_______________________________________________________

Chad

Children and Security

Jeff Schneider

November 20, 2014

2

Table of Contents

Acronyms.......................................................................................................................................2

Overview........................................................................................................................................3

Context...............................................................................................................................4

Conflict...............................................................................................................................5

Stakeholders...................................................................................................................................7

The Chadian National Army (ANT)...................................................................................7

Armed Opposition Forces...................................................................................................9

United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad (MINURCAT)..........9

The Current Situation...................................................................................................................10

Child Soldiers...................................................................................................................11

Case Study.............................................................................................................11

Trafficking........................................................................................................................11

Case Study............................................................................................................12

National and International Law: Child Protection.......................................................................13

International Law..............................................................................................................13

National Law....................................................................................................................13

Historical Timeline......................................................................................................................13

Endnotes......................................................................................................................................18

3

Acronyms

ANT Chadian National Army

BINUCA United Nations Integrated Peacebuilding Office in the Central African Republic

CAR Central African Republic

CRC United Nations Conventions on the Rights of the Child

CSPA Child Soldiers Prevention Activities

DDR Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration

FUC United Front for Democratic Change

IDP Internally Displaced Person

JEM Justice and Equality Movement

MINURCAT United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad-Sudan

MISCA African-led International Support Mission to the Central African Republic

PPT Chad Progressive Party

RFC Gathering of Forces for Change

SLA Sudan Liberation Army

UFDD United Forces for Development and Democracy

UFR Union of Resistance Force

UN United Nations

UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund

4

Overview

Despite many years of international condemnation, the use and recruitment of child soldiers

remains a growing problem around the world. In 2013, alone, it was reported by United Nations (UN)

that more than 4,000 child soldier cases were documented and thousands of other children were

presumed to have been used and recruited.1 Throughout Chad’s recent conflict, the government and

opposition forces have both forcibly conscripted and deployed children. Recently, the UN Secretary

General identified 51 armed groups and 16 countries who use and recruit child soldiers.2

The exploitation of child combatants is primarily concentrated in Africa. Nine of the sixteen

countries named by the Secretary General are from this region and include: Central African Republic

(CAR), Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Mali, Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan,

and Uganda.

Not only are child soldiers being used but trends have indicated that conflict-affected countries

are riddled with significant child rights violations. In particular, there are six grave violations that the

UN Secretary General has outlined that need to be focused on, responded to and prevented as they all

usually transpire simultaneously (the killing and maiming of a child, recruitment and use of children,

attacks against schools and hospitals, rape and sexual violence, abduction, and denial of humanitarian

access).3 Chad is known to have one of the most prominent armed forces in Africa, and they have been

known to use child soldiers in both their armed forces as well as armed opposition groups. An officer in

the Chadian army explains that child soldiers are ideal because “they don't complain, they expect to be

paid and if you tell them to kill, they kill”.4

In order to ensure clarity in discussions surrounding child soldiers, the international community

has collaborated to outline definitions, standards, and laws. According to the UN Convention on the

Rights of the Child (UNCRC), a child is defined as a human being below eighteen years of age.5 A child

soldier is defined as:

“any person below 18 years of age who is or who has been recruited or used by an armed force

or armed group in any capacity, including but not limited to children, boys and girls, used as

fighters, cooks, porters, messengers, spies or for sexual purposes. It does not only refer to a

child who is taking or has taken a direct part in hostilities.”6

Thus, a child soldier is not necessarily an individual who actively participates in a confrontation with a

weapon; since children are susceptible to being coerced or duped into a variety of different roles. Under

international humanitarian law and the International Criminal Court (ICC) it is also emphasized that

5

conscripting or enlisting children 15 years old or younger or having them actively partake in armed-

conflict is a war crime.7 Unfortunately, it is difficult to verify a child’s age; as child soldiers do not have

any birth records or documentation.

In many lower economic countries, such as Chad, the fundamental right of birth registration is

not a norm. A disproportionately small number of children’s births are registered in Africa as there is a

lack of knowledge on registering a child’s birth and functioning birth registration systems.8 A birth

certificate is a line of defense against underage military recruitment. Therefore, the lack of birth

registration systems increases the risk of armed-conflict child conscription.

The use and recruitment of child soldiers is a complex societal issue; however, nations from

around the globe have come to a consensus: it is essential to protect children from the hostilities of war.

By nature children are vulnerable and every task a child soldier is compelled to act affects their

physical and mental well-being. Despite visible global efforts to prevent armed-conflict child

recruitment, the problem still exists and perpetrators are not being held accountable to the degree that

international law has prescribed. To end the victimization of children, it is essential that the recruitment

and use of child soldiers is eliminated.

Context

Since gaining independence from France in 1960, Chad has had at times some difficulty

maintaining stability. There have been numerous civil wars throughout it's history due in part to ethnic

and religious tensions. The country has had many issues with it's leaders, beginning with President

Francois Tombalbaye. Tombalbaye ran an autocratic style government combined with a distrust of

democracy and banned all political parties except his own, the Chadian Progressive Party (PPT).

