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Billiards (Snooker)
I. Historical Background
The History of billiards is long and very rich. The game has been played by kings
and commoners, presidents, mental patients, ladies, gentlemen, and hustlersalike. It evolved from a lawn game similar to the croquet played some-timeduring the 15th century in Northern Europe and probably in France. Play movedindoors to a wooden table with green cloth to simulate grass, and a simpleborder was placed around the edges. The balls were shoved, rather than struck,with wooden sticks called "maces." The term "billiard" is derived from French,either from the word "billart", one of the wooden sticks, or "bille", a ball.
Most of our information about early billiards comes from accounts of playing byroyalty and other nobles. It has been know as the "Noble Game of Billiards" sincethe early 1800s but there is evidence that people from all walks of life playedthe game since its inception. In 1600, the game was familiar enough to thepublic that Shakespeare mentioned it in Antony and Cleopatra. Seventy-fiveyears later, the first book of billiards rules remarked of England that there werefew "few Tones of note therein which hath not a publick Billiard-Table."
The cue stick was developed in the late 1600s. When the balllay near a rail, themace was very inconvenient to use because of its large head. In such a case, theplayers would turn the mace around and use its handle to strike the ball. The
handle was called a "queue" meaning "tail" from which we get the word "cue."For a long time only men were allowed to use the cue; women were forced to
use the mace because it was felt they were more likely to rip the cloth with theshaper cue.
Tables originally had flat walls for rails and their only function was to keep theballs from falling off. They resembled river banks and even used to be called"banks". Players discovered that balls could bounce off the rails and begandeliberately aiming at them. Thus a "bank shot" is one in which a ball is made torebound from a cushion as part of the shot.
Billiard equipment improved rapidly in England after 1800, largely because of theIndustrial Revolution. Chalk was used to increase friction between the ball and
the cue stick even before cues had tips. The leather cue tip, with which a playercan apply side-spin to the ball, was perfected by 1823. Visitors from Englandshowed Americans how use spin, which explains why it is called "English" in theUnited States but nowhere else. (The British themselves refer to it as "side".)The two-piece cue arrived in 1829. Slate became popular as a material for tablebeds around 1835. Goodyear discovered vulcanization of rubber in 1839 and by1845 it was used to make billiard cushions. A two-to-one ratio of length to width
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became standard in the 18th century. Before then, there were no fixed tabledimensions. By 1850, the billiard table had essentially evolved into its currentform.
The dominant billiard game in Britain from about 1770 until the 1920s was
English Billiards, played with three balls and six pockets on a large rectangulartable. The British billiard tradition is carried on today primarily through the gameof snooker, a complex and colorful game combining offensive and defensiveaspects and played on the same equipment as English Billiards but with 22 ballsinstead of three. The British appetite for snooker is approached only by the
American passion for baseball; it is possible to see a snooker competition everyday in Britain.
The dominant American billiard game until the 1870s was American Four-BallBilliards, usually played on a large (11 or 12-foot), four-pocket table with fourballs - two white and two red. It was a direct extension English Billiards. Pointswere scored by pocketing balls, scratching the cue ball, or by making caroms ontwo or three balls. A "carom" is the act of hitting two object balls with the cueball in one stroke. With many balls, there were many different ways of scoringand it was possible to make up to 13 pints on a single shot. American Four-Ballproduced two offspring, both of which surpassed it in popularity by the 1870s.One, simple caroms played with three balls on a pocketless table, is somethingknown as "Straight rail", the forerunner of all carom games. The other populargame was American Fifteen-Ball Pool, the predecessor of modern pocketbilliards.
The word "pool" means a collective bet, or ante. Many non-billiard games, suchas poker, involve a pool but it was to pocket billiards that the name becameattached. The term "poolroom" now means a place where pool is played, but inthe 19th century a poolroom was a betting parlor for horse racing. Pool tableswere installed so patrons could pass time between races. The two becameconnected in the public mind, but the unsavory connotation of "poolroom" camefrom the betting that took place there, not from billiards.
