Is there an impact of Is there an impact of maternal employment maternal employment on mother-infant on mother-infant relationships and child relationships and child development?development?

Lindsay McNeilLindsay McNeilOctober 25, 2005October 25, 2005

How many of you grew up in a family How many of you grew up in a family where your mother worked?where your mother worked?

How young were you when your How young were you when your mother started back to work?mother started back to work?

Do you feel this affected you in any Do you feel this affected you in any way?way?

If so, how? (negatively or positively)If so, how? (negatively or positively)

Do you believe this is a Do you believe this is a representative sample?representative sample?

Over the past 3 decades the Over the past 3 decades the number of women in the workforce number of women in the workforce has increased significantlyhas increased significantly

With this comes an increase in the With this comes an increase in the number of mothers in the number of mothers in the workplaceworkplace

But does this have an impact on But does this have an impact on the social and cognitive the social and cognitive development of their children?development of their children?

2001 statistics in Canada2001 statistics in Canada

60% of women with children under 60% of women with children under 3 years of age were employed3 years of age were employed

85% of Canadian mothers and 85% of Canadian mothers and nearly as many fathers felt there nearly as many fathers felt there were not enough hours in the daywere not enough hours in the day

This brings up the issue of This brings up the issue of maternity and parental leavesmaternity and parental leaves

In Canada (2004), 65.9% of In Canada (2004), 65.9% of mothers received maternity or mothers received maternity or parental benefitsparental benefitsThe number of individuals The number of individuals receiving parental benefits receiving parental benefits increased from 31,837 in 2000 to increased from 31,837 in 2000 to 126,587 in 2004 (Stats Can)126,587 in 2004 (Stats Can)The average duration of leave was The average duration of leave was 11 months, with nearly 63% of 11 months, with nearly 63% of Canadian mothers returning to Canadian mothers returning to work while their child was between work while their child was between the ages of 9 and 12 months. the ages of 9 and 12 months.

In 2000 the Canadian government In 2000 the Canadian government was offering 12 months of partially was offering 12 months of partially paid maternity and parental leavespaid maternity and parental leaves

In the U.S. only 12 weeks of In the U.S. only 12 weeks of unpaid unpaid leave were offered to those who leave were offered to those who were eligiblewere eligible

Is it possible that these two countries Is it possible that these two countries place a different level of importance place a different level of importance on early maternal care?on early maternal care?

Negative beliefsNegative beliefs

Attachment theory indicates that Attachment theory indicates that children whose mothers are absent children whose mothers are absent during critical periods of early during critical periods of early development are less likely to develop development are less likely to develop secure attachment with their motherssecure attachment with their mothers

Initial beliefs were that early maternal Initial beliefs were that early maternal employment would hinder the employment would hinder the development of stable relationships development of stable relationships between mother and childbetween mother and child

Positive beliefsPositive beliefs

Regular predictable separations Regular predictable separations beginning early in the first year of a beginning early in the first year of a child’s life will be less disruptive to child’s life will be less disruptive to attachment security than separations attachment security than separations beginning laterbeginning later

Separation is bound to happen, maybe Separation is bound to happen, maybe children will be better adapted if they children will be better adapted if they know how to deal with this separationknow how to deal with this separation

Research has been found to support Research has been found to support both the negative and positive views both the negative and positive views on this topicon this topic

It has also indicated that maternal It has also indicated that maternal employment alone may not have a employment alone may not have a significant impact on the child (in significant impact on the child (in either direction)either direction)

National Institute of Child National Institute of Child Health and Human Health and Human Development Study of Early Development Study of Early Child Care (NICHD-SECC)Child Care (NICHD-SECC)

Used 900 European American Used 900 European American children from a dataset of 1,364 children from a dataset of 1,364 children assessed since their birth in children assessed since their birth in 19911991

Children were assessed at home and Children were assessed at home and in a laboratory setting at 15, 24 and in a laboratory setting at 15, 24 and 36 months36 months

Bayley MDI was measured when the Bayley MDI was measured when the children were at both 15 and 24 children were at both 15 and 24 months of agemonths of age

Bracken School Readiness Scale was Bracken School Readiness Scale was measured at 36 monthsmeasured at 36 months– Reliability and validity were found Reliability and validity were found

between the 2 measuresbetween the 2 measures Questioned mothers to assess Questioned mothers to assess

employment statusemployment status Maternal sensitivity was also assessedMaternal sensitivity was also assessed

ResultsResults No significant correlation between No significant correlation between

employment and Bayley MDI was foundemployment and Bayley MDI was found At 36 months:At 36 months:

– Statistically significant Statistically significant negative negative effect of effect of mother’s being employed by the 9mother’s being employed by the 9thth month month

– Marginally significant Marginally significant negativenegative effect of effect of mother’s employment by 6mother’s employment by 6thth month month