Tombalbaye created tensions across the country, often discriminating against the central and northern

regions of Chad, and was extremely harsh with his opponents. Tombalbaye was killed during a coup by

N'Djamena's gendarmerie, leading up to the rule of Hissène Habré who had similar ruling styles as

Tombalbaye and was involved in the Chadian-Libyan Conflict during the 1980's.

Idriss Déby, Chad's current president, overthrew Habré and took control of government in 1990.

Déby was met with resistance and was attacked by opposition forces several times as well as multiple

coup attempts. In 1996, a new constitution was approved and the first multiparty presidential election

was held, in which Déby won. Déby was met with major rebel offensives for the next decade until

peace accords in 2002 and 2003 ended most of the fighting. Déby's government has appeared to be

making progress by promoting peace and opportunity for economic disparity but there is still a reality

6

of corruption and repressive regime9.

Déby and his administration have been known for repressing individual rights and freedoms as

well as the Chadian forces committing serious human rights abuses. He was accused of election fraud

as well by his opponents. The economic prosperity he promised has dissipated and the revenue from

the oil industry is mostly used for weapons to combat rebel forces rather than support social and

economic programs and further development of the country. In 2006, the World Bank froze Chad's

bank accounts until the government reached a deal that 70% of revenues would be spent on programs

to reduce poverty in the country.10

Despite having an abundance of natural resources, Chad is still one of the poorest countries in

Africa with approximately 60% of the population living below the poverty line.11 The population

consists of two main groups; Muslim and non-Muslim. The present population is a mixture of at least

200 ethnic groups. The northern part of Chad consists of mainly those who follow the Islamic faith,

brought in by Arab invaders centuries ago. The south consists of non-Muslim indigenous people, most

notably the Sara which is about 30% of the population.

Chad has one of the lowest literacy rates in Africa with around 35% for those 15 and above and

average 1.51 years of schooling.12 Disease runs rampant in Chad, with HIV/AIDS and malaria being

the most prominent. The population's infant mortality rate is 89 (per 1000 live births) the under five

mortality rate is 150 (per 1000 under five children).13 Violence in neighbouring countries can easily

spread through Chad making it a potentially unstable country and political and ethnic violence are very

common where women and children are often targets. Poor leadership and corruption continue to

plague Chad and are the cause of many of the problems within the country.

Conflict

Civil War

Since Chad reached independence from France in 1960, leadership has switched between a

Muslim and non-Muslim presidency. Often, when one side was in power, the other side would start a

revolutionary war to challenge it. There have been four major civil wars since independence, with the

most recent beginning in 2005. Chadians most prolific rebel groups consisted of the United Front For

Democratic Change (FUC), United Forces for Development and Democracy (UFDD) the Gathering of

Forces for Change (RFC), the Union of Resistance Force (UFR) and the Janjaweed militia. Although

the last civil war officially came to an end in 2010, there are rebel groups who do not support President

7

Idriss Déby and will continue to fight against his administration.

Sudan

Sudan and Chad had maintained generally friendly relations until the Darfur crisis in 2003.

When attacks in Darfur began by the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality

Movement (JEM), Chadian forces were drawn into the crisis which created instability in eastern Chad.

Over the next few years, rebel attacks and ethnic clashes displaced thousands of Chadians who were

placed in Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) sites. Over 260,000 refugees from Sudan came over as

well and were places in refugee camps along the Sudan border, nearly 162,000 of them being

children.14 At the same time, the Sudanese government was trying to overthrow the Chadian president

using Chadian rebels as middle men. In 2008, the Chadian capital N'Djamena was attacked by multiple

Chadian armed opposition groups; hundreds of civilians were killed and over 50,000 fled to Cameroon.

Chad accused Sudan of supporting the attack and Sudan had accused Chad of supporting those in

Darfur. Throughout the Sudan-Chad Proxy War, the rebels from Sudan received help from the Chadian

government and the rebels from Chad received help from Sudan's government.

Children were used extensively throughout this war on both sides. During an attack on the

Sudanese capital of Khartoum in 2008, over 100 Chadian children were reported to be involved, eight

of them were sentenced to death for their actions, in which international human rights law prohibits the

death penalty for those under the age of 18.15 By 2010, both countries appeared to have given up on

their proxy conflict and eventually signed a peace agreement. Borders between the two had opened

after seven years and Chad had kicked out the Darfuri JEM rebels it previously supported which

dramatically improved the relationship between the two countries.

Mali

Early in 2013, Chad sent 2,000 troops to Mali to help drive out Islamist fighters in the region.

However, three months later President Déby pulled his troops out of the country saying that they did

not have the skills to fight a guerrilla-style war. Chad still has peacekeepers in Mali and there are

reports of Chadian soldiers being killed in late 2014.16

Central African Republic (CAR)

Recently, there has been a strong presence of Chadian troops in the CAR. As the country goes

through problems of conflict and instability, Chad has provided a large part of the 5,500-strong military

Mission of the African Union (MISCA) to help bring stability in CAR.17 Chad has been accused of

8

arming and even training Séléka rebels in CAR and the borders have been closed between the two

countries.18 There have been numerous casualties on both sides of the conflict and there will likely be

more until this is resolved.

