475 ...........................................................................................478 .......................................................................478 ..........................................................................480 ..........................482 ......................................................................................................482 ..............................................................................482 ....................................................................................................483 ............................................................485 ............................................485 ...........................................................................485 ............................................................................486 .................................................................................486 ...................................................................................489 ....................................................................490

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...................................................................................................491 ............................................................................................................497 .............................................................................................................501

.........................................................................................................................v ..................................................................................................xvii ......................................................................................................xix

1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. o...............................................................................3 ..............................................................................31 ......................................................................65 ...........................109 ..................................153 .........................................................................179

2. 7. ................199 8. , ....................237 9. ......................................................259 3. 10. .......................................................................................................293 11. ......................................................................................................339 12. ..............................................................369 13. ................................................................................405 14. ................................................................................439 15. M .........................................................................475 ...................................................................................................491 ............................................................................................................497 .............................................................................................................501

1. 1.......................................................................................................50 2. 2......127 3. 3...........................................................................................................200 4. : ..................231 5. 4........................................................................319 6. 5............................341 7. ....355 8. 6..................................................................................393 9. 7.....................................................................................452

1 2

: (http://www.un.org/aboutun/chart.html) : (http://www.icj-cij.org) 3 : 4 : (http://www.unhcr.ch/hrostr.htm) 5 : 6 6 ( 1995) 6 : (http://climatechange.gc.ca/.../earth.asp) 7 : (http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/bnote.htm)

1 ( ), , , . , ; , , , , . , ; . , , , - . , , . , 2, ( 3), ( 4), ( 5). .

: , 191 8. ; , , , . , . 191 . . , , , . ; . ; .

, . , , , . , ; , . , , ( ) . , ; . , . . , , 9 , . . , . , , . , . , . , , , , . 2(4) , 10. , , . , ( ) , ( ) . , ; , , , . 5 () , 11. . , . ; ? 9 10 11

, ( ). . 2002 , 12. , . , . , (John Austin) 1832 . , 13. , (Hans Kelsen) 1960, , 14. ... (H.L.A. Hart), , 1961 (. ) (. ) 15. , . : . , . . , 25- , , , . , , . , . . . 3 (),

12 13 14 15

. , , . , 65 ( ) . . , . , , . , , 4. . 5, , . , , , . : ( ). . 7, 6 , , , . , . , , ; . . , , 16. , ,

16

, 17 1994 18. , . . 1912, . 20- 1974 , 19. , , . ( ) , , , , , 20 , , , 21 , 22. , . . , . 2004, , ( 23) . 24. , , , 25. , . , , , .17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

/ : . , . , , , , , . 2() (), , , , , , . , , . , . .

; ? , . ; . , ; , . ( ), , , , 26. , , , . , , ( ). , .26

, , . , , pacta sunt servanda ( ). ? , , , ? . 27. , ? , , . . , , , ( ). , , , . , , 1949 190728, . , ( ) , . , (. ), . , , jus cogens ( )29. , . , , , . , . , , , , ,27 28 29

,30 . , , . . , . . , ? , . , ( ) , . ; . , , . ( ) : . , , . 31. , ; 32. , ( ), : (1) ;33 (2) ; (3) , 30 31 32 33

. , , . , . 3. , ( ) , . ; . . , , , , . , . . . ( ) . , , , 34. . . , , . (Harold Lasswell) (Myers McDougal)35. , , 34 35

, ; , . . , , , , . - , - . ( , ) . , ( ) . , . , , . , . , , . , . , , , , . , . , , jus cogens ( ). .

; . ; , . , . , , ; , . , , . , . , - - . , , , . , , , . , , , . , . / . , , , . , . ; . , , . , , .

, - 192836, . ( ) 20- 30- 20 , . , (George W. Bush), , . , - ( ) . , , , . , , , , . , . , ; , . , , . - , . , ( ) , . , . , , , . , ; . , , . , . ( -) . , . 36

, , - (, , ). ; , . , , - - . . , , , . .

