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Health Psychology

Self-Reported Mindfulness and Cortisol During aShamatha Meditation Retreat

Tonya L. Jacobs, Phillip R. Shaver, Elissa S. Epel, Anthony P. Zanesco, Stephen R. Aichele,

David A. Bridwell, Erika L. Rosenberg, Brandon G. King, Katherine A. MacLean, Baljinder K.

Sahdra, Margaret E. Kemeny, Emilio Ferrer, B. Alan Wallace, and Clifford D. Saron

Online First Publication, March 25, 2013. doi: 10.1037/a0031362

CITATION

Jacobs, T. L., Shaver, P. R., Epel, E. S., Zanesco, A. P., Aichele, S. R., Bridwell, D. A.,

Rosenberg, E. L., King, B. G., MacLean, K. A., Sahdra, B. K., Kemeny, M. E., Ferrer, E.,

Wallace, B. A., & Saron, C. D. (2013, March 25). Self-Reported Mindfulness and Cortisol

During a Shamatha Meditation Retreat. Health Psychology . Advance online publication. doi:

10.1037/a0031362



BRIEF REPORT

Self-Reported Mindfulness and Cortisol

During a Shamatha Meditation Retreat

Tonya L. Jacobs and Phillip R. ShaverUniversity of California, Davis

Elissa S. EpelUniversity of California, San Francisco

Anthony P. Zanesco and Stephen R. AicheleUniversity of California, Davis

David A. BridwellThe Mind Research Network, Albuquerque, New Mexico

Erika L. Rosenberg and Brandon G. KingUniversity of California, Davis

Katherine A. MacLeanJohns Hopkins University School of Medicine

Baljinder K. SahdraUniversity of Western Sydney

Margaret E. KemenyUniversity of California, San Francisco

Emilio FerrerUniversity of California, Davis

B. Alan WallaceSanta Barbara Institute for Consciousness Studies,

Santa Barbara, California

Clifford D. SaronUniversity of California, Davis

Objective: Cognitive perseverations that include worry and rumination over past or future eventsmay prolong cortisol release, which in turn may contribute to predisease pathways and adversely

affect physical health. Meditation training may increase self-reported mindfulness, which has been

linked to reductions in cognitive perseverations. However, there are no reports that directly link

self-reported mindfulness and resting cortisol output. Here, the authors investigate this link.

Methods: In an observational study, we measured self-reported mindfulness and p.m. cortisol near the

beginning and end of a 3-month meditation retreat ( N 57). Results: Mindfulness increased from pre- to

post-retreat, F (1, 56) 36.20, p .001. Cortisol did not significantly change. However, mindfulness was

inversely related to p.m. cortisol at pre-retreat, r (53) .31, p .05, and post-retreat, r (53) .30,

Tonya L. Jacobs, Center for Mind and Brain, University of California,

Davis; Phillip R. Shaver, Department of Psychology, University of California,

Davis; Elissa S. Epel, Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San

Francisco; Anthony P. Zanesco and Stephen R. Aichele, Center for Mind and

Brain and Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis; David

A. Bridwell, The Mind Research Network, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Bran-

don G. King, Center for Mind and Brain, University of California, Davis, and

Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis; Katherine A.

MacLean, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins

University School of Medicine; Emilio Ferrer, Department of Psychology,

University of California, Davis; Erika L. Rosenberg, Center for Mind and

Brain, University of California, Davis; Baljinder K. Sahdra, Department of

Psychology, University of Western Sydney, Sydney Australia; Margaret E.

Kemeny, Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco;

B. Alan Wallace, Santa Barbara Institute for Consciousness Studies, Santa

Barbara, California; Clifford D. Saron, Center for Mind and Brain and The

M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California, Davis.

These data were part of The Shamatha Project, a multi-method study on

the effects of meditation training on cognition, emotion regulation, and

physiological function. The project was funded by Fetzer Institute Grant

#2191, gifts from the Hershey Family, Tan Teo, Yoga Research and

Education, Mental Insight, Baumann Foundations, Santa Barbara Institute

for Consciousness Studies, Grant Couch and Louise Pearson, Caroline

Zecca-Ferris, and other individual and anonymous donors, all to C. D. S.

Additional fellowships to B. K. S. and K. A. M. were awarded by the

Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and National

Science Foundation. We thank Shiri Lavy and Alan Kanner for preliminary

work.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tonya L.

Jacobs, 267 Cousteau Place, Center for Mind and Brain, Davis, CA 95618.

