Kingdom Monera – Student Guided Notes

Bacterial Classification

Discovery of Bacteria It had long been suspected that _________________________________________ which are too small to be seen with naked eye. But __________________________________ ____________________________________________________. A Dutch Scientist ―________________________________________‖ (1673) was the _________________ _____________________________________________. He used a simple microscope to describe bacteria and protozoa with accurate drawings and descriptions and called these small creatures as ―animalcules‖. He firstly. Observed small creatures in rain water, then confirmed these in saliva, vinegar, infusions and other substances. The progress in understanding the nature and importance of these tiny organisms has been slow. The existence of microbes was further confirmed by ____________________ ___________________________________________________ __________________________________________________. His main achievements are the development of vaccines for disease anthrax, fowl cholera and rabies. He also made significant contributions in development of pasteurization process and development of fermentation industries. ______________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

The Prokayotes The Kingdom prokaryotae (often referred to as __________________) consists of organisms with ________________________________. Prokayotic cells __________ ______________________________________________________________________ that typify the eukayota. In Greek the word ________________________________________ and _____________________________. Traditional classifications have placed the archea and bacteria into this single taxonomic kingdom due to their morphological similarity. In fact the two groups are extremely different, as different from each other biochemically as eukaryotes are from either group. Microbiologists now recognize that there are ______________________________________________: A much smaller division called the archaeobacteria (Greek for ―__________________

_________________________‖), a larger group called eubacteria (Greek for ―______________ ________________‖), and the eukaryotes. Their small size, ability to rapidly reproduce (for example, the intestinal bacterium E. coli can reproduce by binary fission every 15 minutes), and diverse habitats/modes of existence make ________________________________________ ________________________________________. Bacteria are wide spread in their occurrence. They are ________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Their kind and number vary according to locality and environmental conditions. Some bacteria are always present and contribute towards the natural flora. Others are present in specific environments such as hot springs, alkaline/acidic soil, highly saline environments, in highly polluted soils and waters.

ARCHAEBACTERIA and EUBACTERIA

Archaebacteria

The name comes from the root "archae" which means ancient. Archaebacteria are considered among _________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________. The archeans are life's extremists, occupying environments that "normal" organisms find too harsh such ______________

_________________________________________________. They do not need oxygen or light to survive. There are three groups of Archaea. The ________________ _________ live under anaerobic environments (e.g., marshes) where they produce methane. ___________________ require high salt concentrations (such as in Utah's Great Salt Lake). _____________________________ live under hot, acidic environments (like those found in geysers)

Eubacteria

The Eubacteria and blue-green bacteria (once referred to as blue-green algae), or cyanobacteria are the ______________________________________________________. The name comes from the root "eu" which translates as__________. They are the most common forms of bacteria. There are approximately 12 different phyla. ___________ _________________________________________________________________________________________.

Classifying Bacteria Bacteria can are classified by a number of different criteria: Most bacteria come in one of three different shapes. Some bacteria tend to organize into groups.

1. Rod Shaped = Bacillus

1. Diplo = pairs- diplococci are pairs of spherical shaped bacteria.

2. Spherical = Coccus

2. Strepto = chains - streptococci are chains of spherical shaped bacteria.

3. Spiral shaped or = Spirillum

3. Staphylo = clusters - staphylococci are clusters of spherical shaped bacteria.

Classifying Bacteria by Staining The _______________________ is the most important staining procedure in microbiology. It is ________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________. Hence, it is a differential stain. Gram staining involves a four-part process, which includes:

crystal violet, the primary stain iodine, the mordant a decolorizer made of acetone and alcohol safranin, the counterstain .

Gram negative and gram positive organisms are distinguished from each other ______________________________________________________________. These differences affect many aspects of the cell, including the way the cell takes up and retains stains.