France

France has approximately 1,200 troops located in Chad to protect French nationals, support the

government of President Idriss Déby and to provide logistical and intelligence support to Chadian

forces. It also has organized a separate peacekeeping force (EUFOR) that consisted of 3,700 people that

was deployed in 2007 to assist in Chadian-Sudanese relations.19 The EU force was accused of leaking

intelligence to Chadian troops in order to gain an advantage over rebel groups and there were concerns

Chad today and continue to grow with Operation Barkhane, which began in July 2014. It consists of a

3,000-strong French force as an anti-Islamist operation based in N'Djamena.21

Stakeholders

The Chadian National Army (ANT)

The ANT is the national army for Chad and has been characterized as oversized and

disorganized as well as suffering from poor discipline and weak command and control. The ANT

consists of the ground army (Armée de terre) and the air force (Armée de l'air). Other branches of

Chad's armed forces include the Gendarmerie Gendarmerieenationale and the National and Nomadic

Guard (Garde nationale et nomade du Tchad). There are no official figures on number of troops, but

estimates vary between 40,000 and 50,000. Members of the ANT are alleged to be responsible for

many human rights violations, including the recruitment and use of child soldiers.

During the civil war approximately 20% of child soldiers identified in Chad were associated

with the Chadian armed forces, while the other 80% were associated with armed rebel groups.22 The

compulsory recruiting age for military service in Chad is 20, while the voluntary recruitment age is 18,

which can be lower with parental consent.23 Since birth certifications and age verification is a huge

problem in Chad, many children slip through the cracks of the system and are recruited by the army.

The Chadian army claims they have no official policy for recruiting children but the amount of children

that are seen associated with the army show that recruitment is allowed and tolerated by officers.

Recruitment of children by the ANT was at its highest during 2005-2008. During the peak of the

Chad-Sudan proxy conflict, the ANT was reporting significant losses while fighting Chadian

opposition groups. Many adults and children, some as young as 12, were recruited as a quick way to

9

build up their troops.24 IDP sites in eastern Chad were the main recruitment camps for many armed

forces. IDP leaders said there were open recruitment drives at sites, recruits who were under the age of

18 were allegedly advised to lie about their age by army commanders.25 Some children involved with

the ANT have joined voluntarily, most due to the promise of being paid for their services and some

have been forcibly recruited. Extreme poverty and lack of opportunities in the country is a large

concern and joining the ANT provides an escape from that poverty with promise of payment for some

children. The UN reports there are payments of approximately 400,00 FCA Francs (US$800) as a

“recruitment fee” and some have even been offered motorcycles as payment. 26 There are also reported

cases of those who were recruited not receiving that payment though. The ANT had also started

integrating and recruiting those from rebel forces in 2006, specifically the FUC, which is known for

their blatant use of child soldiers. The ANT stated that it would not accept under-age FUC soldiers,

which would be a difficult task.

Documented incidents of recruitment of children by the ANT have declined significantly since

2009 due in part to UN involvement and pressure from other organizations. There seems to be

conflicting reports on the number of child soldiers recently. There are recent reports that child soldiers

are still being recruited as well as reports claiming no children are being recruited. The absence of

independent and reliable reporting on the ground lends to ambiguity to the current situation. Military

authorities identified 14 children among new ANT recruits in 2013, all of them were demobilized and

transferred to child protection actors.27 Only 10% of the total number of the ANT have been screened,

leaving the possibility that there are more children actively present in the Chadian army.28 The United

States Government initiated the Child Soldier Prevention Act (CSPA) in 2008, which lists countries

using child soldiers in their armies. Chad was listed under the CSPA in 2010, 2012 and 2013. However,

the UN and Government of Chad screening mission in 2013 found no children in its national army,

resulting in Chad not being listed on the 2014 CSPA list.29

The government has been quite cooperative in preventing the recruitment of child soldiers,

specifically with the action plan signed by the Government of Chad in 2011. However, due to the weak

command and poor discipline, recruitment can take place outside of official processes and contrary to

laws and policies in relation to minimum age.30 An important issue to note is that a government official

has said that many children seen in military bases are not child soldiers, just sons of adult recruits.

However, that same official went on to say: “If children want to join voluntarily, there is little we can

do, even though the president himself is against such a thing”.31

10

Armed Opposition Forces

Armed opposition groups have always been a problem in Chad. Although, since the continuing

integration of many of the rebel groups into the ANT, the threat has diminished extensively. If conflict

erupted again, new rebel groups would most likely be established and the recruitment of child soldiers

would resume. The most recent threats in the past decade have included the FUC, UFDD, RFC, UFR,

JEM and the Janjaweed, most of which have integrated with the ANT or have been dismantled. As long

as Idriss Déby remains president, these opposition groups will remain relatively intact. During the civil

war, the FUC was most notorious for recruiting and using child soldiers in their ranks. More than 25%

of FUC fighters were between the ages of 12 and 18, some as young as 8 years old were recruited as

well.32

Sudanese armed groups like the JEM and SLA were also main culprits in the recruitment of

child soldiers. In 2007, the UN reported that more than 1,000 children had been recruited by the SLA in

refugee camps in eastern Chad.33 Following the normalization of the relations between Sudan and Chad

in 2010, the Sudanese armed groups became less visible in Chad. The issues in Darfur remain a

concern and Sudanese groups are still fighting today. In 2010, the JEM signed a Memorandum of

Understanding with UN regarding protection of children in Darfur. The JEM agreed to prevent and end

the recruitment and use of children, to release those currently involved and investigate allegations and

ensure accountability.34

United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad (MINURCAT)

In 2007, MINURCAT, a peacekeeping mission was established to provide a strong presence of

police and military personnel in Chad due to the high number of refugees from Darfur. Their mandate

was to protect civilians, facilitate delivery of humanitarian aid and ensure the safety of UN personnel.