3100 ... , - . , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , . , , , . , , . , 4 ... . - , 19 . , , , , . , . , . , , ( ),

. . . ( , ). , , . , . 16 17 ( ) . , , , . ( : ), , . jus gentium . , . , , 37. , . , . , , . . . . . , . . , . 37

. , ( lex mercatoria) 9 , . - , () (, ). , . , , 38. . , . . 1648 ( 30 ). . 1648 , ( ) , , , . : , ? . (1486?-1546) (Francisco de Vitoria) (1548-1617) (Francisco Suarez). , , . (1552-1608) (Alberico Gentili), (De Jure Belli) 1589 (De Legationibus) 1585. . , , . 39. (1583-1645) (Hugo Grotius) . 738 39

, , 20 . 1625 De Jure Belli ac Pacis ( ), . , , . ( 50 ), , . , . ; . (Mare Liberum) 1609, (John Selden) Mare Clausum sive De Domino Maris ( , ) 1635. . , , . , . , (1632-1694) (Samuel Pufendorf). , (1672), , (Thomas Hobbes). (1590-1661) (Richard Zouche) (1714-1767) (Emmerich de Vattel), , , , . , (1758) : (1) ; (2) ; (3) .40 , , . , 1700 . . , . , , , , , 40

. , , . , , , . , . , , . , , , , , , , , , , , . 1815 , . , , . (. ), . , 1815 , , , , . , ( ) , . , . . , 3, . , ; 1945 45 , - - 191 , . , . , , - . , .

, . . - , ,- 1608, . , , 1625, . 1648, , , , . , . , , , . , , , - .41 , , , . , , () ...... , , , , 42. (Jack Rakove), , (Locke), (Hobbes), (Montesquieu), (Hume) (Blackstone), , (Delolme).43 . (John Marshall) , , , , , 44. . , (James Kent) 1826 , .45 , , 12- 41 42 43 44 45

1873 , (Oliver Wendell Holmes)46 , 47 . , , (Henry Wheaton). , , (1815). 1836, 48. , , . . (Francis Lieber) ( ) 1899 1907. (Abraham Lincoln) , , , , , 49. , . 50 1794 . , 51 1871 52 . , , . , , , . , , . . , 30- 20- , , 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

, .53 , , , . . , 1923 ( 1924) . 4 1868, , , .54 ( , ), 1924 1937 . 1941. . , , . -, . - - , . , . , . , , . , . 7, , . , , . , , . , , 53 54

, . 2 ( ) : , , , . , . , . , , . , , , . . ; , , . , ? ? , ? - , ? , , , . - - . . , 90- 20- , , , . , , 1994. , 1958 ( 1961).

, . , , , , , , , , . . ; . , , . , , . . , . : (1) ; (2) ; (3) ; (4) .55 , . . , , ( ), ( ), ; . ; ( , , ) . ; , . , . , , . . , . , 1960, . , ( ) ( ) .

55

, . ipso facto ( ) , ( ). , 56. , , , , ( ). , (. ) . () 1989 . 1989, - 1939, ( , ), . , 1991 . , . 6 1991. 17 1991. , . 1991, . . , 1991 57. , , , , , , . : (1) , , , , ; (2) ; (3) ; (4) ; (5) . 56 57

.58 , , . , -, , . , , 59. , , 60. , .61 , . , , . , . , . , . ( ) ( de facto ). , . , , . , , . , , , , . , . , .

58 59 60 61

, - 1940 1970-, ( ) . , . 1971, ,62 1970 , 197963. , , . 1930, (Genaro Estrada), .64 , . , , . , , . , , . ; . , . , - (Jean-Bertrande Aristide) 1990 1991 . , . , , . , 1994, ,65 , . , , . , 1999, (Nawaz Sharif), , (Pervez Musharraf). 62 63 64 65

, , . , ( ). , . , 66. . : (1) ; (2) ; (3) . , , .67 , . . , de facto . , , . 2001, 11 2001, . , , , . , 22 , (Hamid Karzai) (). , .68 2002, (Loya Jirga), (). 2003, , 16 2004. 9 2004, , . 3 , , . . 2003, , . , 66 67 68

, ,69 (). , , , . 2004, : 28 , 2004, . , (Paul Bremer), . , .70 , . . 1991, , . . , , . . 1993, , ( ), .71 4 2004, ...... 1993 . .72 2003, . , . , , , . , , , ? 69 70 71 72

? , ? , . , 197873 . , , ( ), . , , , . 1996, , . , , ad hoc . . - , ( - ) . ( ) , . , ( ) . , , . , () , . , . , , , . , , ( ) . 74, . , . , , . , 73 74

. - - . , 75, . , , , 76, . . : (1) ; (2) , , - ; (3) , ; (4) ; (5) ; (6) . . - ()- . , . , . , , ? . , . , . , . , . 77, . , (Count Bernadotte), 1948. , , . 75 76 77

, ( ). , , , . , , . , , . , . , , .78 , , . , , . , . , ( ) . , , 79. , , ( ). , . . ( 6), . , . , ultra vires ( ), . , (, ). , . .

