kelas berrtaraf internasional smak penabur gading serpong 2012/2013 cell structure and function...
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Kelas Berrtaraf Internasional SMAK PENABUR Gading Serpong 2012/2013
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
CHAPTER 1
Leonardus, S.Si.
Kelas Berrtaraf Internasional SMAK PENABUR Gading Serpong 2012/2013
Content
• The microscope in cell studies
• Cells as the basic units of living organisms
• Detailed structure of typical animal and plant cells, as seen under the electron microscope
• Outline functions of organelles in plant and animal cells
• Characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
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Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
• (a) [PA] use an eyepice graticule and stage micrometer to measure cells and be familiar with units (millimetre, micrometre, nanometre) used in cell studies;
• (b) explain and distinguish between resolution and magnification, with reference to light microscopy and electron microscopy;
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Learning Outcomes
• (c) describe and interpret drawings and photographs of typical animal and plant cells, as seen under the electron microscope, recognising the following membrane systems and organelles: rough and smooth endoplasmic reticula, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, chloroplasts, plasma/cell surface membrane, nuclear envelope, centrioles, nucleus and nucleolus;
• (d) outline the functions of the membrane systems and organelles listed in (c);
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Learning Outcomes
• (e) [PA] compare and contrast the structure of typical animal and plant cells;
• (f) [PA] draw and label low power diagrams of tissues (including a transverse section of a stems, roots, and leaves) and calculate the linear magnification of drawings;
• (g) describe the structure of a prokaryotic cell and compare and contrast the structure of prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic cells;
• (h) use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.
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Introduction
Overview: The Importance of Cells
• All organisms are made of cells
• The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can live
• Cell structure is correlated to cellular function
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Brief history
• R. Hooke (1665), an English scientist: cell
• A. v. Leeuwenhoek (1675), a Dutch lens maker: microscope, in the 150 years after his work, microscope lenses improved and scientists were able to observe and understand more parts of the cell.
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Brief history
• In the mid-19th century, three different scientists working separately each published important conclusions about cells.
1. In 1838, Dutch botanist Matthias Schleiden concluded that all plants are composed of cells.
2. One year later, a German zoologist by the name of Theodor Schwaan postulated that animals are also composed of cells.
3. And in 1855, Rudolph Virchow, a German doctor, asserted that all cells must come from other cells by the process of cell division.
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Cell Theory (based on 200+ years of discoveries)
• A. all living things are composed of cells
• B. cells are the basic unit of structure & function of all living things
• C. new cells are produced from existing cells
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Why cells?
• Because cells are the most basic unit of life that all organisms share, understanding cells is the key to learning about life itself.
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Microscope
• Cell biology: study of cells: cytology
• To study cells, biologists use microscopes as the tools
• Scientists use microscopes to visualize cells too small to see with the naked eye
• Type of microscopes:
1. light microscope (uses light as a source of radiation)
2. electron microscope (uses electrons)
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Microscope
• Light microscopes (LM)
– Pass visible light through a specimen
– Magnify cellular structures with lenses
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Microscope
– Use different methods for enhancing visualization of cellular structures
TECHNIQUE RESULT
Brightfield (unstained specimen). Passes light directly through specimen. Unless cell is naturally pigmented or artificially stained, image has little contrast. [Parts (a)–(d) show a human cheek epithelial cell.]
(a)
Brightfield (stained specimen). Staining with various dyes enhances contrast, but most staining procedures require that cells be fixed (preserved).
(b)
Phase-contrast. Enhances contrast in unstained cells by amplifying variations in density within specimen; especially useful for examining living, unpigmented cells.
(c)
50 µm
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Microscope
Differential-interference-contrast (Nomarski). Like phase-contrast microscopy, it uses optical modifications to exaggerate differences indensity, making the image appear almost 3D.
Fluorescence. Shows the locations of specific molecules in the cell by tagging the molecules with fluorescent dyes or antibodies. These fluorescent substances absorb ultraviolet radiation and emit visible light, as shown here in a cell from an artery.
Confocal. Uses lasers and special optics for “optical sectioning” of fluorescently-stained specimens. Only a single plane of focus is illuminated; out-of-focus fluorescence above and below the plane is subtracted by a computer. A sharp image results, as seen in stained nervous tissue (top), where nerve cells are green, support cells are red, and regions of overlap are yellow. A standard fluorescence micrograph (bottom) of this relatively thick tissue is blurry.
