is the adf a good regional neighbour? - defence 2020 the adf a good regional neighbour? ... over 138...

Is the ADF a good regional neighbour?

In late 2004 a tsunami hit Sumatra, in Indonesia. Soon afterwards an earthquake struck. Look at the assistance that the Australian Defence Force was able to provide:

Operation Sumatra Assist: Australian Defence Force helping tsunami victims in Indonesia

1200 tonnes of humanitarian aid distributed by air; 70 aero-medical evacuations; 2530 people transported by air; 3700 medical treatments; 4.7 million litres of clean water produced; 9000 cubic metres of debris cleared; 1000m of road cleared; 1700 large drains cleared; 6 large fi shing boats salvaged.

Operation Sumatra Assist – Phase II: Australian Defence Force helping earthquake victims in Indonesia

133 tonnes of rice delivered 5000 litres of water provided 570 patients treated ashore by medical staff

13 Surgical and further treatments conducted on board HMAS Kanimbla

7 Sea King aero-medical evacuations Lahewa town water pump and generator repaired over 138 tonnes of stores moved by C130 Hercules;

and hundreds of smiling faces – Operation

KINDERGARTEN COPS entertained hundreds of children in Lahewa teaching them to play cricket and Aussie Rules Football.

www.defence.gov.au/optsunamiassist/default.htm

1 Suggest reasons why the ADF was able to respond so quickly, and in these ways. In your answer you should consider such aspects as skills, equipment, organisation, transport, expertise, etc.

You will have a chance to review your ideas later.

Here are two documents that appeared in 2008 on an important issue.

Look at the cartoon and the newspaper report below, and answer the questions that follow.

Go to www.defence2020.info

to see an environmental interactive

decision-maker ‘What do we do

about Jervis Bay?

http://throbgoblins.blogspot.com/2008/09/here-comes-fl ood.html

SOURCE A

9191

2 What is the issue being commented on by this cartoon?

3 What does each of the characters — Ernest, Frank and the animal, Zorro — symbolise or represent in this cartoon?

4 Compare the attitudes of Frank and Ernest to the issue.

5 What happens while they talk?

6 What is the message of this cartoon?

Investigation 1 Who are the countries of the Pacifi c region and what are their characteristics?

Investigation 2 Are sea levels rising in the Pacifi c?

Investigation 3 If sea levels are rising, what impacts can we predict they will have on Pacifi c nations?

Investigation 4 How might the Australian Defence Force be involved as a Pacifi c neighbour in this issue?

7 List the problems that are identifi ed in this article.

8 Why are these problems occurring in the Pacifi c region?

9 What is meant by ‘climate change refugees’?

10 What is the relevance to Australia of this issue?

11 What is the message of this article?

12 Looking at both the cartoon and the article, do you think they raise a serious and real issue?

The cartoon and the newspaper report raise the issue of climate change leading to possible rises and surges in sea levels.

Imagine that you have been asked by the Australian Government to help it make a decision about whether it should do anything about the issue, and if so, how the Australian Defence Force would be involved.

Your Task is to use the evidence in this unit to prepare a report. Your report will focus on four main investigations:

13 Are they both credible and acceptable sources about the issue? Explain your views.

14 What, if anything, do you think Australia should do about this issue? Explain your views. You will be able to come back to your answer at the end of this unit and see if you would add to or change any aspect of your ideas.

15 What relevance might this issue have for the Australian Defence Force?

SOURCE BClimate Change Refugees Look to Australia, N.Z.By Stephen de Tarczynski

MELBOURNE, Sep 1 – With the apparent effects of global warming already being felt among Pacifi c island nations, Australia and New Zealand are being urged to do more to prepare for ‘climate change refugees’.

“In Tuvalu and Kiribati we’re already starting to see the effects of king tides and storm surges on the coastline,” … says Damien Lawson, national climate justice coordinator from Friends of the Earth Australia.

“People on the islands are not going to just be affected when the sea rises up and covers their land. They’re already affected by sea water encroaching through the ground water and having a big effect on their capacity to grow crops,” he says.

Global warming is regarded as one of the major factors causing sea level rise … As a result, inhabitants of

low-lying Pacifi c island nations are among the most vulnerable to the effects of global warming.

A report released in July by Make Poverty History – a coalition of more than 60 aid, community and faith-based organisations, including Friends of the Earth – noted that two villages on Kiribati have already been abandoned due to climate change.