Fifteen-Ball Pool was played with 15 object balls, numbered 1 through 15. Forsinking a ball, the player received a number of points equal to the value of theball. The sum of the ball values in a rack is 120, so the first player who received
more than half the total, or 61, was the winner. This game, also called "61-Pool"was used in the first American championship pool tournament held in 1878 andwon by Cyrille Dion, a Canadian. In 1888, it was thought more fair to count thenumber of balls pocketed by a player and not their numerical value. Thus,Continuous Pool replaced Fifteen-Ball Pool as the championship game. Theplayer who sank the last ball of a rack would break the next rack and his pointtotal would be kept "continuously" from one rack to the next.
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Cue sports(sometimes written cuesports), also known as billiard sports,[1][2]
are a wide variety
ofgames of skillgenerally played with acue stickwhich is used to strikebilliard balls, moving
them around acloth-coveredbilliards tablebounded by rubbercushions.
Equipment[edit]Main category:Cue sports equipment
Billiard balls[edit]Main article:Billiard ball
Cue ballsfrom (left to right):
Russian poolandkaisa68 mm (2 1116in)
Carom61.5 mm (2 716in)
American-stylepool57 mm (2 14in)
British-stylepool (largish) 56 mm (2 316in)
Snooker52.5 mm (2 115in)
Scaled-down pool51 mm (2 in) for children's smaller tables
Not shown: half-scale children's miniature poolapproximately 28.5 mm (1 18in).
Billiard balls vary from game to game, in size, design and quantity.
Russian pyramidandkaisahave a size of 68 mm (2 1116in). In Russian pyramid there are sixteen balls,
as in pool, but fifteen are white and numbered, and the cue ballis usually red.[9]
In Kaisa, five balls are
used: the yellowobject ball(called the kaisainFinnish), two red object balls, and the two white cue balls
(usually differentiated by one cue ball having a dot or other marking on it and each of which serves as an
object ball for the opponent).
Carom billiards balls are larger than pool balls, having a diameter of 61.5 mm (2 716in), and come as a
set of two cue balls (one colored or marked) and an object ball (or two object balls in the case of the
gamefour-ball).
American-style pool balls are 57 mm (214in), are used in many pool games found throughout the world,
come in sets of twosuitsof object balls, sevensolidsand sevenstripes,an8 balland acue ball;the balls
are racked differently for different games (some of which do not use the entire ball set). Blackball
(English-style eight-ball) sets are similar, but have unmarkedgroupsofred(orblue)andyellowballs
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instead of solids and stripes, and at 56 mm (2 316in) are smaller than the American-style; they are used
principally inBritain,Ireland,and someCommonwealthcountries, though not exclusively, since they are
unsuited for playing nine-ball.
Snooker balls are smaller than American-style pool balls with a diameter of 52.5 mm (2 115in), and come
in sets of 22 (15 reds, 6 "colours", and a cue ball). English billiard balls are the same size as snooker ballsand come in sets of three balls (two cue balls and a red, an object ball). Other games, such as bumper
pool,have custom ball sets.
Billiard balls have been made from many different materials since the start of the game, including
clay, bakelite,celluloid,crystallite,ivory,plastic, steel and wood. The dominant material from 1627 until
the early 20th century was ivory. The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental
concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters. It was in part
spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $10,000 for a substitute
material. The first viable substitute wascelluloid,invented byJohn Wesley Hyattin 1868, but the material
was volatile, sometimes exploding during manufacture and was highly flammable.[10][11]
Tables[edit]Main article:Billiard table
Pool table with equipment.