– Mothers who worked 30+hrs/week by the Mothers who worked 30+hrs/week by the 99thth month had significantly lower month had significantly lower sensitivity scoressensitivity scores

Han, Waldfogel & Brooks-Han, Waldfogel & Brooks-GunnGunn Looked at children born in 1982-1983, with Looked at children born in 1982-1983, with

mothers of age 17-26mothers of age 17-26– Sample: Whites = 244, Blacks = 218Sample: Whites = 244, Blacks = 218

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised used at 3-4 years of ageused at 3-4 years of age

Peabody Individual Attachment Test used Peabody Individual Attachment Test used at ages 5-6 and 7-8at ages 5-6 and 7-8

Behavioral Problems Index used for ages Behavioral Problems Index used for ages 4+4+

Also looked at impact of maternal Also looked at impact of maternal employment considering the timing and employment considering the timing and extent of employmentextent of employment

ResultsResults Maternal employment had a significant Maternal employment had a significant

negativenegative effect on PPVT-R score which effect on PPVT-R score which persisted to PIATpersisted to PIAT

Starting employment before 9 months could Starting employment before 9 months could lower child’s PPVT-R score lower child’s PPVT-R score – Also found to have sig. effect at ages 7-8 on Also found to have sig. effect at ages 7-8 on

externalizing behavioural problemsexternalizing behavioural problems Employment starting between 9 and 12 months Employment starting between 9 and 12 months

showed no significant effectshowed no significant effect Only long-term negative effects were Only long-term negative effects were

consistent if mother worked first year then consistent if mother worked first year then stoppedstopped

No sig. effects found on any measure for BlacksNo sig. effects found on any measure for Blacks

Douglas K. Symons Douglas K. Symons Used sample from rural Atlantic Used sample from rural Atlantic

CanadaCanada– Almost exclusively family-based non-Almost exclusively family-based non-

parental careparental care Attrition due to geographical Attrition due to geographical

distance, work and other measuresdistance, work and other measures– Found to have no effectFound to have no effect

Final sample consisted of 57 mothers Final sample consisted of 57 mothers and their childrenand their children

Feelings about separation were Feelings about separation were measured on the Maternal Separation measured on the Maternal Separation Anxiety ScaleAnxiety Scale– Assessed maternal separation anxiety, Assessed maternal separation anxiety,

perception of separation effects on the child, perception of separation effects on the child, and employment-related separation and employment-related separation concernsconcerns

Mothers provided reports of infants Mothers provided reports of infants temperament at 3 and 6 months of age temperament at 3 and 6 months of age using the Infant Characteristics using the Infant Characteristics QuestionnaireQuestionnaire– Fussy/difficult, inadaptable, dull, and Fussy/difficult, inadaptable, dull, and

unpredictableunpredictable

2 year assessments2 year assessments Employment: Employment:

– Unemployed (<5hrs/week)Unemployed (<5hrs/week)– Part-time (5-20hrs/week)Part-time (5-20hrs/week)– Full-time (>20hrs/week)Full-time (>20hrs/week)

Attachment Behavior Q-set – Attachment Behavior Q-set – naturalistic attachment techniquenaturalistic attachment technique

Maternal Behavior Q-sort – determine Maternal Behavior Q-sort – determine sensitivity of mother toward childsensitivity of mother toward child

Q-SORT – performed by outside Q-SORT – performed by outside observersobservers

ResultsResults

Post-six month returnees:Post-six month returnees:– score score veryvery high on attachment security high on attachment security– Lower avoidance-oriented coping and parental Lower avoidance-oriented coping and parental

stressstress– Children with fewer total behavioural problemsChildren with fewer total behavioural problems

Pre-six month returnees and homemakers’ Pre-six month returnees and homemakers’ children scored closer to normschildren scored closer to norms

Sensitivity: Sensitivity: – Post-six-month > pre-six month > homemakerPost-six-month > pre-six month > homemaker

The results indicate that mothers The results indicate that mothers returning to the workforce later may returning to the workforce later may have been coping with parental have been coping with parental stress and child difficulty better, stress and child difficulty better, which in turn extended to their which in turn extended to their relationship measuresrelationship measures

Suited more toward the positive Suited more toward the positive beliefsbeliefs

Harrison & UngererHarrison & Ungerer Recruited mothers during their 3Recruited mothers during their 3rdrd trimester trimester

of pregnancy – sample included 145 of pregnancy – sample included 145 mothers and their first born childmothers and their first born child

93% were of Caucasian European origin, 93% were of Caucasian European origin, mother ages ranging from 17-41 yearsmother ages ranging from 17-41 years

Follow-up questionnaires, structured Follow-up questionnaires, structured interviews and lab assessments of interviews and lab assessments of interaction were performed at 4 and 12 interaction were performed at 4 and 12 monthsmonths

Depression was assessed pre- and post-Depression was assessed pre- and post-natal using the Beck Depression Inventorynatal using the Beck Depression Inventory

