issues in the creation of a trilingual dictionary for sasak, eastern ... · issues in the creation...
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Peter K. Austin
Endangered Languages Academic Programme
SOAS, University of London
ICLDC
Lexicography Workshop
February 2011
Issues in the creation of a trilingual dictionary for Sasak,
eastern Indonesia
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A new Sasak dictionary
Overall goals:
� to create a trilingual Sasak-Indonesian-English
dictionary that will be of practical use to speakers
on Lombok
� in doing so, to develop ways to deal with the
complex individual, geographical and social
variation in the language in a politically acceptable
manner
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This talk
� Sasak language and people
� Language variation
� Previous dictionaries
� Our current approach
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Location
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History
• 14th century — Majapahit Javanese kingdom
• 16th century — Islamicisation of eastern Lombok
• 17th century — Karangasem Balinese kingdom
• 19th century — Dutch colonial war with Balinese
• 20th century — 1942-45 Japanese war
1948 Republic of Indonesia
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Population and Languages
• Sasak — 90% of Lombok population (2.5m.)
• Sasak spoken by majority of population across
the island in family and village domains but
has no formal status, no literacy functions for
most speakers
• Bahasa Indonesia is language of education,
media, government, business, literacy, status
(diglossia)
• Rural-urban split in language shift
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Languages and Dialects
� Sasak
�Bahasa Indonesia
� Kawi (early Mod. Javanese) exists as literary language
used in texts, poetry, music and drama
• Sasak shows wide regional variation which has been
documented since 19th century, including through dialect
surveys of Teeuw 1948 and Mahsun 2000.
• Sasak has social variation, distinguishing base kasar
from base alus (latter heavily influenced by Javanese
and Balinese) marked by lexical choice
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Six challenges
• Challenge 1 – dialects
• Challenge 2 – phonological variation
• Challenge 3 – semantic differences
• Challenge 4 – speech levels
• Challenge 5 – contact
• Challenge 6 – sociology and politics
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Challenge 1: Dialects
� Sasak speakers recognise five ethno-linguistically
named varieties (based on shibboleth words for ‘like
that-like this’) and give rough geographical locations for
them:
• Ngenó-Ngené — central west coast and central
east to north east coast;
• Menó-Mené — around the towns of Puyung and
Praya, central Lombok;
• Nggetó-Nggeté — around Suralaga and Sembalun
in the north-east;
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Challenge 1: Dialects
• Kutó-Kuté — around Bayan in the north (also called
Ngenó-Mené);
• Meriaq-Meriku— south central area around Bonjeruk
and Sengkol (Pujut), and near Selong in east
This does not exhaust the actual forms found on the
ground:
• Menu-Meni – south-east near Ganti)
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Challenge 1: Dialects
Speakers characterise the dialect differences by pointing
to lexical divergence and differences in grammatical
forms, eg. clitic pronouns, aspect/mood markers,
prepositions:
gin ~ gen ~ éaq ~ iaq ~ jaq ~ aq ‘will’
òjòk ~ jòk ~ aning ~ timpaq ~ ngaró ‘to’
=mèq ~ =bi ~ =de ~ =m ~ =ò ‘you (clitic)’
However, dialect surveys by Teeuw in 1948 and Mahsun
in 2000 at the village level show that there are no clear
geographical distributions to allow isoglosses to be drawn
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Challenge 2: Phonological variation
• Previous studies and my research shows
that there is phonological variation within
and across ‘dialects’ even where there
are no gross lexical differences:
Vowels
variation between i and é, u and ó, ó and ò,
eg. irung ~ érung ~ iróng ~ éróng ‘nose’;
uléq ~ óléq ‘to return’; tókól ~ tòkòl ‘to sit’
variation between a ~ e ~ Ǣ, eg. mata ~ mate
~ mete ~ mǢtǢ ‘eye’; aiq ~ eiq ‘water’
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Challenge 2: Phonological variation
Consonants
variation between final -r and final -h, and
final glottal stop -q and final -h, eg. dengar
~ dengah ‘to hear’; kókóq ~ kókóh ‘river’
variation between medial -r- and nothing (-ø),
and medial -r- and -d-, eg. daraq ~ daq
‘blood’, irup ~ érup ~ idup ~ édup ‘alive’,
irung ~ érung ~ iróng ~ éróng ~ iung
‘nose’ (but not *idung)
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Challenge 3: Semantic differences
A given form may show differences in
referential or predicational meaning
depending on location. This is most
extreme for deictics:
Eg. across sources for Sasak we find:
‘south’ baret ~ bat ~ daya ~ daye ~ lauq ~
bòngkòt
‘west’ baret ~ bat ~ daye
timuq ‘east’, ‘north’, ‘south’
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Challenge 3: Semantic differences
But there are also subtle semantic
differences in other lexical fields that we
have only just begun to explore
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Challenge 4: Speech Levels
Politeness is encoded lexically in basic vocabulary, both
open class and closed class items, through suppletion in
sets of biase, madie, alus items plus a system of
honorifics:
biase — low eg. mate ‘eye’
madie — middle penenteng
alus — high penyerminan
honorifics: honour and humble eg. atur ‘to give’
ican 'to receive'
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aturicanbènggive
lampaqmargilumbarlalógo
maturmanikbaseunisay
cingakinserminseréóqgitaqsee
majenganmadarankelórmanganeat
HumbleHonorificHighMidLow
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napiapewhat
gadingimehand
penyerminanpenentengmateeye
tendessirahòtakhead
ragebatangdèwèkperaneawakbody
HumbleHonorificHighMidLow
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Challenge 5: Contact – Kawi
Kawi is the literary language but lexical items are still
used for hyper-politeness, eg.