There are many sizes and styles of pool andbilliard tables.Generally, tables arerectanglestwice as long
as they are wide. Most pool tables are known as 7-, 8- , 8 12(sometimes called a Pro 8)-, or 9-footers,
referring to the length of the table's long side. Full-size snooker and English billiard tables are 12 feet
(3.7 m) long on the longest side.Pool hallstend to have 9-foot (2.7 m) tables and cater to the serious
pool player.Pubswill typically use 7-foot (2.1 m) tables which are often coin-operated. Formerly, 10-foot
(3 m) tables were common, but such tables are now considered antique collectors items; a few, usually
from the late 19th century, can be found in pool halls from time to time. Ten-foot tables remain the
standard size for carom billiard games. The slates on modern carom tables are usually heated to stave off
moisture and provide a consistent playing surface.
The length of the pool table will typically be a function of space, with many homeowners purchasing an 8-
foot (2.4 m) table as a compromise. High quality tables are mostly 4.5 by 9 ft (2.7 m). (interior
dimensions), with a bed made of three pieces of thick slate to prevent warping and changes due to
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humidity. Smaller bar tables are most commonly made with a single piece of slate. Pocket billiards tables
of all types normally have six pockets, three on each side (four corner pockets, and two middle or side
pockets).
Cloth[edit]
Main article:Baize
Women playing on an elaborately decorated green-covered table in an early 1880s advertising poster.
All types of tables are covered with billiard cloth (often called "felt", but actually a woven wool or
wool/nylon blend calledbaize). Cloth has been used to cover billiards tables since the 15th century. In
fact, the predecessor company of the most famous maker of billiard cloth,Iwan Simonis,was formed in
1453.
Bar or tavern tables, which get a lot of play, use "slower", more durable cloth. The cloth used in
upscalepool (and snooker) hallsand homebilliard roomsis "faster" (i.e., provides less friction, allowing
the balls to roll farther across the tablebed), and competition-quality pool cloth is made from
100%worsted wool.Snooker cloth traditionally has a nap (consistent fiber directionality) and balls behave
differently when rolling against versus along with the nap.
The cloth of the billiard table has traditionally been green, reflecting its origin (originally the grass of
ancestral lawn games), and has been so colored since the 16th century, but it is also produced in other
colors such as red and blue.[12]
The cloth was earlier said to be the most important part of the game, most likely because of the reflection
of the game's origin. The players were stubborn in the fact that the cloth should not be ripped. They even
made women continue to use maces after cues were invented, for fear that they would rip the cloth with
the sharper cues.
Rack[edit]Main article:Rack (billiards)
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Aluminium billiard rack that is used for 8-ball, 9-ball, and straight pool.
Arackis the name given to a frame (usuallywood,plasticoraluminium)used to organize billiard balls at
the beginning of a game. This is traditionally triangular in shape, but varies with the type of billiards
played. There are two main types of racks; the more common triangular shape which is used for eight-ball
and straight pool and the diamond shaped rack used for nine-ball.
There are several other types of less common rack types that are also used, based on a "template" tohold the billiard balls tightly together. Most commonly it's a plastic piece with diamond shaped cut-outs
that hold the balls that is placed on the table with the balls set on top of the rack. The rack is used to set
up the "break" and removed before the "break shot" occurs.
Cues[edit]Main article:Cue stick
Billiards games are mostly played with a stick known as a cue. A cue is usually either a one piece
tapered stick or a two piece stick divided in the middle by a joint of metal or phenolic resin. High
quality cues are generally two pieces and are made of a hardwood, generally maple for billiards and
ash for snooker.
Thebuttend of the cue is of larger circumference and is intended to be gripped by a player's hand.
Theshaftof the cue is of smaller circumference, usually tapering to an 0.4 to 0.55 inches (10 to
14 mm) terminus called aferrule(usually made of fiberglass or brass in better cues), where a
rounded leathertipis affixed, flush with the ferrule, to make final contact with balls. The tip, in
conjunction with chalk, can be used to impart spinto the cue ball when it is not hit in its center.