50 µm
50 µm
(d)
(e)
(f)
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Microscope
• Electron microscopes (EM)
– Focus a beam of electrons through a specimen (TEM) or onto its surface (SEM)
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Microscope
• The scanning electron microscope (SEM)
– Provides for detailed study of the surface of a specimen
TECHNIQUE RESULTS
Scanning electron micro-scopy (SEM). Micrographs takenwith a scanning electron microscope show a 3D image of the surface of a specimen. This SEM shows the surface of a cell from a rabbit trachea (windpipe) covered with motile organelles called cilia. Beating of the cilia helps moveinhaled debris upward toward the throat.
(a)
Cilia1 µm
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Microscope
• The transmission electron microscope (TEM)
– Provides for detailed study of the internal ultrastructure of cells
Transmission electron micro-scopy (TEM). A transmission electron microscope profiles a thin section of a specimen. Here we see a section through a tracheal cell, revealing its ultrastructure. In preparing the TEM, some cilia were cut along their lengths, creating longitudinal sections, while other cilia were cut straight across, creating cross sections.
(b) Longitudinalsection ofcilium
Cross sectionof cilium
1 µm
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Units of measurement in cell studies
• International System of Units (SI Units)
Fraction of a metre Unit Symbol
One thousandth = 0.001 = 1/1000 = 10-3 millimetre mm
One millionth = 0.000001 = 1/1000000 = 10-6
micrometre µm
One thousandth millionth = 0.000000001 = 1/1000000000 = 10-9
nanometre nm
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Size of some biological structures
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Size of some biological structures
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Size of some biological structures
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Size of some biological structures
Una
ide
d e
ye
1 m
0.1 nm
10 m
0.1 m
1 cm
1 mm
100 µm
10 µ m
1 µ m
100 nm
10 nm
1 nm
Length of somenerve and muscle cells
Chicken egg
Frog egg
Most plant and Animal cells
Smallest bacteria
Viruses
Ribosomes
Proteins
Lipids
Small molecules
Atoms
NucleusMost bacteriaMitochondrion
Lig
ht m
icro
sco
pe
Ele
ctro
n m
icro
sco
pe
Ele
ctro
n m
icro
sco
pe
Human height
Measurements1 centimeter (cm) = 102 meter (m) = 0.4 inch1 millimeter (mm) = 10–3 m1 micrometer (µm) = 10–3 mm = 10–6 m1 nanometer (nm) = 10–6 mm = 10–9 m
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Measuring cells – eyepiece graticule
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Measuring cells – eyepiece graticule
stage micrometer scale (marked in 0.01 mm and 0.1 mm divisions
eyepice graticule scale (arbitrary units)
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Measuring cells – eyepiece graticule
eyepiece graticule in the eyepiece of the microscopes
cheek cells on a slide on the stage of the microscope
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Magnification dan resolution
• Magnification: the number of times larger an images is compared with the real size of the object
size of image
actual size of specimen
• Resolution: the ability to distinguish between to separate points
magnification =
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Cell Types
• Two types of cells make up every organisms
– Prokaryotic
– Eukaryotic
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Cell Types
• All cells have several basic features in common
– They are bounded by a plasma membrane
– They contain a semifluid substance called the cytosol
– They contain chromosomes
– They all have ribosomes
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Prokaryotic cells
• Prokaryotic cells
– Do not contain a nucleus (do not have a nuclear membrane)
– Have their DNA located in a region called the nucleoid
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Prokaryotic cells
(b) A thin section through the bacterium Bacillus coagulans (TEM)
Pili: attachment structures onthe surface of some prokaryotes
Nucleoid: region where thecell’s DNA is located (notenclosed by a membrane)
Ribosomes: organelles thatsynthesize proteins
Plasma membrane: membraneenclosing the cytoplasm
Cell wall: rigid structure outsidethe plasma membrane
Capsule: jelly-like outer coatingof many prokaryotes
Flagella: locomotionorganelles ofsome bacteria
(a) A typical rod-shaped bacterium
0.5 µmBacterial
chromosome
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Prokaryotic cells
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Eukaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells
– Contain a true nucleus, bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope
– Are generally quite a bit bigger than prokaryotic cells
– Have extensive and elaborately arranged internal membranes, which form organelles
– Have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions
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Eukaryotic cells: Plant and animal cell
• A side-by-side view of an animal and plant cell. Plant cells contain special organelles called chloroplasts and an outer covering called a cell wall. Animal cells lack both of these structures.