nurge (alus) > ampure (kawi) ‘apology’
maté (biase) > ninggal (alus) > mangket (kawi)‘to
die’
awak (biase) > rage (alus) > pragayan (kawi) ‘body’
Any account of modern Sasak has to include Kawi
lexicon
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Challenge 5: Contact – Arabic
Sasak is full of vocabulary adopted from Arabic since
the 13th century, much of it in the religious
domain but including common lexicon:
• people’s names
• days of the week
• In Ngeno-ngene the second person masculine
pronoun ante is a loan from Arabic
All this material must be included in the dictionary
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Challenge 6: Sociology and politics
• Traditional Sasak social castes on Lombok:
mènak 1st caste (the highest), cf. radèn
prewangse 2nd caste
jajarkarang 3rd caste - commoners
sepangan lowest caste, servants of mènak
• Dominant religious role for Islam
• Contemporary society built on modernism and
ethos of education and attainment, but adat remains
a strong influence and mènak have important role
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Previous Sasak dictionaries
Goris 1938 – Ngeno-ngene with dialect and other references (see sample)
Nazir Thoir – only Nggeto-nggete data
Nell Staff – the midden approach (see sample)
SIL dictionary – only Ampenan data, no speech levels data
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Our approach
• there is no ‘standard’ Sasak and selecting one
variety would lead to political problems, cf. Goris
• users want to include as much variation as
possible with lots of cross-referencing of several
types (social, geographical, stylistic, loans)
• provide metadata about where lexical items come
from – in database identity of speaker and
recorder is included for every lexical entry and
sentence (can be aggregated to village level as
desired)
• in Toolbox files metadata for speakers and
recorders is also included with every sentence
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Example from database: ‘nose’
Example index of text sentences by speaker
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Future developments
• mobile devices introduce new platforms for
potential dictionary development, eg.
Wunderkammer
• GPS-aware smart phones and tablet computers
exist or are on the horizon
• since the lexicon is comprehensively tagged for
sources, by adding GPS co-ordinates to the
database we could create apps that generate
individual dictionaries for device locations on the
fly
• could have applications in education and teaching
of Sasak in schools, cf. Azhar 2000
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References
Austin, Peter K. 1993. The linguistic ecology of Lombok. PELBBA 16: 165-198.
Goris, Roelef. 1938. Beknopt Sasaksch-Nederlanschwoordenboek. Singaraja: Publicatie Kirtya Liefrinck.
Mahsun. 1999. Kajian dialek geografis bahasa Sasak. Mataram: University of Mataram.
Nothofer, Bernd. 2000. A preliminary analysis of the history of Sasak language levels. In Peter K. Austin (ed.) Working Papers in Sasak, Vol. 2, 57-84. Melbourne: University of Melbourne.
Syahdan. 2000. Code-switching in the speech of elite Sasaks. In Peter K. Austin (ed.) Working Papers in Sasak, Vol. 2, 99-109. Melbourne: University of Melbourne.
Teeuw, Andries. 1951. Atlas dialek pulau Lombok [Dialect atlas of the island of Lombok]. Jakarta: Biro Reproduksi DjawatanTopografi.
Teeuw, Andries. 1958. Lombok: een dialect-geographischestudie [Lombok: a dialect geographical study].
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Thank you