Journalism 614:The History of Public Opinion

The History of Public Opinion

Must understand history to understand the current ideas about public opinion and possible directions for future inquiry

Three kinds of history – Intellectual, theoretical debates over what

constitutes public opinion– Sociocultural tracing of how opinions have

been expressed and assessed– Communication developments linking opinion

of key events and occurrences

1. Philosophical Debates

Pre-enlightenment philosophy:– Then, educate public so opinion is in line with

the spirit of a fixed, sovereign law

Contemporary approach:– Now, modify the law so that it is in line with

the spirit of sovereign general will

Plato & Aristotle - 4th Century BC

Plato distrusted the masses– Unsure if citizens can understand their own

interests and strive toward a sound state– Argued for educated philosopher kings

Aristotle believed in “power of community”– Defended the wisdom of the citizen– Institutions should take “climate of opinion,”

values, norms, and taste — into account

Machiavelli - 16th Century

Focused on the strategic use of power by political leaders; how to outmaneuver

Recognized that public opinion has political force that leaders must contend with

Even in the most peaceful society, there are conflicting values between rulers and ruled

Contract Theorists - 17th Century

Hobbes– Public is crucial to the formation of the state

– Structure of the state created by a “contract” between the public and its leadership

– Little need to for ongoing participation

Locke– Argued for genuine and regular participation in civic

and political life by citizens

– Public opinion is an expression of democratic rights

French Enlightenment - 18th Century

Rousseau– Need to place power in the hands of the public– Recognize the need to respect the community– The state is based on the general will

• What citizens believe is the best course of action for the community, for the welfare of the populace

– Citizen think about their interests and needs but also reason about the general good of society

The Utilitarians - 19th Century

Bentham– Public opinion as a sanction – A force that keeps society at equilibrium– Discourages non-normative behaviors

• Say within an acceptable latitude

Mills– Emphasized the importance of majority opinion– Greatest good for the greatest number

Political Theorists - 19th Century

Tocqueville– Public opinion as a force of social control

• Hints at the “spiral of silence”

– Recognized the relationship between political equality and importance of public opinion

• In systems of inequality, mass opinion is unimportant; focus on political stakeholders

• In systems of equality, individuals view themselves as capable and mass opinion is important

Political Theorists - 19th Century

Marx– The corruption of democracy by capitalism

• Freedom as consumer choice not individual rights

– Common citizens tend to mimic the opinions of the ruling class - people with wealth and power

• Media and elite opinion leads public opinion• Often hold opinions in contrast with self-interest• Hegemony - control of mass consciousness

20th Century Theorists

Bryce– Traced the role of news organs in the

communication of public opinion– Mass media hold a place among other major

social institutions - courts, legislature– News media direct and reflect public opinion

• Central role for media in political process

– Recognized the importance of conversation

20th Century Theorists

Tarde– The press shapes conversation, which in turn

shapes opinion and action

Media —> Conversation —> Opinion —>Action

– Lippmann and Dewey pick up this debate

2. Sociocultural History

Trends in expression and measurement

– An increasing emphasis on order and routinization

– Movement toward private and anonymous expression

– Shift from local to national to international

Pre-19th Century Techniques

Less systematic, more public, and local– Opinion is communicated through rhetoric

• The art of public speaking and persuasion - 5th C. BC

• Oratory, the expression of ideas and values• Rhetoric conveyed in unmediated, public forums

– Opinion is communicated in printed word• Printing press enables formation of publics - 16th C.

• Large number of dispersed people can communicate• People can ally with causes, ideas, and institutions• Permitted political mobilization of groups

Coffeehouses and Salons - 17th C.

Locations of political discussion– Spend hours discussing the news of the day– Coffeehouse: a public space

• Lawyers, journalists, tradesmen, workers• Diversity of perspectives encourage debate• Democratic view of public opinion

– Salons: exclusive and bourgeois• Intellectuals, statesmen, artists• Visited by Kings to gauge public sentiment• Elitist view of public opinion

Petitions and Rallies - 17th/18th C.

Signed declaration of public sentiment– Focus political attention on certain issues– Often angrily presented to leadership

• Slow shift toward social and institutional control

Public demonstration of opinion– Rallies, rioting and other public demonstrations

• Strikes, marches, public speeches

• LA Riots and other “popular disturbances”

Elections and Polling - 19th/20th C.

Elections– Secret ballot contrasts with the traditionally

public and attributed nature of mass opinion

Straw polling– Nonscientific, non-representative polls– Still done today with “call in” and “e-polls”– Literary Digest Fiasco, 1936

Representative Surveys - 20th C.

George Gallup and Ralph Nafziger– Pioneers in public opinion survey methods– Sampling theory, random sample, response rate– The dominant means of assessing mass opinion

Sum of individual opinions– Misses the notion of opinion elites– Misses the questions of “power” & “influence”

3. Communication and Opinion

Modern public relations developed in U.S. Result of political and markets freedoms

– Need to manage public opinion to thrive

Old concept - dating back to notion of propaganda devised by Catholic Church– Tool to propagate the religion

Has become a vital way for business leaders to deal with economic factors, competitive environment, and policy pressures.

History of Public Relations in US

Hyping the Colonies– Many settlers came to US in response to exaggerated

publicity claims to “secure money and men”

– Use poems, sermons, broadsides, and pamphlets

Fostering a Revolution– Tools of political public relations used to support

American revolt - 1763 - 1776

– Use of symbols, slogans, staged events, news framing

– Same tools critical to ratification of Constitution

Press Agents & the 19th Century

Press agents, promotion, and ads support railroad efforts to sell land and lure settlers to the West

Taken to a new level by P.T. Barnum Circus By end of the 19th Century, advertising is

pervasive in all aspects of commerce– An outgrowth of industrialization– J. Walter Thompson founded in 1864– Focus on name recognition and liking– First PR firm in 1900 - Publicity Bureau

Ads and PR in Early 20th Cent.

Beginning with WWI, Wilson uses “information ministry to build public support– Shift from defensive - reputation protection - to

offensive to build patriotic fervor

Rise of experts in advertising, marketing, public relations, and fundraising for post-war boom

Bernays pens “Crystallizing Public Opinion”– Defines PR as “two-way street”

– Must interpret the public for the institution and present the institution to the public

The Modern Age WWII and the action agencies

– Need publicity to win cooperation and acceptance– 100,000 people served in information posts (PR)

Birth of the scientific public opinion poll– Roper, Gallup, Nafziger develop systems: 1932 -1945– Key tool for public relations specialists

Rise of television, globalization, and Internet– Information overload with marketing messages– Mergers of PR and advertising agencies for integration