Additionally, some 2,000 people on Papua New Guinea’s isolated Carteret Islands – which are disappearing beneath the waves – are preparing to be evacuated to Bougainville, 86km to the southwest. They are regarded as some of the world’s fi rst ‘climate change refugees’.

With more pacifi c islanders expected to be forced to leave their homes over the coming decades as seas rise, calls for Australia and New Zealand to prepare to aid environmental refugees are growing louder.

http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=43743

You will need to work in groups to complete the report sheets A–E on the following pages.

92 Defence 2020 Is the Australian Defence Force a responsible citizen?

Report Sheet to the Australian Government on possible Pacific Sea Change issues and solutions

Group members:

PART A The Countries of the Pacifi cNations

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

10 11 12

13 14

Dependent territories

15 16 17

18 19 20

PART B The Main Features of Pacifi c Countries

Aspect General statement about most of the nations

Terrain Four types of islands: those that are part of the continents, steep volcanic islands, low-lying coral reefs, and uplifted coral reefs.

Climate

Economy

Trade

Employment

Resources

Population

93Climate change in the Pacifi c

PART C Comments on Sea Change

1 Are sea levels rising in the Pacifi c? Yes No Maybe Cannot tell

2 If so, what are the main causes?

3 How do we know this?

4 How certain can we be about this knowledge? Very Fairly Not very

5 If sea levels are changing, what are the predicted smallest and largest rises that can be expected over the next 100 years?

Min: Max:

PART D Likely Impacts of Pacifi c Sea Level Changes

Aspect of the environment and/or life on Pacifi c islands/coastal areas:

If sea levels rise and/or there are extreme events the consequences may be:

Beaches

Biodiversity

Coral reefs

Culture

Disease

Economy

Erosion

Fishing

Food

Fresh water

Health

Housing

Infrastructure

Jobs

Land

Mangroves

Migration

Population pressures

Tourism

Trees


PART E Possible Australian Defence Force Involvement in Management of Sea Level Change on Threatened Pacifi c Islands

Situation What the ADF could do Key argument / reason in favour of doing this

Key argument / reason against doing this

Houses are damaged

Fresh water source is contaminated

Food becomes less available

Diseases increase

Overcrowding leads to civil tensions

The air strip is damaged

Sea surges cause erosion

Protective sea walls are damaged

The coral reefs are damaged

There is increased illegal fi shing

People want to emigrate

People want to relocate their ancestors

Communications equipment is damaged

Electricity generator is damaged

Outbreak of disease caused by contaminated water


Who are the countries of the Pacific region?

Use an atlas to identify the Pacifi c countries whose Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) are marked on this map. Countries 1–14 are independent sovereign nations; 15-20 are dependent territories of other nations. In each case indicate whether the country is part of the geographical regions within the Pacifi c of Melanesia,

Micronesia or Polynesia. (Note that all are part of the area known as Oceania. Only Australia is not considered to be part of the other three regions.) For the dependent territories, include also the name of the nation which controls the territory. Fill in your answers on the Report Sheet Part A on page 93.

INVESTIGATION 1

Look at the following information about the 14 nations in the Oceania or Pacifi c region. Use this information, together with the additional information on page 101, to make a series of statements or generalisations about the nature of nations in the Pacifi c area. Use the headings in Report Sheet Part B on page 93. Divide these headings among the groups, and report back to the whole class on the fi ndings for your group.

Each group should have 1 or 2 headings to report on. One example has been done to help you.

When all groups have reported on their particular areas, have a class discussion to explain why some Pacifi c nations might be vulnerable to climate change. List the sort of problems that they might experience. (You will be able to test your ideas in more detail in the next Investigation.)

34

7

5

8 9

11 12 1314

15

10

16

17 18 19

20

1

2

6

Group Activity 1

Group Activity 2


NATION Australia Federated States of Micronesia

Fiji

FLAG

HISTORY Aboriginal settlers arrived on the continent from Southeast Asia about 40,000 years before the fi rst Europeans began exploration in the 17th century. No formal territorial claims were made until 1770, when Capt. James Cook took possession in the name of Great Britain. Six colonies were created in the late 18th and 19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.

In 1979 the Federated States of Micronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted a constitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of Free Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004.