__________________________________________ __________________________________________, which is then fixed in the cell with the iodine mordant. This forms a crystal-violet iodine complex which remains in the cell even after decolorizing. It is thought that this happens because the cell walls of gram positive organisms include a _______________________ protein-sugar complexes called

__________________________. This layer makes up 60-90% of the gram positive cell wall. Decolorizing the cell causes this thick cell wall to dehydrate and shrink, which closes the pores in the cell wall and prevents the stain from exiting the cell. At the end of the gram staining procedure, ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Gram negative cells also take up crystal violet, and the iodine forms a crystal violet-iodine complex in the cells as it did in the gram positive cells. However, ___________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________. Peptidoglycans are present in the cell walls of gram negative organisms, but they only comprise 10-20% of the cell wall. Gram negative cells also have an outer layer which gram positive organisms do not have; this layer is

made up of lipids, polysaccharides, and proteins. Exposing gram negative cells to the decolorizer dissolves the lipids in the cell walls, which allows the crystal violet-iodine complex to leach out of the cells. This allows the cells to subsequently be stained with safranin. _____________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Classifying Bacteria by Nutrition Bacteria are classified on the basis of their method of __________________________. Traditional classifications include ____________________________________________

___________________________________ _____________________________ groups. Chemosynthetic Bacteria - ______________________________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________ Example: Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Photosynthetic Bacteria - ___________________________________________________ ____________________________________________. Cyanobacteria are the major group of photosynthetic bacteria. Some early cyanobacteria may have formed the ______________________________________________________________________, transforming our planet from one with an oxygen-free atmosphere, to the modern one that has a significant amount of oxygen present. Example: Heliobacteria from soil. Saprophytic bacteria are heterotrophic bacteria that ____________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Parasitic bacteria are heterotrophic bacteria that ______________________________ _________________________________________________________________________. In summary, bacteria use all modes of nutrition. Some bacteria are autotrophic (able to produce their own energy) by photosynthesis and others by chemosynthesis. Most types of bacteria however, are heterotrophic by absorption. _____________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Others absorb nutrients from other living things and are known as parasites. Other Bacteria are classified as ________________________. Decomposers play an important role in nature as they ______________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________. They are an important part of the food chain.

Bacterial Structure _____________________________________________________________________—but don't let their small size and seeming simplicity fool you. They are an amazingly complex and fascinating group of organisms.

Bacteria, since they are prokaryotes, ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ that normally occur in a choloroplast or mitochondrion of eukaryotes will _______ ____________________________________ _______________. Bacterial ____________ __________ and arrayed in a region of the cell known as the _______________. Scattered within bacterial cytoplasm are numerous ____________________________ ___________________________ which are often used to carry foreign DNA into other bacteria for recombinant DNA engineering.. The ____________________ ___________________________________, the structures where proteins are assembled. All bacteria also have a _____ ______________, which is usually surrounded by a ______________________

______________________

Bacterial Structure Function

Plasmid ______________________________________________

Capsule

__________________________________ made up of polysaccharides (complex sugars). __________________________ _______________________________________________ and protects it from being engulfed by larger microorganism.

Cell Wall Gives cell its shape and surrounds the cytoplasm _____________ _________________________________________________.

Plasma Membrane A layer of phospholipids and proteins, which allows certain materials in and out of the cell

Ribosomes Only type of cell organelle found in bacteria. Small factories that

translate the genetic code into proteins.

Fimbriae Small hair like projections that emerge from the cell membrane. ________________________________________________________

Cytoplasm

Or protoplasm. This is where the functions of cell growth, cellular metabolism and replication are carried out. It is a gel-like material that is composed of water, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, and gases and contains cell structures such as the ribosomes, chromosomes, and plasmids.

Nucleoid A region of the cytoplasm where the chromosomal DNA is located.

Flagella Hair like structures that _________________________________. Not all bacteria have flagella.

Endospores Bacteria = ____________________________________________________. Microorganisms sense and adapt to changes in their environment. When favored nutrients are exhausted, some bacteria may become motile to seek out nutrients, or they may produce enzymes to exploit alternative resources. __________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ _______________. This complex developmental process is ___________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________. Endospores can survive environmental assaults that would normally kill the bacterium. These stresses include ______________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________. The extraordinary resistance properties of endospores make them of particular importance because they are not readily killed by many antimicrobial treatments. A variety of different microorganisms form spores or cysts, but the endospores of bacteria are by far the most resistant to harsh conditions.