78 79

, . 80- 20- , . , , . , , , , . , 80. . . . , . 1984, 81 . , , , . , , . , ( ) . . ( ), , . , 6 . , , (intra vires) (ultra vires). , ( ), . , , 80 81

. 2001 , , 2005. , . , . , , - - . , -- . , , , . . . - 82. ; 191 , 191 . , . ; . 3, . . 10 , . . , , 6 : ( ); ( ); , ( ); , ( ); ( ); ( ). , : ; ; , . , . 82

( 2/3). 300 . . , 15 83. , 5 : , , , . 10 . . : 1990 2003; ( -); . 9 . () , 5 . 60 . 7 , 84. , 7 ( , ), . , 85. . , ( 21 25) . . . , . . , , , , 86. ; 52 . , . . . , . . , 83 84 85 86

, , , . , . , 87, , . . 11 - - . () , . . 50 , , , ( ). 1994 . . 4 (), , 88. 15 : ( ) . . 89. 8 900 160 . , . , , . 5 . (Kofi Annan) . . . 1947 , 34 5 . ( ) . :87 88 89

, . , . , , . .90 ( ) , . 91 92 93 . . , , , , . .

90 91 92 93

ad hoc , () UNCTAD ITC (UNCTAD/WTO) UNDCP UNEP UNICEF UNICRI UNITAR OHCHR ad hoc : UNHCR WFP UNRWA UN-HABITAT INSTRAW UNAIDS / , ad hoc WTO IAEA CTBTO . . OPCW . ILO . . FAD . UNESCO . ., WHO . IBRD . . IDA . . IFC . . . MIGA . . ICSID . . IMF . ICAO . . . IMO . . ITU . . UPU . WMO . WIPO . . IFAD . . UNIDO . WTO OSG . . OIOS . . OLA . DPA DDA . . DPKO . . OCHA . . DESA . . . DGACM . . . DPI . DM . OHRLLS . . . UNSECOORD . . . UNODC . UNOG . UNOV . UNON .

UNDP UNIFEM UNV UNCDF UNFPA

UNRISD UNIDIR UNOPS

: ; . . UNRWA UNTDTR . . IAEA . CTBTO OPCW . ECOSOC . . . . 1958 1992. , . . 1975 94 . , , . 95, . . 96. ( ) 97. , . , 1946 98. , ( ). , . , , , , . , 94 95 96 97 98

, , , . , , , . ( ) . , .99 , 1947 100 . , . , , , . , ( ). 101, 1945, . , , . , ( ) , 102. ( ) , . 103 , , . 104 , . , 105, , , , . . 1948, 21 . 106 , 21 ; , 1962. 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106

. , , . - - . , . . , . . , , , . , . . - , ( ). . 2005, 25 , ( 27 2007 ). , 50- 20- , , 90- 20- . . , 15 , , . 2004 . , , , . , 25 ( ) 2006 . / 2005 , . , . , . , ()107 . , , . , , , , . 107

, . , , , , , . , - - , , , . . , . , . , , ; . . : () ( ); ( ); ( ). 732 ( 786 2007-2009) . , , . , , . , ( ), , . , ( ) . , , . 25 ( 27 2007), . , , , . . , . , . ; ( ). . , , .

, . , . , , , - . 25 5 ( ). . 24,000 . , . , . . , . . , , . .108 . , . , (). , - - 12 . . 1963, . , , , . 1990-, . , , , 2002, 53 , . , . . , . , , . , , ( ). . , , . , , , 8 , , 108

. - 202 2004 ; , . : ; , , , ; . . , (). , , . , . , . - , ( , ). - , ( , , 27 41 ). - (. ), - . / , 800 -, 80 110 . - . - , . 1986, , - .109 , 2005. - , . , 1873, 120 . , , . , , . , , . ( ) , 109

. - , . . . , , .110 , .111 , , . , . , . o (amicus brief) ( ) , , , . ( ) , . , , . , ( ) , .112 . ; , . , , . , , , . , , (. ) (. ). . , . , 110 111 112

, . , , 20- .113 , .114 , , , ( ) . , , . . . , , .115 , , jus soli ( ) jus sanguinis ( ). , , , . , . ; . , . . , , . , , , , , . , .116 , , , , , , ().117 , , . , . 113 114 115 116 117

, , - . . () - - .118 ,119 , . , , , . 1990- , . , , . , , (//) . , . , , , , ( -), . , 1960- 1980- . , -. , - , . . , 120. . , ,

118 119 120

. .121 , ( ) ( ), , . 3() . 3 , . , . 122, 1920 : (1) ; (2) ; (3) ; (4) . - 38(1) 1945 - . , . , , . , . , , . . . , , . , , , , , . , , , . , 50- .