Included in this mission were efforts to put an end to recruitment and use of children by armed

groups.35 During it's short presence, MINURCAT managed to slowly improve local security and

increase feelings of safety in Chadian citizens.

In 2010, the Chadian government informed the UN Security Council that they wanted

MINURCAT to withdraw from Chad due to the UN Force's slow deployment, uncertain impact and the

general change in the context that had originally justified an international military presence.36 The

government of Chad said it would assume responsibility for the protection of civilians on its territory,

including refugees and IDPs.37 Following its withdrawal, the UN Integrated Peacebuilding Office in the

Central African Republic (BINUCA) remained in the country to continue work with the Chadian

11

people as well as programs like the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).

The Current Situation

Currently, Chad is in a state of relative stability and the future looks optimistic. With the recent

deployment of Chadian troops in support missions in Mali and the CAR in 2013, Chadian authorities

renewed their commitment to work together with the UN in the implementation of the action plan

signed in 2011 which included the DDR program. Within the government, several child protection units

have been established to monitor and protect children's rights and to also implement awareness-raising

activities. Between August and October of 2013, the Chad government and the UN jointly conducted

screening and age verification of approximately 3,800 troops of the ANT.38 Leaders of the ANT have

received training on child protection and humanitarian law and the proper education is being integrated

into the curriculum of the police and gendarmerie as well as the senior military school in N'Djamena.

Once the children are identified they are released to child protection actors like UNICEF and the

Ministry of Social Affairs. The reintegration process is still largely a work in progress, with many

children simply sent home and not provided the care and support they need. There are many children

who do not have a home or family to return to either.

In October 2013, a presidential directive was created to confirm that the minimum age for

recruitment was 18 years old. This directive includes age verification procedures and those that violate

those orders would receive “penal and disciplinary sanctions” and in February 2014, the recruitment

and use of children was explicitly criminalized.39 With the adoption of the Law on the Organization of

the Civil Registry in May 2013, there has been over 100,000 late birth registrations and they are

currently developing further strategies to improve their civil registration capacity. The UN Security

Council has reported there have been no new documented cases of recruitment of children in 2013

during screening. Interviews with ANT troops however have confirmed that soldiers in the ANT were

integrated while still under the age of 18.40 Due to their significant progress to address the issue of child

recruitment, Chad has been removed from the UN Secretary-General's annual report, where it had been

listed for five consecutive years.41

While the security situation in Chad remains calm, conflicts in neighbouring countries continue

to affect children in Chad. With the crisis in the CAR, approximately 80,000 refugees have poured in

across the border into Chad. There have been allegations by the UN that there has been cross-border

recruitment of Chadian children by the Séléka.42 As neighbouring country insecurity continues, more

12

refugees move to Chad to escape, including the already massive amount that came from Darfur. The

children in these groups are vulnerable to recruitment and it is important to maintain security at these

refugee camps and IDP sites.

Child Soldiers

Although the recruitment of child soldiers is decreasing significantly in Chad, it is important to

understand the factors of why children are recruited in order to prevent it from happening in the future.

Teenage boys in refugee camps and IDP sites are the most susceptible to recruitment as they have

finished school and find themselves looking for any occupation. Extreme poverty is a major factor

compelling children to join the army, as is the lack of direct family connection and support common to

displaced and refugee children. As one of the most impoverished countries in the world, Chad has

a lack of educational and work opportunities leaving children to feel that the only prospect open to

them is the armed forces. Refugees who have money send their children to continue their studies, it is

the poor that are recruited. Educational opportunities are limited in Chad. Under Chadian law, both

primary and secondary education are to be free of charge, however there are few schools and an

insufficient number of teachers. According to the World Bank, 8,000 teachers were not receiving any

financial assistance from the government.43 Insufficient funding is the main reason for poor educational

opportunities for children and lack of opportunities leads to no prospects but the army.

Culture also plays a huge role in the recruitment of child soldiers. Families often encourage

their children to join the armed forces and groups to protect their communities in the absence of

government protection. This was a large contributing factor during the Chad-Sudan Proxy War as there

were many rebel groups fighting against the government and people got caught between the conflicts.