Reproduction in Bacteria

Binary Fission ______________________ is the _____________________ ______________________ by division into two approximately equal parts. This method of cellular reproduction occurs only in prokaryotes (bacteria and archaeans).

Exchange of Genetic Information ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________. When bacteria exchange DNA it has a similar effect to______________________________ as there is a _________________________ ________________________________________________________. There are three ways in which bacteria exchange DNA.

1. ___________________________- male cell passes DNA to the female cell by means of a conjugation tube i.e. sex pilus.

2. ___________________________ - bacterium takes up DNA released by dead bacteria.

3. ___________________________- bacteriophages carry DNA from one cell to another

Bacterial Metabolism

Metabolism The diversity of procaryotes is expressed by their ______________________________ _________________________________________________________________________, and this feature allows procaryotes to flourish in all habitats on earth. Bacteria have been found that can live at ________________________________________________ and in those that would ____________________________________. They "eat" _________________________________________________________________________. There is even a species of bacteria that can withstand blasts of radiation 1,000 times greater than those that would kill a human being. Most bacteria are ___________________________. These bacteria ________________ __________________________. These bacteria utilize cellular respiration to produce energy. Cellular Respiration is the breakdown of sugar molecules with the use of oxygen to release energy.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --------> 6 H2O + 6 CO2 + Energy Some bacteria are called ___________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

1. Photosynthesis is ____________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________. Cyanobacteria is an example of a photosynthetic bacteria. 6 CO2+ 6 H2O -----light------>C6H12O6 + 6 O2

2. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Fermentation is _______________________________ _______________________________. Bacteria will ferment by one of these two equations. Pyruvic Acid + NADH ---------->Lactic Acid + NAD+ (also used by animals) Pyruvic Acid + NADH ---------->Alcohol + CO2 + NAD+ (also used by plants)

Other bacteria are _____________________________. Facultative anaerobes are ______________________________________________________________________. These bacteria will use cellular respiration if oxygen is present and fermentation if oxygen is not present.

Beneficial Bacteria Bacteria provide us with products which we depend every day. For example, bacteria _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Some bacteria are used to make pickles and sauerkraut, and some make vinegar from wine. Bacteria are also used in industry. One type of bacteria can digest petroleum, which makes them ___________________________________________________________. Some bacteria remove waste products and poisons from water. These bacteria can be __________________________________________________________. Others can even _______________________________ from the ground. Still others have been ________ ______________________________________ and chemicals through techniques of genetic engineering. Many kinds of bacteria develop a symbiotic relationship with other organisms in which ________________________________. Our intestines are inhabited by large numbers of bacteria including E. coli. In the intestines, the ______________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Bacteria _________________________________________________________________. Gradually, the material being decomposed is recycled, enriching the soil thereby providing valuable nutrients required for plant growth.

Bacterial Disease

Symbiosis in Bacteria When bacteria live in association with other organisms they are known as __________ _____________________. There are ______________________________________, and different groups of bacteria employ all three. 1. In ___________________________symbiotic relationships, ______________________ ____________________________________________ from the relationship. For example, nitrogen fixing bacteria live in nodules of legumes. They provide the plant with nitrogen and the plant supplies the bacteria with other nutrients. 2. In a _____________________________ relationship, __________________________ ____________________________________________. Bacteria live on human skin and do not harm us, but benefit from the warm moist environment. 3. A ________________________ relationship means that _______________________ __________________________________________. Parasitic bacteria harm the host and _______________________________________________________________. Some

parasitic bacteria use a human host, so the study of bacteria is of great importance to human beings. Most bacteria however are not pathogenic. Useful bacteria include:

- decomposers. - nitrogen fixing bacteria. - vitamin producing bacteria. - bacteria used to make insulin (E.coli) and growth hormones. - Some bacteria are used to make antibiotics (e.g. Streptomycin).