Fiji became independent in 1970, after nearly a century as a British colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two military coups in 1987. A new constitution was enacted in 1997. Free and peaceful elections were held in 1999. A civilian-led coup in May 2000 ushered in a prolonged period of political turmoil. Parliamentary elections held in August 2001 provided Fiji with a democratically elected government. In April 2009 there was a military coup.

LAND AREA 7,617,930 sq km 702 sq km 18,270 sq km

CLIMATE Generally arid to semiarid; temperate in south and east; tropical in north.

Tropical; heavy year-round rainfall, especially in the eastern islands; located on southern edge of the typhoon belt with occasionally severe damage.

Tropical marine; only slight seasonal temperature variation.

TERRAIN Mostly low plateau with deserts; fertile plain in southeast.

Islands vary geologically from high mountainous islands to low, coral atolls; volcanic outcroppings on Pohnpei, Kosrae, and Chuuk.

Mostly mountains of volcanic origin.

HIGHEST ELEVATION 2,229 m 791 m 1,324 m

WATER / ENVIRONMENT ISSUES

Limited natural fresh water resources.

POPULATION Total: Average: Structure:

21,007,31037.1 years0-14 years: 18.8% 15-64 years: 67.9% 65 years and over: 13.3%

107,66521.6 years0-14 years: 35.3% 15-64 years: 61.8% 65 years and over: 2.9%


ECONOMY Australia has an enviable, strong economy with a per capita GDP on par with the four dominant West European economies. Robust business and consumer confi dence and high export prices for raw materials and agricultural products are fueling the economy, particularly in mining states. Drought, robust import demand, and a strong currency have pushed the trade defi cit up in recent years, while infrastructure bottlenecks and a tight labor market are constraining growth in export volumes and stoking infl ation.

Economic activity consists primarily of subsistence farming and fi shing. The islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remote location, a lack of adequate facilities, and limited air connections hinder development. The Amended Compact of Free Association with the US guarantees the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) millions of dollars in annual aid through 2023, and establishes a Trust Fund. The country’s medium-term economic outlook appears fragile due not only to the reduction in US assistance but also to the current slow growth of the private sector.

Fiji, endowed with forest, mineral, and fi sh resources, is one of the most developed of the Pacifi c island economies, though still with a large subsistence sector. Sugar exports, remittances from Fijians working abroad, and a growing tourist industry – with 400,000 to 500,000 tourists annually – are the major sources of foreign exchange. Fiji’s tourism industry was damaged by coups in 2006 and 2009 and is facing an uncertain recovery time. Long-term problems include low investment, uncertain land ownership rights, and the government’s inability to manage its budget. Overseas remittances from Fijians working in Kuwait and Iraq have decreased signifi cantly.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (Purchasing Power Parity PPP)

$37,300 $2,300 $3,900

LABOUR FORCE agriculture: 3.6% industry: 21.2% services: 75.2%

agriculture: 28.9% industry: 15.2% services: 55.9%

agriculture: 70% industry and services: 30%

EXPORTS ($US) $142.1 billion $14 million $1.202 billion

IMPORTS ($US) $160 billion $132.7 million $3.12 billion

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (Rank /177 Nations)

3 N/A 92


NATION Kiribati Marshall Islands Nauru

FLAG

HISTORY The Gilbert Islands became a British protectorate in 1892 and a colony in 1915; they were captured by the Japanese in the Pacifi c War in 1941. The islands of Makin and Tarawa were the sites of major US amphibious victories over entrenched Japanese garrisons in 1943. The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in 1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name of Kiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited Phoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship with Kiribati.

After almost four decades under US administration as the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacifi c Islands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under a Compact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as a result of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and 1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missile defence network.

The exact origins of the Nauruans are unclear, since their language does not resemble any other in the Pacifi c. The island was annexed by Germany in 1888 and its phosphate deposits began to be mined early in the 20th century by a German-British consortium. Nauru was occupied by Australian forces in World War I and subsequently became a League of Nations mandate. After the Second World War – and a brutal occupation by Japan – Nauru became a UN trust territory. It achieved its independence in 1968 and joined the UN in 1999 as the world’s smallest independent republic.

LAND AREA 811 sq km 181.3 sq km 21 sq km

CLIMATE Tropical; marine, hot and humid, moderated by trade winds.

Tropical; hot and humid; wet season May to November; islands border typhoon belt.

Tropical with a monsoonal pattern; rainy season (November to February).