121 122

, .123 , , , , , , . , , , . . 1969, ()124- - . 2005, 101 . , .125 , ( 126), . , , . , , . , , .127 , 5 : (1) ; (2) ; (3) ; (4) ; (5) . ? 2, , . , . , , . 123 124 125 126 127

, .128 , . . , , , . , . ; . , , . , ( ) ( ) . , , . . , , . . .129 , , . , , . , .130 , , . . , . , . , . , , .131 , , , 128 129 130 131

, . ; . ( ) , , , , .132 , 1994, . . 17 1998, 160 , 120 , 7 ( ), 21 . .133 . , . .134 , . , . , . , . , , .135 , 17 , 1998 31 2000. , 135 , . . , ( ) , .136 . , , .137 , , . , . ; , 132 133 134 135 136 137

. , 18 , , . , . , 18 , , . , . , , .138 , .139 , ; 40 1948.140 , ( ). , . , 6 2002, .141 . .142 ( ) . . . , , . , . , 60 60- .143 , 1 2002, 60 10 , 60 . 138 139 140 141 142 143

, . 2(1)() , , , , , , , . , , . , . , . , , . , , 100 .144 , , , . , : (1) ( ), ; (2) ( ), . 19 : (1) ; (2) , ; (3) . (1) (2) , (3) . , . , , .145 , , .146 ,

144 145 146

147 1966. 18 , , , . , , . , . 24 1994, .148 . , . - . , . , . 1951 .149 20-21 , : 1. , ( ). . 2. , . , .150 3. (1) (2) , . , ( ), . ; vis--vis . 12 .

147 148 149 150

, . 4. , , , () ( ). , . 5. , , . , . , 1 2 . , 1 , 1 . , , 1 , . , , 1 . , 2. , . . . , . , (, ). , , , . , . , , () . , . , (pacta sunt servanda)

.151 .152 , , . , ; .153 , . , , , .154 , . 31-32 . , . , ( ), ( ). , , , . , ( ) - (travaux prparatoires)- . . , . , , . , ( ) , (contrario principle), .155 , , , , . , ; , . , .

151 152 153 154 155

, (. ), . , , (. ). , , . , . , .156 , .157 , . , .158 (. , ), . , .159 . ; . , ( ) . , .160 . , . ; , , .161156 157 158 159 160 161

, .162 ( rebus sic stantibus force majeure) , , , . , , . , , ( ) , , .163 , , , . , . , , , .164 . , . . , . , , 165 .166 , , . , . , .167 ( ), . , () , , ( ) .

162 163 164 165 166 167

, ; . , , , : (1) ; (2) . , , , . . : ; ; ; . (. ) . , , . , , . . , , 168 . , , 1400- 1800-. : , , , , , , , .169 , . . - , , , .170 , , ; , .171168 169 170 171

, , , . , , . , , . , . , , . , ; , . , . , 172, . , . . (opinio juris sive necessitatis) (opinio juris). , . , ( ). , . . , , . . , ; . , , . 172

. , , . , . , . 173 ; , . , , , . , , , . . , 174 . , , , .175 1(), (jus cogens), .176 - , , . , ; . , ( ) . . , , - , jus cogens, , 173 174 175 176

.177 , . , ; . , (. ) . , . -, , , .178 . (. 1990-) (. ; ). , , . . . , , , . , 1945, , , () .179 , ( ) .

177 178 179

. 1949 1998 2000. 2000 - . , 1949.180 : (1) ; (2) , (3) ....... .181 , 1949. , 1949, . . , - 136 191 - , 1 , . , , . , , , , . , ( , ). , , , , . , . , ( ) 182 . , , . , , , 66 . (. ) .

180 181 182

, . , 1958 , . , , 1974 12 .183 , . , jus cogens , .184 , , . opinio juris , .185 , . , , , . , , . , , , . , , . , ; , . , , , opinion juris. 191 , . ,186 . , , . .