E-mail: [email protected]

Health Psychology © 2013 American Psychological Association2013, Vol. 32, No. 3, 000 0278-6133/13/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0031362

1



p .05, controlling for age and body mass index. Pre to postchange in mindfulness was associated with

pre to postchange in p.m. cortisol, .37, t (49) 2.30, p .05: Larger increases in mindfulness were

associated with decreases in p.m. cortisol, whereas smaller increases (or slight decreases) in mindfulness

were associated with an increase in p.m. cortisol. Conclusions: These data suggest a relation between

self-reported mindfulness and resting output of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system. Future work

should aim to replicate this finding in a larger cohort and determine stronger inference about causality

by using experimental designs that include control-group conditions.

Keywords: cortisol, meditation, mindfulness, rumination, stress

Humans have a capacity to sustain psychological stress beyond

an acute event by worrying about the future or ruminating over the

past. Such perseverations may influence endocrine function. For

example, naturalistic or laboratory-induced rumination and worry

over nontraumatic stressors (public speaking, interpersonal trans-

gressions, etc.) have been linked to cortisol release (e.g., Byrd-

Craven, Geary, Rose, & Ponzi, 2008; Kuehner, Huffziger, &

Liebsch, 2009; McCullough, Orsulak, Brandon, & Akers, 2007;

Zoccola, Dickerson, & Zaldivar, 2008). This type of psychological

stress, if prolonged, may mediate adverse effects on physicalhealth and aging (Brosschot, 2010; Brosschot, Pieper, & Thayer,

2005; McEwen, 2003).

By contrast, the tendency to direct cognitive resources away

from worry and rumination should be associated with a reduction

in resting cortisol. Shamatha meditation involves cultivating as-

pects of mindfulness by directing cognitive resources toward a

chosen target and away from uncontrolled, ruminative thought and

cognitive perseverations (Wallace, 2006). Previously, we reported

that participation in a Shamatha meditation retreat is associated

with improvements on a number of cognitive and socioemotional

outcome measures within a study based on a wait-list controlled

design (Jacobs et al., 2011; MacLean et al., 2010; Sahdra et al.,

2011). Among these measures was an improved propensity to letgo of distressing thoughts and attend to different sensory domains,

daily tasks, and the current contents of the mind, as assessed using

a carefully constructed, self-report measure of mindfulness (Baer

et al., 2008). In the present report, within the same sample of

participants, we determine whether self-reported mindfulness, as

well as change in mindfulness, is directly related to resting corti-

sol.

Method

Mindfulness, cortisol, and body mass index (BMI) were mea-

sured onsite, before and after a 3-month meditation retreat. Par-

ticipants were randomly assigned to participate in the meditation

retreat or to be a part of a wait-list control group. The wait-list

control group then later participated in a second, identical retreat.

Cortisol was measured in all active retreat participants. Practical

constraints precluded cortisol measurement in the wait-list condi-

tion during the first retreat period. Data were combined across both

retreats.

Participants and Meditation Training

Sixty participants were recruited through public advertisements

and randomly assigned to either the first retreat ( N 30) or a

wait-list control group ( N 30) using stratified (age, sex, hand-

edness, ethnicity, and meditation experience) random assignment.

Groups were matched on gender (28 men and 32 women), age ( M

48, range 22–69), handedness, education, nonverbal IQ (Raven’s

Progressive Matrices), major domains of personality (measured by

the Big Five Inventory; John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991), trait

anxiety (measured by the Trait-Anxiety Inventory; Spielberger,

Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983), depression (measured

by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; Rad-

loff, 1977), well-being (measured by the Psychological Well-

Being Scale; Ryff, 1989), and self-reported meditation practicetime. This procedure is further detailed in MacLean et al. (2010).

All procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board

of the University of California, Davis. Participants paid for room

and board ($5,300) but were compensated for the testing ses-

sions in our study at $20/hr.

Meditation retreats were held at the Shambhala Mountain Cen-

ter in Red Feather Lakes, CO. Practices emphasized the cultivation

of attentional skills, including mindfulness of breathing, where

attention is directed toward the breath; observing mental events,

where attention is directed toward immediate thoughts; and ob-

serving the nature of consciousness, where attention is directed

toward awareness, as the meditative object. Participants also prac-

ticed cultivating benevolent mental states, including loving-kindness, compassion, empathic joy, and equanimity (Wallace,

2006). The group met 2 /day for 1-hr sessions to engage in guided

meditations and dialogue but primarily practiced solitary medita-

tion for much of the day ( M 6.3 hr/day, SD 1.34). These

solitary meditations were practiced in 20–30 min increments. During

the middle portion of the 3-month retreat, participants were encour-

aged to enter into silence, which lasted for 4 weeks. Aside from

group meditation sessions and mealtimes, participants were free to

structure their days (including meditation sessions, exercise, and free

time) as they wished, in consultation with Dr. Wallace.