TERRAIN Mostly low-lying coral atolls surrounded by extensive reefs.

Low coral limestone and sand islands. Sandy beach rises to fertile ring around raised coral reefs with phosphate plateau in centre.

HIGHEST ELEVATION 81 m 10 m 61 m


Heavy pollution in lagoon of south Tarawa atoll due to heavy migration mixed with traditional practices such as lagoon latrines and open-pit dumping; ground water at risk.

Inadequate supplies of potable water. Limited natural fresh water resources, roof storage tanks collect rainwater, but mostly dependent on a single, aging desalination plant.



63,17421 years0-14 years: 38.5% 15-64 years: 58.6% 65 years and over: 2.8%


ECONOMY A remote country of 33 scattered coral atolls, Kiribati has few natural resources. Commercially viable phosphate deposits were exhausted at the time of independence from the UK in 1979. Copra and fi sh now represent the bulk of production and exports. Economic development is constrained by a shortage of skilled workers, weak infrastructure, and remoteness from international markets. Tourism provides more than one-fi fth of GDP. Foreign fi nancial aid from UK, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and China equals more than 10% of GDP. Remittances from seamen on merchant ships abroad account for more than $5 million each year. Kiribati receives around $15 million annually for the government budget from an Australian trust fund.

US Government assistance is the mainstay of this tiny island economy. Agricultural production, primarily subsistence, is concentrated on small farms; the most important commercial crops are coconuts and breadfruit. Small-scale industry is limited to handicrafts, tuna processing, and copra. The tourist industry, now a small source of foreign exchange employing less than 10% of the labor force, remains the best hope for future added income. The islands have few natural resources, Under the terms of the Amended Compact of Free Association, the US will provide millions of dollars per year to the Marshall Islands (RMI) through 2023, at which time a Trust Fund made up of US and RMI contributions will begin perpetual annual payouts.

Revenues of this tiny island have traditionally come from exports of phosphates, now signifi cantly depleted. Few other resources exist with most necessities being imported. The rehabilitation of mined land and the replacement of income from phosphates are serious long-term problems. As a result of heavy spending from the trust funds, the government faces virtual bankruptcy. The cost to Australia of keeping the government and economy afl oat continues to climb.


$3,600 $2,900 $5,000

LABOUR FORCE agriculture: 2.7% industry: 32% services: 65.3%

agriculture: 31.7% industry: 14.9% services: 53.4%

N/A

EXPORTS ($US) $17 million $9.1 million $64,000

IMPORTS ($US) $62 million $54.7 million $20 million


N/A N/A N/A


New Zealand Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands

The Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D. 800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain, the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to Queen Victoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, the British began the fi rst organized colonial settlement. A series of land wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the native peoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independent dominion in 1907.

After three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacifi c under US administration, this westernmost cluster of the Caroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join the Federated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association with the US was approved in 1986, but not ratifi ed until 1993. It came into force the following year, when the islands gained independence.

The eastern half of the island of New Guinea – second largest in the world – was divided between Germany (north) and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World War I and continued to administer the combined areas until independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island of Bougainville ended in 1997 after claiming some 20,000 lives.

New Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoa at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administer the islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962, when the islands became the fi rst Polynesian nation to reestablish independence in the 20th century. The country dropped the “Western” from its name in 1997.

The UK established a protectorate over the Solomon Islands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fi ghting of World War II occurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in 1976 and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, government malfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civil society. In June 2003, an Australian-led multinational force arrived to restore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has generally been effective in restoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.

268,021 sq km 458 sq km 452,860 sq km 2,934 sq km 27,540 sq km

Temperate with sharp regional contrasts.

Tropical; hot and humid; wet season May to November.

Tropical; northwest monsoon (December to March), southeast monsoon (May to October); slight seasonal temperature variation.

Tropical; rainy season (November to April), dry season (May to October).

Tropical monsoon; few extremes of temperature and weather.

Predominately mountainous with some large coastal plains.

Varying geologically from the high, mountainous main island of Babelthuap to low, coral islands usually fringed by large barrier reefs.

Mostly mountains with coastal lowlands and rolling foothills.

Two main islands (Savaii, Upolu) and several smaller islands and uninhabited islets; narrow coastal plain with volcanic, rocky, rugged mountains in interior.

Mostly rugged mountains with some low coral atolls.