There are many industrial bacteria. Such as bacteria . Bacteria ___________________ ___________________________________________________________________. Scientists use bacteria in genetic research because they only have 1 chromosome, are easy to grow, and have a short life cycle

Harmful Bacteria and Koch Postulates As stated previously most bacteria are _______________ which means they are _____________________________. Many actually help us in some way (digestion, protection). There are relatively few bacteria that are considered to be pathogenic or disease causing. Pathogenic or disease causing bacteria _________________________ ______________________________________________. Bacteria may produce endotoxins and exotoxins which elicit an immune response.

Koch’s Postulates

_____________________ was a german Bacteriologist who came up with the rules to prove that an organism is responsible for a particular condition or disease. He formulated the ‗germ theory of disease‘. He isolated typical rod-shaped bacteria with squarish ends (bacilli) from the blood of sheep that had died of anthrax. Then he discovered bacteria that caused tuberculosis and cholera. Robert Koch __________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

1. A specific organism can always be found in association with a given disease. 2. ____________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________. 3. The pure culture will produce the disease when inoculated into susceptible

animal. 4. ____________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________.

Koch and his colleagues invented many techniques concerning inoculation, isolation, media preparation, maintenance of pure cultures and preparation of specimens for microscopic examination.

Examples of Bacterial Disease _______________________________________________: - Strept throat - Rheumatic Fever - Pneumonia - Tuberculosis _______________________________________________: - Staph - pimples - leprosy - flesh eating disease _______________________________________________: - tetanus - botulism - meningitis _______________________________________________: - Typhoid fever - cholera, - Salmonella - E. coli _______________________________________________: - gonorrhea - syphilis

Lines of Defense The human body constantly faces attack from foreign invaders that can cause infection and disease. These invaders range from living microbes such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses, to nonliving toxins, chemicals, and drugs. Fortunately, the body has a number of external and internal safeguards that prevent most dangerous invaders from entering and causing harm. The ___________________________________________ is non–specific and aims to stop microbes from entering the body. The _________________________________________ _____________________________________________ preventing penetration by microbes. If the skin is cut then the blood produces a ___________________________ _________________________________________________________________________. The surfaces of the body – the skin, digestive system, and the lining of the nose – are covered by a __________________________________ called the normal body flora. They help to protect a host from becoming infected with more harmful micro-organisms by acting as a physical barrier. It means that the harmful microbes have to compete with the normal body flora for nutrients. The average human gut contains around 1 kg of these good bacteria which is equivalent to one bag of sugar. The respiratory system – the nose and passageways leading to the lungs – is lined with cells that produce sticky fluid called ______________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________, where they are either coughed or sneezed out or swallowed and then passed out of the body in feces. The body produces several antimicrobial substances that kill or stop microbes from growing. For example the ______________________________________ ____________________________________________. The _________________________ __________ which destroys many of the microbes that enter the body in food and drink. Urine as it flows through the urinary system flushes microbes out of the bladder and urethra. If microbes do manage to get inside the body then the __________________________ is activated. This is also non-specific as it stops any type of microbe_______________ ____________________________________________________________________. They send out pseudopodia which allows them to ___________________________________ ____________________________________________________. Phagocytes release digestive enzymes which break down the trapped microbes before they can do any harm. This process is called phagocytosis<> The _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________. It is regarded as a threat by the immune system and is capable of stimulating an immune response. Antigens are proteins that are found on the surface of the pathogen. Antigens are unique to that pathogen. The whooping cough bacterium, for example, will have different antigens on its surface from the TB bacterium. When an antigen enters the body, __________________________________

_____________________________________________ against it. It is like a battle with the army (antibody) fighting off the invader (antigen). A type of white blood cell called ___________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________. Each antibody has a unique binding site shape which locks onto the specific shape of the antigen. The antibodies destroy the antigen (pathogen) which is then engulfed and digested by macrophages. Once the invading microbes have been destroyed the immune response winds down. Once a person has had a disease they don‘t normally catch it again because the body produces _________________________________________________________________. The memory cells remember the microbe which caused the disease and ___________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________. The pathogen is quickly destroyed preventing symptoms of the disease reoccurring.