In Chad, a boy aged between 13 and 18 is considered an adult and members of the community do not

understand the concerns that those under 18 are too young to join the armed forces.44

Case Study

SOULEIMAN, 16

“I left Guéréda in 2008, on 12 January... People close to the authorities were pillaging other people’s goods. Some of our family were killed by the Zaghawa, and I wanted to take revenge on behalf of my family. I had talked about this with my friends, and we all decided to leave the village and join the rebellion. Five of us left, all close neighbours and brothers. One was younger than me. We did not talk about it with our parents; we made the decision on our own...“I stayed with the UFDR for a month. Then I joined the MNR because I had family

13

members with them. I stayed with the MNR for 14 months. I was an ordinary soldier. I had a Kalashnikov and was trained to use it. Some fighters were older and others younger than me... At the end, the MNR joined the Chadian government.”45

The number of girls recruited or used by armed forces in Chad is low. Generally, cultural and

religious beliefs have shielded girls from taking part directly in hostilities. Local interpretations of

Islam believe that women are considered “impure” during their monthly menstruation and this a time

when men should not approach them.46 This is one of the main reasons why girls are not often

recruited.

Trafficking

Chad has been known to have issues with children being subjected to forced labour and

trafficking. Trafficking is primarily internal and frequently involves family members entrusting their

children to others in return for promises of education, goods or money.47 Families have also been

known to sell their children as a means of survival as they are seeking to reduce the number of family

members they need to feed. Child trafficking victims are usually subjected to forced labour as herders,

beggars, domestic servants or agricultural labourers.48 Girls are more primarily subjected to domestic

work and sexual exploitation. Some girls are forced to marry against their will and forced by their

husbands to do domestic work and are often sexually abused.49

Case Study

SAMSON, 10

“Samson was sold by his black African parents in southern Chad to Arab herdsman for the price of a calf. The 10-year-old had to take his master's animals out to graze in the evening and watch them throughout the night. He would return to the cattle pen as the sun rose and then collapse, exhausted, on the ground. Away from his parents and his playmates, life was tough for Samson. He was forced to abandon his native Sara language and Christian religion in order to learn Arabic and practice Islam.

By night he ran the risk of being bitten by a snake or attacked by wild animals that roam the Savannah woodland of southern Chad and by day his stomach rumbled painfully because he was not being fed properly."Sometimes they'd just give us millet and curds to eat with no sauce," he told IRIN. But Samson was one of the lucky so-called "child cattle herders". He was rescued by a local church and his ordeal as a slave came to an end after just four months.”50

14

National and International Law: Child Protection

International Law

Chad is a party to many of the major international human rights laws and instruments. This

includes the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and its Optional Protocol on the

involvement of children in armed conflict. Also included is the African Charter on the Rights and

Welfare of the Child and the International Labour Organizations Convention 182, also known as the

Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention. Chad also recognizes the Rome Statute of the International

Criminal Court and has signed and ratified the Kampala Convention.

Chad is also bound by a variety of international humanitarian law relevant to the protection of

children in armed conflict which includes the Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the protection of

Civilian Persons in Time of War; Article 3, common to all Four of the Geneva Conventions; and the

two Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions. The UN Security Council has adopted numerous

resolutions on the protection and security of children affect by armed conflict. Chad is obliged to

respect and implement Resolutions 1261, 1314, 1460, 1612 and 1882. Chad has also participated in

numerous conferences and has endorsed the Paris Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated

with Armed Forces or Armed Groups and the Paris Commitments to protect children from unlawful

recruitment or use by armed force or armed groups.51

National law

The 2006 Law on the Reorganization of Armed and Security Forces set the minimum age for

enrolment into the national army at 18 and the minimum age for conscription at 20.52 A presidential

Directive was also adopted in 2013 to confirm 18 as the minimum age for recruitment as well as a

Presidential Decree that was adopted in 2014 to criminalize child recruitment and use.53 The adoption

of the Action Plan in 2011 represents the largest commitment by the Chadian government.

Historical Timeline

1990 - December - Habré toppled by former ally, Idriss Déby.

1993 - January - National democracy conference sets up a transitional government with Déby as interim president and calls for free elections within a year.

1994 - May - International Court of Justice rejects Libyan claims on Aouzou and rules that Chad had sovereignty over the strip.

15

1996 - March - Déby wins Chad's first multiparty presidential election.

1997 - January - Déby's Patriotic Salvation Movement triumphs on legislative elections.

1998 – October - The Movement for Democracy and Justice in Chad, led by Déby's former Defence Minister, Youssouf Togoimi, begins armed rebellion against the government.

2001 - March - Senegalese court rules that upholds ruling that former Chadian President Habré should not be made to stand trial in Senegal, where he is in exile. It decided that Senegal's courts do not have the jurisdiction to try Habré on torture charges during his eight years in power in Chad.

2001 - May - Déby declared winner in controversial presidential poll.

2002 - January - Government and Movement for Democracy and Justice in Chad (MDJT) rebels sign Libyan-brokered peace deal intended to end three-year civil war.

May - MDJT rebels and government forces clash in the far north; 64 are killed in the first outbreak of fighting since January's peace accord.

2003 - January - Government signs peace deal with National Resistance Army (ANR) rebels, active in the east.

December - MDJT, government sign another peace accord. MDJT hardliners reject deal.

2004 - January - Thousands of Sudanese refugees arrive in Chad to escape fighting in Darfur region of western Sudan.