Cheap cues are generally made of pine, low-grade maple (and formerly often oframin,which is now
endangered), or other low-quality wood, with inferior plastic ferrules. A quality cue can be expensive
and may be made of exotic woods and other expensive materials which are artfully inlaid in
decorative patterns. Many modern cues are also made, likegolf clubs,with high-tech materials suchas woven graphite. Skilled players may use more than one cue during a game, including a separate
generally lighter cue for the opening break shot (because of cue speed gained from a lighter stick)
and another, shorter cue with a special tip forjump shots.
Mechanical bridge[edit]
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The mechanical bridge, sometimes called a "rake", "bridge stick" or simply "bridge", and in the UK a
"rest", is used to extend a player's reach on a shot where the cue ball is too far away for normal hand
bridging. It consists of a stick with a grooved metal or plastic head which the cue slides on. Many
amateurs refuse to use the mechanical bridge based on the perception that to do so is unmanly. [citation
needed]However, many aficionados and most professionals employ the bridge whenever the intended
shot so requires.
Some players, especially current or former snooker players, use a screw-on cue butt extension
instead of or in addition to the mechanical bridge.
Bridge head design is varied, and not all designs (especially those with cue shaft-enclosing rings, or
wheels on the bottom of the head), are broadly tournament-approved.
In Italy a longer, thicker cue is typically available for this kind of tricky shot.
For snooker they are normally available in three forms, their use depending on how the player is
hampered; the standard rest is a simple cross, the 'spider' has a raised arch around 12 cm with three
grooves to rest the cue in and for the most awkward of shots, the 'giraffe' (or 'swan' in England) which
has a raised arch much like the 'spider' but with a slender arm reaching out around 15 cm with the
groove.
Chalk[edit]
Billiard chalk is applied to the tip of the cue.
Chalk is applied to the tip of the cue stick, ideally before every shot, to increase the tip's friction
coefficient so that when it impacts the cue ball on a non-center hit, nomiscue(unintentional slippage
between the cue tip and the struck ball) occurs. Cue tip chalk is not actually the substance typically
referred to as "chalk"(generallycalcium carbonate,also known ascalciteor carbonate oflime), but
any of several proprietary compounds, with asilicatebase. It was around the time of the IndustrialRevolution that newer compounds formed that provided better grip for the ball. This is when the
English began to experiment with side spin or applying curl to the ball. This was shortly introduced to
the American players and is how the term putting English on the ball came to be. "Chalk" may also
refer to a cone of fine, whitehand chalk;liketalc(talcum powder) it can be used to reduce friction
between the cue and bridge hand during shooting, for a smoother stroke. Some brands of hand chalk
actually are made of compressed talc. (Tip chalk is not used for this purpose because it is abrasive,
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hand-staining and difficult to apply.) Many players prefer a slick pool glove over hand chalk or talc
because of the messiness of these powders; buildup of particles on the cloth will affect ball behavior
and necessitate more-frequent cloth cleaning.
Cue tip chalk (invented in its modern form by straight rail billiard proWilliam A. Spinksand
chemistWilliam Hoskinsin 1897)[13][14]
is made by crushingsilicaand the abrasivesubstancecorundumor aloxite[14](aluminiumoxide),[15][16]into a powder.[14]It is combined with dye
(originally and most commonly green or blue-green, like traditionalbilliard cloth,but available today,
like the cloth, in many colors) and a binder (glue).[14]Each manufacturer's brand has different
qualities, which can significantly affect play. High humidity can also impair the effectiveness of chalk.
Harder, drier compounds are generally considered superior by most players.
Engraving fromCharles Cotton's 1674 book, The Compleat
Gamester
Highestgoverning body World Confederation of Billiard
Sports
First played 15th-century Europe, with roots
inground billiards
Characteristics
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Contact No
Team members Single opponents, doubles or teams
Mixed gender Yes, sometimes in separate
leagues/divisions
Type Indoor,table
Equipment Billiard ball,billiard table,cue stick
Venue Billiard hallor homebilliard room
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