30 item Short Temperament Scale for 30 item Short Temperament Scale for Infants/Toddlers was used at 4 and Infants/Toddlers was used at 4 and 12 months12 months

Maternal sensitivity and interaction Maternal sensitivity and interaction ratings were assessed through ratings were assessed through videotape analysisvideotape analysis

At 12 months children underwent the At 12 months children underwent the Strange Situation procedure to assess Strange Situation procedure to assess attachmentattachment

ResultsResults

Gender differenceGender difference Longer hours were not found to affect the Longer hours were not found to affect the

mother’s rating of the child’s temperamentmother’s rating of the child’s temperament Mothers who worked at 5 months received Mothers who worked at 5 months received

the highest sensitivity ratingsthe highest sensitivity ratings Secure attachment was more likely when Secure attachment was more likely when

mothers were rated as more sensitive, older mothers were rated as more sensitive, older and having a higher level of supportand having a higher level of support

Insecure-ambivalent attachments were a Insecure-ambivalent attachments were a common feature of the non-employed groupcommon feature of the non-employed group

Overall DiscussionOverall Discussion

The sample used and the The sample used and the measures being assessed across measures being assessed across the different experiments lead to the different experiments lead to different results. different results.

Often researchers looked at Often researchers looked at subjects at different time intervalssubjects at different time intervals

Some research was based more Some research was based more on short-term effects whereas on short-term effects whereas others were more focused on the others were more focused on the possible long-term effectspossible long-term effects

Sensitivity seemed to play a large Sensitivity seemed to play a large role in many of the research role in many of the research findings. findings.

Some research showed Some research showed completely opposite results, most completely opposite results, most likely based on the methodology – likely based on the methodology – should find some way to make it should find some way to make it more standardizedmore standardized

Graduate StudiesGraduate Studies

Dr. Doug Symons, Acadia UniversityDr. Doug Symons, Acadia University– Social & Cognitive Development; Child-Social & Cognitive Development; Child-

Clinical PsychologyClinical Psychology Dr. Cindy Hardy, University of Dr. Cindy Hardy, University of

Northern British ColumbiaNorthern British Columbia– Child and adolescent psychologyChild and adolescent psychology– Interests in child clinical psychology, Interests in child clinical psychology,

human development, and parentinghuman development, and parenting

Dr. Anna-Beth Doyle, Concordia Dr. Anna-Beth Doyle, Concordia UniversityUniversity– Interests in family influences on social and Interests in family influences on social and

emotional developments and adjustment in emotional developments and adjustment in childhoodchildhood

Dr. Kristine Hansen, University of Dr. Kristine Hansen, University of WinnipegWinnipeg– Interests in children’s social development Interests in children’s social development

and the effects of day careand the effects of day care Dr. Kaye Kerr, University of WinnipegDr. Kaye Kerr, University of Winnipeg

– Interested in impact of child daycare on Interested in impact of child daycare on young childrenyoung children

Included because maternal employment tends to Included because maternal employment tends to have a large effect on the use of non-parental care, have a large effect on the use of non-parental care,

such as daycaresuch as daycare

ReferencesReferences

Symons, Douglas K. (1998). Post-Partum Symons, Douglas K. (1998). Post-Partum Employment Patterns, Family-Based Care Employment Patterns, Family-Based Care Arrangements, and Mother-Infant Relationship Arrangements, and Mother-Infant Relationship at Age Two [Electronic version]. at Age Two [Electronic version]. Canadian Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 30Journal of Behavioural Science, 30(2), 121-131(2), 121-131

Harrison, Linda J., Ungerer, Judy A. (2002). Harrison, Linda J., Ungerer, Judy A. (2002). Maternal Employment and Infant-Mother Maternal Employment and Infant-Mother Attachment Security at 12 Months Postpartum Attachment Security at 12 Months Postpartum [Electronic version]. [Electronic version]. Developmental Developmental Psychology, 38Psychology, 38(5), 758-773(5), 758-773

Han, Wen-Jui, Waldfogel, Jane, Brooks-Gunn, Han, Wen-Jui, Waldfogel, Jane, Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne (2001). The Effects of Early Maternal Jeanne (2001). The Effects of Early Maternal Employment on Later Cognitive and Employment on Later Cognitive and Behavioural Outcome [Electronic version]. Behavioural Outcome [Electronic version]. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(2), 336-354(2), 336-354

ReferencesReferences

Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne, Han, Wen-Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne, Han, Wen-Jui, Waldfogel, Jane (2002). Jui, Waldfogel, Jane (2002). Maternal Employment and Child Maternal Employment and Child Cognitive Outcomes in the First Cognitive Outcomes in the First Three Years of Life: The NICHD Three Years of Life: The NICHD Study of Early Child Care Study of Early Child Care [Electronic version]. [Electronic version]. Child Child Development, 73Development, 73(4), 1052-1072(4), 1052-1072