What are Antibiotics? Antibiotics are ____________________________________________________________ _________________________________________. The first antibiotic was discovered by ______________________________________ in 1928 in a significant breakthrough for medical science. The development of antibiotics is probably the largest advance in medicine in the 20th century, and has saved millions of lives worldwide from infections such as TB. Since ________________________________________________________________, a wide range of antibiotics has been developed. Originally produced from molds and fungi, many antibiotics are now produced synthetically. Antibiotics are not effective against infections caused by viruses, so if you go to your doctor with a viral illness such as a cold, flu or a viral sore throat, antibiotics have little or no role to play. _______________________________________________________________________. For example, if you have a streptococcal throat, penicillin may be prescribed. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________. These are called broad __________________________. This type of antibiotic is often used to treat respiratory or urinary tract infections because it is difficult to establish what specific bacteria are causing the condition. Antibiotics can be classified into five main categories: PENICILLINS: eg. Amoxycillin, Amoxil, Augmentin, Calvepen, Clonamox, Floxapen CEPHALOSPORINS: eg. Cefodox, Distaclor, Keflex, Suprax, Zinnat AMINOGLYCOSIDES: eg. Genticin TETRACYCLINES: eg. Clinimycin, Hostacycline, Minocin, Vibramycin OTHERS: eg. Ciproxin, Erymax, Erythrocin, Flagyl, Ipral, Klacid, Zithromax

The choice of antibiotic depends on the ______________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________. How do antibiotics work? An antibiotic is a selective poison. It has been chosen so that it will _______________ _____________________________________________. Each different type of antibiotic affects different bacteria in different ways. Essentially, antibiotic drugs ___________ _________________________________________________, allowing the body‘s immune system to deal with the infection. For example, an antibiotic might inhibit a bacterium's ability to turn glucose into energy, or its ability to construct its cell wall. The most commonly used antibiotics, penicillins and cephalosporins, are bactericidal and work by ______________________________________________________________. When this happens, the bacterium dies instead of reproducing. Considerations for the use of antibiotics: The antibiotic ____________________________________________. Some people are ____________________________________________________. Some antibiotics could kill off useful bacteria. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. May cause resistant strains to develop. Other biocides include: Sulfur Drugs, antitoxins, various bacteriocides, disinfectants… Chart of various antibiotics:

Antibiotic Resistance Antibiotics kill or inhibit the growth of susceptible bacteria. Many diseases that once killed people can now be treated effectively with antibiotics. An antibiotic is a _________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Sometimes one of the bacteria survives because it has the __________________________________________ ________________________________________________; that one bacteria can then _________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________. Exposure to antibiotics therefore provides selective pressure, which makes the surviving bacteria __________________________ ____________. In addition, bacteria that were at one time susceptible to an antibiotic can _______________________ through ______________________ of their genetic material or by acquiring pieces of DNA that code for the resistance properties from other bacteria. Although bacteria are capable of developing ___________________________________ _______________________________________ a number of factors may speed up the development of resistance. These include: ______________________________________________________________________ in humans. Widespread use of antibiotics in the rearing ___________________________________ _________________________________________________. _________________________________________________________________ as prescribed by your doctor. The danger of widespread resistance to antibiotics is that ________________________ __________________________________ (so-called 'superbugs'). There is huge concern among doctors that eventually these 'superbugs' could cause untreatable infections in the otherwise healthy populations. Most infection-causing bacteria can become resistant to at least some antibiotics. Bacteria that are resistant to many antibiotics are known as multi-resistant organisms (MROs).

How can it be prevented? #1 ____________________________________________________________________ like a cold or the flu. #2 Discard any leftover medication once you have completed your prescribed course of treatment. #3 ___________________________________________ ___________________________________. Complete the prescribed course of treatment even if you are feeling better. #4 Do not take antibiotics prescribed for someone else. #5 Stop the use of antibacterial hand soaps and sanitizers. Wash your hands with regular soap and water instead.

On this second streak plate the bacteria now exhibit resistance to the antibiotic disks.

This first bacterial streak plate shows the effect of antibiotic disks on bacteria. There is no growth near the white disks.