.187 , . .188183 184 185 186 187 188

, . , . , . .189 , - - . , . (pacta sunt servanda),190 , . , , . , . , . , (res judicata) ( ) (lex posterior derogat priori) . , , . , , , . , ; , . , , , . , . , , . , , .191 , 1863, . , 189 190 191

, : , ; .192 . :

, .193 , . . , (, , ) . , . , , . , (stare decisis) ,194 . , . , ( ) . , . , . , . , , . . . , , , , . , , , , , , ( ). , 192 193 194

. , 195 34 , . -, , . 196 1987 .197 , . . 38 , . . , , , . , , . . , 2 : . ? 7 , 198. 199. 7, . , ( , , ) . ; . , : ad hock 195 196 197 198 199

, ;200 , 1990; , 201. ad hock , . , , . , , . , . 1373 - 11 2001- ... , 202. 203. ( ) , ( ). 1373 . 1373 7. , , . ; , 204, 1373. , 2004, 1540, 205. , . , 200 201 202 203 204 205

(1540 ). , . , 7 206. :

; . , - , . , , , , , , , , , . , , . , . . ; . ; . , ( ). . . 207. , , . , , . (, , ) .206 207

. 2002 1. 62 545 . 30 19 . ; . , 1944 208, (). 189 191 . - 209. 210. . , 3 . , 36 211. 212. , , . , . , , . - , . , 15 . , 208 209 210 211 212

. : ; , , , ; . , . , . , . . ( ) , . ( ), .213 , . , ( ) , / . , , . , . , ( ) . 1947 ( 24 ), 12 . 2005, 18, , , , . . , () . , . , , , . , , 213

.214 , , , , , , .215 , . , , /. , () . , - - ( ).216 , 33 , .217 . . ( )

, , . ( ) . ; , . . , . , ( ), . , .218 , : (1) ; (2) 214 215 216 217 218

; (3) ; (4) . . , , . (Richard Baxter) : , , . , .219 , 105 . .220 . 5 : , , , , , , , .221 . , 2 1985 , , .222 ; . , . , 105 , : , .223 219 220 221 222 223

. . , , , . 1987, 224, , , , . . , , .225 , , . , . 1975.226 ; , . . , , 33 ( ) . 60- , , . , . , . , . ( ). , , , . 1994, 224 225 226

, 55 , , , , .227 , . , - , , , ( ) . (. ). , , 228 ( 7) . , . , 1949 , - , , , , - .229 , , . , opino juris , . , . , . , 1948 - 1946 - 1 , , .230 , ( ) . . 1962 (. 227 228 229 230

), ,231 . 1962 87-2 (12 ), . , 1973-4232 , . 1973-74, , . , . , . , , 1962 .233 , , . . . 1962 , . 2005, 170 , 95% , , . ; , . , , , .234 , . ; , , , . , . - - . ( ) 231 232 233 234

. , ( ) . , . , . , . , , , . , (. ), , , (. ), , . , , , , , , . 2005, 243 .235 . . , 13 , . , ., . . :(1) ;(2) ; (3) . , . , , . , , , . , , , . , . , . . 235

. , . - . , , . , , . , , , . , . ; . , , . , / . ad hoc ( ). , (. ) ( ), . , , , . , . , . . , . , , , . , ( , , ). , . , . , , ,

. , , , , (. ). . (. ) . , . , . , , , , , . , , .236 , ( , 10()) . 237 , . : (1) ; (2) ; (3) , , , ; (4) (. ) (. ); (5) ; (6) , . . ..... , , , , . , . , 236 237

.238 , ; ( 239) . , (. ). , . , 1976, 33 , .240 , , . , , . , . , 2000, . . , , , , .241 . . , 2000 .242238 239 240 241 242

, , () . , , . , . ( ) .243 , . 4 , - , . , , . , . . , . 7 : , , , , , , , , , , .244 , ( ) , ( ) ( ). , . , . , . . . , , 243 244

, , , , . , . , . . , . , . , . , , . , , . , . , 1990- , . , . , . , . , , . , , . , . , , . , ( ), , . ( ),

. , . (pro rata).245 655 , . 3 , 1988, ( Vincennes) , . , 290 . . , , . , Vincennes, , / . , , . , , . , ex gratia ( , ). , , , Vincennes . , 1989 . , . 1994, , , , 18 . ( ).246 , , . , 131.8 ( , 1970- 1980-): , . , . , (. ). , .247 , 245 246 247

. , , . . , , ,248 . , ? ( ) , , . , : (sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas) ; , ;249 .250 . , , .251 , . , , , . , , . , ,

248 249 250 251

.252 : , .253 , , . , , . , , 254. , , , , , , , , .255 , , , ......256 . , ( ) 257 . , . . 1909,258 , . , . . , . , . , .259 , , 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259

. . , , . . , . , 1979-81 , . . , , . , . , , . 1941, 1981 1995. , . 1995, , , . 1995 1998, . , , , 50 , , . 1998, .260 , , ( ) . , , . , , . , . , . , , , .260

, . , . , . . , .261 , 5(1) .262. 1995, , 29 .263 . , ; 20- 20 .264 ( ) , , . , , . . , , . , , ; . , . . , , . ad hoc , . () .