Measures

Cortisol collection and assay. Saliva was collected by

passive drool for 3 consecutive days at pre-retreat (2 weeks

after arrival, for acclimatization) and post-retreat (10 weeks

after arrival). Samples were collected in the afternoon (2 hr

after lunch) and at bedtime (right before sleep), frozen at

20 °C, shipped to the laboratory of Dr. Sally Mendoza at the

University of California Primate Center in Davis, and stored at

70°C until assayed. Prior to assay, samples were thawed and

centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 min. Cortisol concentrations

were estimated using commercial radioimmunoassay kits (Sie-

mens Medical Solutions Diagnostics, Los Angeles, CA), as

described by Corbett, Mendoza, Abdullah, Wegelin, and Levine

2 JACOBS ET AL.



(2006). Intra- and interassay coefficients of variation were

3.03% and 3.52% (first retreat) and 3.76% and 4.42% (second

retreat). Consecutive daily collections were averaged and then

transformed using the natural log. We calculated p.m. cortisol

as the average of afternoon and bedtime values.

BMI. Participants were weighed at pre- and post-retreat. BMI

was calculated as mass (kg)/height (m2

) and used as a covariate.Mindfulness. Participants completed the 37-item Five Factor

Mindfulness Questionnaire (Baer et al., 2008) 5 days after arriving

at the retreat site (pre-retreat) and 12 weeks into the retreat (post-

retreat). No meditation had taken place before the initial measure.

The Mindful Observing facet focuses on the extent to which

cognitive resources are directed toward sensory experiences; the

Mindful Acting facet focuses on the extent to which resources

stray from daily tasks (e.g., brushing one’s teeth); the Mindful

Nonreacting facet focuses on the extent to which one can let go of

distressing thoughts. The two facets not used in the present study

(Mindful Describing and Mindful Nonjudging) do not reflect pro-

cesses that are likely to be developed within traditional Shamatha

meditation (Wallace, 2006).

Statistical Approach

Pre- and post-effects of the retreat on mindfulness and cortisol

were assessed using repeated-measures analysis of variance and

analysis of covariance. Correlations among study variables at each

time-point were tested using Pearson’s r . The effect of

mindfulness-change on cortisol-change was tested by regressing

cortisol measures at post-retreat on study variables using OLS

regression. All analyses were performed with IBM SPSS (version

19). Only participants with complete data across both cortisol and

mindfulness assessments were included ( N 57).

Results

Mindfulness

Changes in mindful acting, mindful observing, and mindful

non-reacting were all intercorrelated, with coefficients ranging

from r (55) .58 to r (55) .70, p .0001. These facets were

averaged for a more reliable indicator of meditation-related

changes, hereafter referred to as mindfulness. Mindfulness in-

creased from pre-retreat ( M 5.16, SD .77) to post-retreat

( M 5.76, SD .72), F (1, 56) 36.20, p .001, as similarly

reported (Jacobs et al., 2011).

BMI

BMI (kg/m2) decreased from pre-retreat ( M 25.82, SD

4.97) to post-retreat ( M 25.03, SD 4.56), t (56) 4.93, p

.0001. There were no significant relations between BMI and mind-

fulness at pre-retreat, r (55) .01, p .93, or post-retreat, r (55)

.07, p .58. Although BMI was related to p.m. cortisol at

pre-retreat, r (55) .40, p .01, this relation was not significant

at post-retreat, r (55) .19, p .17.

P.M. Cortisol and Associations With Mindfulness

Even after controlling for change in BMI, F (1, 55) 1.91,

p .17, p.m. cortisol (nmol/L) did not significantly change

from pre-retreat ( M 1.29, SD .26) to post-retreat ( M

1.36, SD .34). However, mindfulness was inversely associ-

ated with p.m. cortisol at both pre-retreat, r (54) .31, p

.05, and post-retreat, r (54) .30, p .05, controlling for age

and BMI (see Figure 1). A regression analysis, summarized in

Table 1, indicates that changes in p.m. cortisol were predicted

by changes in mindfulness. This effect also remained signifi-cant when BMI was not included in the model, .36,

t (51) 2.27, p .03. Statistical diagnostics confirmed that

collinearity was not a concern. This effect is depicted in Figure

1, using upper and lower quartiles of mindfulness-change:

whereas larger increases in mindfulness were associated with an

average pre/post decrease in p.m. cortisol, smaller increases (or

slight decreases) were associated with an average increase in

p.m. cortisol. When considering the directionality of these

changes in p.m. cortisol, it is helpful to note that mindfulness

decreased from pre-retreat ( M 5.54, SD .63) to post-retreat

( M 5.33, SD .57) in the lowest quartile of mindfulness-

change, t (13) 2.64, p .05), where 10 out of 14 subjects

decreased from pre- to post-retreat. In contrast, mindfulness

increased from pre-retreat ( M 4.57, SD .81) to post-retreat

( M 6.21, SD .61) in the highest quartile of mindfulness-

change, t (13) 10.0, p .0001), where all 14 subjects in-

creased.