April - Chadian troops clash with pro-Sudanese government militias as fighting in Sudan's Darfur region spills over the border.

2005 - June - Voters back constitutional changes which allow the president to stand for a third term in 2006.

November - Former president, Hissène Habré, is arrested in Senegal over allegations of crimes against humanity.

December - Rebels attack the town of Adre, near the Sudanese border. Chad accuses Sudan of being behind the incident.

2006 - January - President Déby backs a law to reduce the amount of oil money spent on development. The move angers the World Bank, which suspends loans and orders the account used to collect oil revenues to be frozen.

January - Thousands of refugees flee eastern areas as marauding Arab Janjaweed militia from Sudan's Darfur region penetrate deeper into Chad.

March - Government says an attempted military coup has been thwarted.

April - Rebels seeking to oust President Déby battle government forces on the outskirts of the capital. Hundreds of people are killed. Chad cuts diplomatic ties with Sudan, accusing it of backing the rebels.

May - President Déby is declared the winner of presidential elections. The main opposition parties boycott the poll.

November - State of emergency imposed in eastern areas bordering Sudan's Darfur region after a spate of ethnic violence.

16

December - Private newspapers stop publishing and several radio stations alter their programming to protest against state censorship under the state of emergency.

2007 - February - UN refugee agency warns that violence against civilians in Chad could turn into a genocide.

May - Chad and Sudan agree to stop conflict spilling across their borders but critics fear the agreement is unlikely to reduce the violence.

August - Government, opposition agree to delay parliamentary elections by two years to 2009.

S eptember - UN Security Council authorizes a UN-European Union peacekeeping force to protect civilians from violence spilling over from Darfur in neighbouring Sudan.

October - Emergency declared along eastern border and in the desert north.

December - Six French aid workers are convicted of child-trafficking and sentenced to eight years' hard labour, but are then repatriated to serve their sentences at home.

2008 - January - European Union approves a peacekeeping force for Chad to protect refugees from violence in Darfur.

February - Rebel offensive reaches the streets of N'Djamena, coming close to the presidential palace; France sends extra troops.

- French forces helped defend the capital against a rebel attack in 2008, and to evacuate foreigners

- Rebels are repulsed in fighting that leaves more than 100 dead.

March - The presidents of Chad and Sudan sign an accord in Senegal aimed at halting five years of hostilities between the two countries.

May - Violence between Chadian and Sudanese militias flares up, leading to Sudan cutting diplomatic relations and Chad responding by closing its border and cutting economic ties.

July - Security forces say they killed more than 70 followers of Muslim spiritual leader Ahmat Israel Bichara, who had threatened to launch a holy war, in fighting in southeast Chad.

2009 - January - Eight rebel groups unite to form new rebel alliance, the Union of Resistance Forces (UFR), with Rally of Democratic Forces leader Timan Erdimi as its leader.

March - European Union peacekeepers in eastern Chad hand over to a new, larger UN force known as Minurcat.

May - UN Security Council condemns a major anti-government rebel offensive in the east.

November - UN accuses Sudan of supporting URF rebels in Chad with arms and ammunition.

2010 - February - President Déby and his Sudanese counterpart, Omar al-Bashir, hold talks in Sudanese capital Khartoum, in their first meeting for six years; President al-Bashir says his country is ready for full normalization of ties.

- Chad and Sudan agree to deploy joint force to monitor situation along their shared border.

- Hissène Habré stands accused of killing and torturing tens of thousands of supposed opponents

March - Chad agrees to let UN peacekeeping force (Minurcat) to stay on for two months

17

beyond the end of its mandate in mid-March, despite repeated criticism of its performance.

April - Chad-Sudan border reopens seven years after Darfur conflict forced its closure.

May - UN Security Council votes to withdraw Minurcat peacekeeping force from Chad and Central African Republic, deployed to protect displaced Chadians and refugees from Sudan's Darfur.

June - Voter registration closes ahead of parliamentary polls in November and presidential elections in April 2011.

July - Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir travels to Chad to attend a meeting of regional leaders - defying two warrants for his arrest issued by the International Criminal Court.

October - Main political parties agree new timetable for postponed presidential and parliamentary polls.

- Experts meet to discuss how to protect Lake Chad, which has shrunk dramatically over past 50 years.

2011 - January - Chad marks 50 years of independence from France.

- Chadian troops help France drive al-Qaeda allies out of northern Mali.

February - Parliamentary elections.

April - Presidential election, boycotted by opposition. President Idriss Déby is declared winner.

July - Following a UN appeal, Senegal suspends the planned repatriation of former President Hissène Habré to his homeland, where he has been sentenced to death for crimes against humanity while president from 1982-1990.

2012 - April - President Déby calls on countries neighbouring northern Nigeria to set up a joint military force to tackle Boko Haram militants. He warns the Islamists could destabilize the whole Lake Chad basin area.

August - Senegal, African Union agree to set up special tribunal to try Chad's former leader Hissène Habré.

September - Leader of rebel group FPR, Abdel Kader Baba Ladde, surrenders.

2013 - January- Chadian troops help France drive al-Qaeda allies out of northern Mali.