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Animal cell
Rough ER Smooth ER
Centrosome
CYTOSKELETON
Microfilaments
Microtubules
Microvilli
Peroxisome
Lysosome
Golgi apparatus
Ribosomes
In animal cells but not plant cells:LysosomesCentriolesFlagella (in some plant sperm)
Nucleolus
Chromatin
NUCLEUS
Flagellum
Intermediate filaments
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Mitochondrion
Nuclear envelope
Plasma membrane
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Plant cell
In plant cells but not animal cells:ChloroplastsCentral vacuole and tonoplastCell wallPlasmodesmata
CYTOSKELETON
Ribosomes (small brwon dots)
Central vacuole
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
ChromatinNUCLEUS
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Chloroplast
PlasmodesmataWall of adjacent cell
Cell wall
Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome
Tonoplast
Centrosome
Plasma membrane
Mitochondrion
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Outside of cell
Inside of cell
Hydrophilicregion
Hydrophobicregion
Hydrophilicregion
(b) Structure of the plasma membrane
Phospholipid Proteins
TEM of a plasmamembrane. Theplasma membrane,here in a red bloodcell, appears as apair of dark bandsseparated by alight band.
(a)
0.1 µm
Plasma Membrane
• Functions as a selective barrier
• Allows food, oxygen, & water into the cell & waste products out of the cell.
• Outer covering, protective layer around all cells
Carbohydrate side chain
back
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The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell
• The nucleus
– Contains most of the genes in the eukaryotic cell
• Directs all cell activities
• Contains instructions for everything the cell does
• These instructions are found on a hereditary material called DNA
• Usually the largest organelle
back
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The Nuclear Envelope
• Encloses the nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm
• controls movement of materials in & out of nucleus Nucleus
NucleusNucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:Inner membraneOuter membrane
Nuclear pore
Rough ER
Porecomplex
Surface of nuclear envelope.
Pore complexes (TEM). Nuclear lamina (TEM).
Close-up of nuclearenvelope
Ribosome
1 µm
1 µm0.25 µm
back
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Nucleolus
• “little nucleus”
• Found in the nucleus
back
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Chromatin
• contains genetic code that controls cell
• made of DNA & proteins
back
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Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell
• Are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein
• Float freely or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• made in the nucleolus
• Carry out protein synthesis
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Ribosomes Cytosol
Free ribosomes
Bound ribosomes
Largesubunit
Smallsubunit
TEM showing ER and ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome
0.5 µm
Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
ER
back
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
– Accounts for more than half the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells
– A series of folded membranes that move materials (proteins) around in a cell
– like a conveyor belt
– Smooth ER – ribosomes not attached to ER
– Rough ER – ribosomes attached to ER
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
• The function of smooth ER
– Synthesizes lipids
– Metabolizes carbohydrates
– Stores calcium
– Detoxifies poison
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
• The function of rough ER
– Produces proteins and membranes, which are distributed by transport vesicles
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
Smooth ER
Rough ER
ER lumen
Cisternae
RibosomesTransport vesicle
Smooth ER
Transitional ER
Rough ER 200 µm
Nuclearenvelope
back
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The Golgi apparatus
– Receives many of the transport vesicles produced in the rough ER
– Consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
• Functions of the Golgi apparatus include:
– Sort and package proteins
The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
cis face(“receiving” side ofGolgi apparatus)
Vesicles movefrom ER to Golgi Vesicles also
transport certainproteins back to ER
Vesicles coalesce toform new cis Golgi cisternae
Cisternalmaturation:Golgi cisternaemove in a cis-to-transdirection
Vesicles form andleave Golgi, carryingspecific proteins toother locations or tothe plasma mem-brane for secretion
Vesicles transport specificproteins backward to newerGolgi cisternae
Cisternae
trans face(“shipping” side ofGolgi apparatus)
0.1 0 µm16
5
2
3
4
Golgiapparatus
TEM of Golgi apparatus
back
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Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
• A lysosome
– Is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes
– Can digest all kinds of macromolecules such as food or break down the cell when it dies
• Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion by
– Phagocytosis
– Autophagy
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(a) Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food