Discussion

Although the effects of mindfulness training on cortisol have

been previously reported (mainly based on standardized,

8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction courses), results

have been mixed (for a review, see Matousek, Dobkin, &

Pruessner, 2010). Further, no studies have directly assessed

self-report measures of change in mindfulness with change incortisol output. The present data indicate an inverse relation

between self-reported mindfulness and cortisol cross-

sectionally and a significant relation between changes in these

two variables.

The present findings are tentative for several reasons: (a)

further work should replicate these data in a larger cohort; (b)

the relations reported here do not demonstrate causality; (c) we

do not have comparable cortisol measures for the wait-list

control group during the meditation retreat period; (d) self-

selection bias limits the generalizability of this group to other

populations; (e) spurious variables, such as the tranquil retreat

setting, may also have been associated with cortisol release and

self-reported mindfulness in each participant; and (f) to allow

for acclimatization, cortisol measures were taken 2 weeks afterarrival to the retreat site, which meant that participants had

already been meditating for up to 9 days before the initial

cortisol measure was taken. Finally, there is debate regarding

the meaning and measurement of mindfulness (Williams &

Kabot-Zinn, 2011). Here, we used the scale developed by Baer

and colleagues (2006), whose definition of mindfulness may not

match all Buddhist views (e.g., Kabat-Zinn, 2011).

Future work is required to determine why p.m. cortisol in-

creased, on average, in those with smaller increases (or slight

decreases) in mindfulness. One possibility is that some individ-

uals experience separation-related negative affect near the end

3MINDFULNESS AND CORTISOL



of intensive therapeutic experiences, as in psychotherapy (e.g.,

Charman & Grahm, 2004). Training that increases mindfulness

may buffer against negative affect, as demonstrated by Jha,

Stanley, Kiyonaga, Wong, & Gelfand (2010), which may affect

associated regulation of neuroendocrine activity. Future work

should also focus on the contributions of mediating variables.

For example, self-reported mindfulness is related to greater

sleep quality, more physical activity, and reduced binge eating

(Roberts & Danoff-Burg, 2010). These health-related behaviors

may also explain the mindfulness-cortisol relation. Another

mediating factor may be rumination, which is inversely asso-

ciated with mindfulness and meditation practice (e.g., Kemeny

et al., 2012; Raes & Williams, 2010) and may be causally

related to negative affect (for a review, see Thomsen, 2006). In

turn, negative affect is associated with increased cortisol release

(e.g., Polk, Cohen, Dyle, Skoner, & Kirschbaum, 2005). Here,

Figure 1. A and B: Inverse relation between Mindfulness and p.m. (PM) cortisol at pre- and post-retreat. The

correlation at post-retreat remains significant even if the highest cortisol value is excluded, r (55) .29, p

.05. C: Plot depicting the effect of mindfulness-change on cortisol-change (see Table 1 for statistics), using thehighest and lowest quartiles of mindfulness-change from pre- to post-retreat ( N 14 in each quartile). Error bars

are 1 SD.

4 JACOBS ET AL.



we take the first step by reporting a direct relation between

mindfulness and cortisol.

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Table 1

Predicting Changes in p.m. Cortisol From Changes in Mindfulness (Dependent Variable is p.m.

Cortisol at Post-Retreat)

B SE t p

Step 1 ( R2 .09)

Constant 1.38 .62 2.25 .03Age .00 .00 .18 1.35 .18BMI at pre-retreat .01 .01 .18 1.26 .22Mindfulness at pre-retreat .01 .06 .03 .22 .83PM Cortisol at pre-retreat .13 .21 .10 .63 .53

Step 2 ( R2 .17)Step 1 predictors repeatedBMI at post-retreat .00 .05 .06 .10 .93Mindfulness at post-retreat .17 .08 .37 2.30 .03

Note. BMI body mass index. For t -test values in Step 2, df 49.

5MINDFULNESS AND CORTISOL



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Received October 24, 2011Revision received July 23, 2012

Accepted July 27, 2012

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jacobs health psychology 2013

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