April - Chad agrees to send more troops to the Central African Republic to help stabilize it after a recent coup. Chadian forces have been present in the east of the country for months.

May - Several people including an opposition MP and army officers are arrested in an alleged coup plot.

July - Former leader Hissène Habré is arrested in Senegal. Investigators seek to put him on trial for crimes against humanity. Mr Habré went to Senegal after being ousted in 1990. Rights groups say 40,000 people were killed under his rule.

October - London-based rights group Amnesty International accuses President Déby's government of killing and illegally detaining critics.54

2014 – March – Over 76,000 people displaced from CAR into Chad.55

18

April – Chad pulls out all troops from CAR.56

August – Chadian troops rescue 85 Nigerian hostages from Boko Haram.57

September - Déby's government started mediating negotiations between Nigeria and Boko Haram, aimed at securing the release of 200 schoolgirls seized in April in the Nigerian town of Chibok.58

1UN Security Council. (2014). Children and armed conflict: Report of the secretary-general. Retrieved from http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/s_2014_339.pdf

2 Ibid.

3UN Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict. (n.d.). The six grave violations. Retrieved from https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/effects-of-conflict/six-grave-violations/

4UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), The Paris Principles. Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated With Armed Forces or Armed Groups, February 2007, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/465198442.html [accessed 29 October 2014].

5United Nations. (1989). Convention of the rights of the child. Human Rights Branch Department of Canadian Heritage.

6UNICEF. (2007). The Paris principles: Principles and guidelines on children associated with armed forces or armed groups. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/ParisPrinciples310107English.pdf

7International Committee of the Red Cross. (2013). Children associated with armed forces or armed groups. Retrieved from https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/publications/icrc-002-0824.pdf

8UNICEF. (2014). Increasing birth registration through innovative technologies. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.ca/en/press-release/unicef-welcomes-new-canadian-support-to-ensure-world%E2%80%99s-most-vulnerable-children-offici

9 Jones, D. (2013). Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/104144/Chad [accessed 22, October 2014].

1 0 Ibid.

1 1 Child Soldiers International. Better than Cure: Preventing the recruitment and use of children in the Chadian national army, April 2010. Available at: http://www.child-soldiers.org/research_report_reader.php?id=84 [accessed 8, October 2014].

1 2 United Nations Development Program (2014). Human development report. Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/TCD [accessed 29, October 2014].

1 3 Ibid.

1 4 Amnesty International. A compromised future: Children recruited by armed forces and groups in eastern Chad, February 2011, AFR 20/001/2011. Available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4d538dd72.html [accessed 8, October 2014].

1 5 Ibid.

1 6 Nako, M. (2014). Chad accuses U.N. Of neglecting its peacekeepers in Mali. Reuters US. Available at: http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/20/us-mali-chad-un-idUSKBN0HE2ES20140920 [accessed 5, November 2014].

1 7 Duckstein, S. (2014). Chad's role behind the scenes in the Central African Republic. Deutsche Welle. Available at: http://www.dw.de/chads-role-behind-the-scenes-in-the-central-african-republic/a-17426113 [accessed 30, October 2014].

1 8 Bavier, J. (2014). Chad closes border with Central African Republic. Reuters US. Available at: http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/12/us-centralafrica-chad-idUSBREA4B0M320140512 [accessed 30, October 2014]

1 9 Hansen, A. (2008). The French military in Africa. Council on Foreign Relations. Available at: http://www.cfr.org/france/french-military-africa/p12578#p1 [accessed 29, October 2014].

2 1 Hicks, C. (2014). Operation Barkhane: Why France chose Chad as a key counter-terrorism partner. African Arguments. Available at: http://africanarguments.org/2014/09/03/operation-barkhane-why-france-chose-chad-as-key-counter-terrorism-partner-by-celeste-hicks/ [accessed 29, October 2014].

2 2 Amnesty International. A compromised future: Children recruited by armed forces and groups in eastern Chad, February 2011, AFR 20/001/2011. Available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4d538dd72.html [accessed 8, October 2014].

2 3 Child Soldiers International. Chad. Child Soldiers Global Report (2008). Available at: www. child - soldiers .org/user_uploads/pdf/chad2185181.pdf [accessed 3, November 2014].

2 4 Child Soldiers International. Better than Cure: Preventing the recruitment and use of children in the Chadian national army, April 2010. Available at: http://www.child-soldiers.org/research_report_reader.php?id=84 [accessed 8, October 2014].

2 5 Amnesty International. A compromised future: Children recruited by armed forces and groups in eastern Chad, February 2011, AFR 20/001/2011. Available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4d538dd72.html [accessed 8, October 2014].

2 6 Ibid.

2 7 Child Soldiers International. Chad: Briefing on the status of implementation of the June 2011 Action Plan on children associated with armed forces and groups and its 10-Point Roadmap, March 2014. Available at: http://www.child-soldiers.org/research_report_reader.php?id=748 [accessed 3, November 2014].

2 8 Child Soldiers International. Chad: Too early to claim victory – More needs to be done to eradicate child recruitment, March 2014. Available at: http://www.child-soldiers.org/news_reader.php?id=750 [accessed 3, November 2014].