1 µm
Lysosome contain active hydrolytic enzymes Food vacuole fuses with lysosome Hydrolytic enzymes digest food particles
Digestion
Food vacuole
Plasma membrane
Lysosome
Digestiveenzymes
Lysosome
Nucleus
Lysosomes: Phagocytosis
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(b) Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle
Lysosome containingtwo damaged organelles 1 µ m
Mitochondrionfragment
Peroxisomefragment
Lysosome fuses with vesicle containingdamaged organelle
Hydrolytic enzymesdigest organelle components
Vesicle containingdamaged mitochondrion
Digestion
Lysosome
Lysosomes: Autophagy
back
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The Endomembrane System: A Review
• The endomembrane system
– Is a complex and dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental organization
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Plasma membrane expandsby fusion of vesicles; proteinsare secreted from cell
Transport vesicle carriesproteins to plasma membrane for secretion
Lysosome availablefor fusion with anothervesicle for digestion
4 5 6
Nuclear envelope isconnected to rough ER, which is also continuous
with smooth ER
Nucleus
Rough ER
Smooth ERcis Golgi
trans Golgi
Membranes and proteinsproduced by the ER flow in
the form of transport vesiclesto the Golgi Nuclear envelop
Golgi pinches off transport Vesicles and other vesicles
that give rise to lysosomes and Vacuoles
1
3
2
Plasmamembrane
The Endomembrane System: A Review
• Relationships among organelles of the endomembrane system
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Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
• Mitochondria
– Are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells
– Are the sites of cellular respiration
• Mitochondria are enclosed by two membranes:
– A smooth outer membrane
– An inner membrane folded into cristae
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Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
Mitochondrion
Intermembrane space
Outermembrane
Freeribosomesin the mitochondrialmatrix
MitochondrialDNA
Innermembrane
Cristae
Matrix
100 µm
back
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Peroxisomes: Oxidation
• Peroxisomes
– Produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water
ChloroplastPeroxisome
Mitochondrion
1 µmback
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The Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell
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The Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton
– Is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
Microtubule
0.25 µm Microfilaments
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Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and Regulation
• The cytoskeleton
– Gives mechanical support to the cell
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Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and Regulation
– Is involved in cell motility, which utilizes motor proteins
VesicleATP
Receptor formotor protein
Motor protein(ATP powered)
Microtubuleof cytoskeleton
(a) Motor proteins that attach to receptors on organelles can “walk”the organelles along microtubules or, in some cases, microfilaments.
Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 µm
(b) Vesicles containing neurotransmitters migrate to the tips of nerve cell axons via the mechanism in (a). In this SEM of a squid giant axon, two vesicles can be seen moving along a microtubule. (A separate part of the experiment provided the evidence that they were in fact moving.)
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Components of the Cytoskeleton
• There are three main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton
back
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Microtubules
• Microtubules
– Shape the cell
– Guide movement of organelles
– Help separate the chromosome copies in dividing cells
back
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Centrosomes and Centrioles
• The centrosome
– Is considered to be a “microtubule-organizing center”
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Centrosomes and Centrioles
– Centrosome contains a pair of centrioles
Centrosome
Microtubule
Centrioles
0.25 µm
Longitudinal sectionof one centriole
Microtubules Cross sectionof the other centriole
back
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Cilia and Flagella
• Cilia and flagella
– Contain specialized arrangements of microtubules
– Are locomotor appendages of some cells
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Cilia and Flagella
• Cilia and flagella share a common ultrastructure
(a)
(c)
(b)
Outer microtubuledoublet
Dynein arms
Centralmicrotubule
Outer doublets cross-linkingproteins inside
Radialspoke
Plasmamembrane
Microtubules
Plasmamembrane
Basal body
0.5 µm
0.1 µm
0.1 µm
Cross section of basal body
Triplet
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Cilia and Flagella
• The protein dynein
– Is responsible for the bending movement of cilia and flagella
Microtubuledoublets ATP
Dynein arm
Powered by ATP, the dynein arms of one microtubule doublet grip the adjacent doublet, push it up, release, and then grip again. If the two microtubule doublets were not attached, they would slide relative to each other.