261 262 263 264

d hoc . , 1980- . , . 1988, , 1992.265 , ad hoc . , 1970 , . , . ad hoc , () 266. 2000, ,267 . ad hoc . ( ) ad hoc , 1994 .268 , , , . , , . (. ) , ( ) . , . , , , , .269 ; ( 265 266 267 268 269

). 1997, .270 19 20 ().271 . , 11 , , , ( ). - . 272 ad hoc .273 . , ( 20 ) . . , ., : ; ; ; ; ; . ad hoc . , . , , 274

270 271 272 273 274

275. , , , , ( ), , , . , , . . , . , , (. ) . , ( ) , . , , . ( ), , , . . - . 1979-81 . 9 : ; ; ( , ). . , , ., , .275

1982 ( ) 1000 250 000 2 800 250 000. , . 2005, 600 ; . , 2,5 1981 . 1989 . . . 1991 1990-91.276 , , . ; , . : (1) , ; (2) . . . 2005 20 . . 1993, - - . 5 , . 2000 277. , , . , . 2002278. , ,279 2005 .

276 277 278 279

.

. , . . . 20 , . , - - 280. , , . 2007. . 1920 . 1922-1939 27 32 . , . , , . 1935 57 , 36 7 2/3 .281 , . , . . . 1945 . , 280 281

282. , , , 283. , 1945 89 2 284. ipso facto 285. . . ( ) , : (1) ( ) ; (2) ; (3) (4) . , , 3 . , . , 2005 . 1960. , . ( uti possidetis). , . , 1970.286 ; . , uti possidetis. . , ( ). . , . , . , 282 283 284 285 286

. . - - ( ) . , , . . . . .287 ; . , . , . ad hoc . 1981 .288 , .289 ; . . , .290 , .291 , . 9, .292 1988, , , 9, 287 288 289 290 291 292

.293 , ( ) , , .294

( ) (2002) (1971) (1980) (1958) (1970) (1992) (1957) (1994) (1994) (1937) (1973) (2001) (2002) (1989) (1956) (1924) (1957) (1991) (1958) (1966) (1995) (1994) (1998) - (1989) (1921) (1986) (1992) (1974) (1958) (1965) (2000) (1952) (1950) (1930) (1992) (1966) (1966, 1983) (1968) (1947) (1992) (1956) (1977) (1929) (1998) (1996) (1960) (1921) (1996) (2003) (1972) (1996) (1955) (1985) (2004) (1963) (1990) (1958) (1987) (1969) (1957) (1948) (1979) (1963) (1969) (1921)

, , ipso facto , , ...... .295 . 191 , 65 ( 2005), . , . -, , - . , .293 294 295

, . . , ; , . , , .296 , . . , . , 15- . , de jure ( ) , .297 ( ), .298 9 , . , () . .299 , , ad hoc , .300 , ( 8 ), 5- , .301 , .302

296 297 298 299 300 301 302

, , . , , . , . , . 26 , . , , .303 , . , , 5 .304 , , 5 .305 , , . , 306 ( ) . . . , post-hoc (. ). . , , .307 , .308 , , . , , , , .309 , 303 304 305 306 307 308 309

, , , , . , .310 , , , .311 . , . , , . , . , . , -. , , . , , . , , . , . , , . 1959, .312 , 1989 .313 , , . , , . , 314 315 . , 310 311 312 313 314 315

. 316, . , . . , , . , , . , . , ; . , : , , , . , , status quo. . , . 1987 .317 , 1948 .318 , . , .319 14 2000 .320 1999, . 2000316 317 318 319 320

.321 , ( )., 2000 . , 30 .322 80- 20- , . ( ) , . . 1982, , .323 , . ad hoc . 15 - , 19 20 , ; . 1946, .324 , . , , . , .325 , , , 321 322 323 324 325

.326 , . , - - ( ) . ,327 , . . ,328 , . 1957 ( , 6 ), , . , , .329 , 1984, . ,330 1985 .331 1986 . 332 . , , . ,