2 9 Kozak, M. (2014). Africa: Child Soldier Prevention Act – Working to End Child Recruitment. AllAfrica. Available at: http://allafrica.com/stories/201410070158.html [accessed 6, November 2014].

3 0 Child Soldiers International. Better than Cure: Preventing the recruitment and use of children in the Chadian national army, April 2010. Available at: http://www.child-soldiers.org/research_report_reader.php?id=84 [accessed 8, October 2014].

3 1 Ibid.

3 2 Amnesty International. A compromised future: Children recruited by armed forces and groups in eastern Chad, February 2011, AFR 20/001/2011. Available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4d538dd72.html [accessed 8, October 2014].

3 3 Child Soldiers International. Chad. Child Soldiers Global Report (2008). Available at: www. child - soldiers .org/user_uploads/pdf/chad2185181.pdf [accessed 3, November 2014].

3 4 Amnesty International. A compromised future: Children recruited by armed forces and groups in eastern Chad, February 2011, AFR 20/001/2011. Available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4d538dd72.html [accessed 8, October 2014].

3 5 UN Security Council. Resolution 1778. S/RES/1778 (2007). Available at: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1778%282007%29 [accessed 10, November 2014].

3 6 Núñez Villaverde, J. (2010). MINURCAT: Achievements, disappointments and a fragile future. Institute of Studies on Conflicts and Humanitarian Action. Available at: http://www.iecah.org/web/images/stories/articulos/descargas/MINURCAT_report.pdf [accessed 10, November 2014].

3 7 Amnesty International. A compromised future: Children recruited by armed forces and groups in eastern Chad, February 2011, AFR 20/001/2011. Available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4d538dd72.html [accessed 8, October 2014].

3 8 UN General Assembly Security Council. Children and armed conflict : report of the Secretary-General, May 2014, S/2014/708. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2014/708 [accessed 5, November 2014].

3 9 Ibid.

4 0 Ibid.

4 1 Child Soldiers International. (2014). Efforts to put a definitive end to child recruitment in Chad should continue [Press release]. Available at: http://www.child-soldiers.org/news_reader.php?id=769 [accessed 11, November 2014].

4 2 UN General Assembly Security Council. Children and armed conflict : report of the Secretary-General, May 2014, S/2014/708. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2014/708 [accessed 5, November 2014].

4 3 Amnesty International. A compromised future: Children recruited by armed forces and groups in eastern Chad, February 2011, AFR 20/001/2011. Available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4d538dd72.html [accessed 8, October 2014].

4 4 Ibid.

4 5 Ibid.

4 6 Ibid.

4 7 International Organization for Migration. Chad human trafficking challenge: IOM report. (2014). Available at: http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/news-and-views/press-briefing-notes/pbn-2014/pbn-listing/chad-human-trafficking-challenge.html [accessed 11, November 2014].

4 8 United States Department of State, 2012 Trafficking in Persons Report - Chad, June 2012, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4fe30cd83c.html [accessed 11 November 2014].

4 9 International Organization for Migration. Chad human trafficking challenge: IOM report. (2014). Available at: http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/news-and-views/press-briefing-notes/pbn-2014/pbn-listing/chad-human-trafficking-challenge.html [accessed 11, November 2014].

5 0 IRIN. “Chad: Children sold into slavery for the price of a calf.” December 21, 2004. Available at: http://www.irinnews.org/report/52490/chad-children-sold-into-slavery-for-the-price-of-a-calf [accessed 11, November 2014].

5 1 Amnesty International. A compromised future: Children recruited by armed forces and groups in eastern Chad, February 2011, AFR 20/001/2011. Available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4d538dd72.html [accessed 8, October 2014].

5 2 Child Soldiers International. Better than Cure: Preventing the recruitment and use of children in the Chadian national army, April 2010. Available at: http://www.child-soldiers.org/research_report_reader.php?id=84 [accessed 8, October 2014].

5 3 Child Soldiers International. Chad: Briefing on the status of implementation of the June 2011 Action Plan on

children associated with armed forces and groups and its 10-Point Roadmap, March 2014. Available at: http://www.child-soldiers.org/research_report_reader.php?id=748 [accessed 3, November 2014].

5 4 BBC News Africa. (2014). Chad Profile. Available at: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13164690 [accessed 13, November 2014].

5 5 United Nations Children's Fund, Over 76,000 people displaced from Central African Republic into Chad facing crisis. 4 March, 2014, available at: http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/media_72757.html [accessed 13, November 2014].

56 Agence France-Presse. (2014). Chad pulls out all troops from Central Africa. Reliefweb. Available at: http://reliefweb.int/report/central-african-republic/chad-pulls-out-all-troops-central-africa [accessed 13,

November 2014].

57 Abubakar, A. “Chad troops rescue 85 Nigerian hostages from Boko Haram.” CNN. August 17, 2014. Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/16/world/africa/boko-haram-hostages-rescued/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 [accessed

13, November 2014].

58 Farge, E. (2014). Chad's Deby plays for high stakes in Boko Haram talks. Reuters US. Available at: http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/11/03/us-nigeria-violence-chad-insight-idUSKBN0IN1MG20141103

[accessed 13, November 2014].