(a)
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Outer doubletscross-linkingproteins
Anchoragein cell
ATP
In a cilium or flagellum, two adjacent doublets cannot slide far because they are physically restrained by proteins, so they bend. (Only two ofthe nine outer doublets in Figure 6.24b are shown here.)
(b)
Cilia and Flagella
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Localized, synchronized activation of many dynein arms probably causes a bend to begin at the base of the Cilium or flagellum and move outward toward the tip. Many successive bends, such as the ones shown here to the left and right, result in a wavelike motion. In this diagram, the two central microtubules and the cross-linking proteins are not shown.
(c)
1 3
2
Cilia and Flagella
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Flagella
• Flagella beating pattern
(a) Motion of flagella. A flagellum usually undulates, its snakelike motion driving a cell in the same direction as the axis of the flagellum. Propulsion of a human sperm cell is an example of flagellatelocomotion (LM).
1 µm
Direction of swimming
back
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Cilia
• Ciliary motion
(b) Motion of cilia. Cilia have a back- and-forth motion that moves the cell in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the cilium. A dense nap of cilia, beating at a rate of about 40 to 60 strokes a second, covers this Colpidium, a freshwater protozoan (SEM).
15 µm
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Cilia
• Ciliary motion
back
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Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
• Microfilaments
– Are built from molecules of the protein actin
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Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
– Are found in microvilli
0.25 µm
Microvillus
Plasma membrane
Microfilaments (actinfilaments)
Intermediate filaments
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Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
• Microfilaments that function in cellular motility
– Contain the protein myosin in addition to actin
Actin filament
Myosin filament
Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction. (a)
Muscle cell
Myosin arm
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Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
• Amoeboid movement
– Involves the contraction of actin and myosin filaments
Cortex (outer cytoplasm):gel with actin network
Inner cytoplasm: sol with actin subunits
Extendingpseudopodium
(b) Amoeboid movement
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Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
• Cytoplasmic streaming
– Is another form of locomotion created by microfilaments
Nonmovingcytoplasm (gel)
Chloroplast
Streamingcytoplasm(sol)
Parallel actinfilaments Cell wall
(b) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cellsback
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Intermediate Filaments
• Intermediate filaments
– Support cell shape
– Fix organelles in place
back
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The Cell Wall
• The cell wall
– Is an extracellular structure of plant cells that distinguishes them from animal cells
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Central vacuoleof cell
Plasmamembrane
Secondarycell wall
Primarycell wall
Middlelamella
1 µm
Centralvacuoleof cell
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls
Plasmodesmata
The Cell Wall
• Plant cell walls
– Protects the cell
– Gives shape
– Are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and protein
– Found in plant, algae, fungi, most bacteria
back
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Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
• The chloroplast
– Is a specialized member of a family of closely related plant organelles called plastids
– Contains chlorophyll
– Found in plants (leaves and other green organs) and in algae, are the sites of photosynthesis
• Chloroplast structure includes:
– Thylakoids, membranous sacs
– Stroma, the internal fluid
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Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
Chloroplast
ChloroplastDNA
Ribosomes
Stroma
Inner and outermembranes
Thylakoid
1 µm
Granum
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Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
• A plant or fungal cell
– May have one or several vacuoles
1.Food vacuoles
– Are formed by phagocytosis
2.Contractile vacuoles
– Pump excess water out of protist cells
Kelas Berrtaraf Internasional SMAK PENABUR Gading Serpong 2012/2013
Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
• Central vacuoles
– Are found in plant cells
– Hold reserves of important organic compounds and water
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Tonoplast
Centralvacuole
Nucleus
Cell wall
Chloroplast
5 µm
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Plasmodesmata
• Plasmodesmata
– Are channels that perforate plant cell walls
Interiorof cell
Interiorof cell
0.5 µm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
Cell walls
Figure 6.30
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Kelas Berrtaraf Internasional SMAK PENABUR Gading Serpong 2012/2013
Two fundamentally different types of cell
Kelas Berrtaraf Internasional SMAK PENABUR Gading Serpong 2012/2013
Kelas Berrtaraf Internasional SMAK PENABUR Gading Serpong 2012/2013