3,754 m 242 m 4,509 m 1,857 m 2,447 m

Deforestation; soil erosion. Inadequate facilities for disposal of solid waste; threats to the marine ecosystem from sand and coral dredging, illegal fi shing practices, and overfi shing.

Rain forest subject to deforestation as a result of growing commercial demand for tropical timber; pollution from mining projects; severe drought.

Soil erosion, deforestation, invasive species, overfi shing.

Deforestation; soil erosion; many of the surrounding coral reefs are dead or dying.

4,173,46036.3 years0-14 years: 20.9% 15-64 years: 66.5% 65 years and over: 12.6%


5,931,76921.5 years0-14 years: 37.3% 15-64 years: 58.7% 65 years and over: 4%



Over the past 20 years the government has transformed New Zealand from an agrarian economy dependent on concessionary British market access to a more industrialized, free market economy that can compete globally. Consumer and government spending have driven growth in recent years. Exports were equal to about 22% of GDP in 2007, down from 33% of GDP in 2001. A large balance of payments defi cit poses another challenge in managing the economy.

The economy consists primarily of tourism, subsistence agriculture, and fi shing. The Compact of Free Association with the US, entered into after the end of the UN trusteeship on 1 October 1994, provided Palau with up to $700 million in US aid for the following 15 years in return for furnishing military facilities. Business and tourist arrivals numbered 63,000 in 2003.

Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, but exploitation has been hampered by rugged terrain and the high cost of developing infrastructure. Agriculture provides a subsistence livelihood for 85% of the population. Mineral deposits, including copper, gold, and oil, account for nearly two-thirds of export earnings.

The economy of Samoa has traditionally been dependent on development aid, family remittances from overseas, agriculture, and fi shing. The country is vulnerable to devastating storms. Agriculture employs two-thirds of the labor force and furnishes 90% of exports, featuring coconut cream, coconut oil, and copra. The fi sh catch declined during the El Nino of 2002-03 but returned to normal by mid-2005. The manufacturing sector mainly processes agricultural products. Tourism is an expanding sector, accounting for 25% of GDP.

The bulk of the population depends on agriculture, fi shing, and forestry for at least part of its livelihood. The islands are rich in undeveloped mineral resources such as lead, zinc, nickel, and gold.

$27,200 $7,600 $2,100 $5,400 $1,900

agriculture: 7% industry: 19% services: 74%

agriculture: 20% industry: NA% services: NA%

agriculture: 85% industry: NA% services: NA%

agriculture: NA% industry: NA% services: NA%


$27.35 billion $5.882 million $4.686 billion $131 million $237 million

$29.06 billion $107.3 million $2.629 billion $324 million $256 million

19 N/A 145 77 129


NATION Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu

FLAG

HISTORY Tonga - unique among Pacifi c nations - never completely lost its indigenous governance. The archipelagos of “The Friendly Islands” were united into a Polynesian kingdom in 1845. Tonga became a constitutional monarchy in 1875 and a British protectorate in 1900; it withdrew from the protectorate and joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970. Tonga remains the only monarchy in the Pacifi c.

In 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the Ellice Islands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the Gilbert Islands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separate British colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000, Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name “.tv” for $50 million in royalties over a 12-year period.

Multiple waves of colonizers, each speaking a distinct language, migrated to the New Hebrides in the millennia preceding European exploration in the 18th century. This settlement pattern accounts for the complex linguistic diversity found on the archipelago to this day. The British and French, who settled the New Hebrides in the 19th century, agreed in 1906 to an Anglo-French Condominium, which administered the islands until independence in 1980, when the new name of Vanuatu was adopted.

LAND AREA 718 sq km 26 sq km 12,200 sq km

CLIMATE Tropical; modifi ed by trade winds; warm season (December to May), cool season (May to December).

Tropical; moderated by easterly trade winds (March to November); westerly gales and heavy rain (November to March).

Tropical; moderated by southeast trade winds from May to October; moderate rainfall from November to April; may be affected by cyclones from December to April.

TERRAIN Most islands have limestone base formed from uplifted coral formation; others have limestone overlying volcanic base.

Very low-lying and narrow coral atolls. Mostly mountainous islands of volcanic origin; narrow coastal plains.

HIGHEST ELEVATION 1,033 m 5 m 1,877 m


Deforestation results as more and more land is being cleared for agriculture and settlement; some damage to coral reefs from starfi sh and indiscriminate coral and shell collectors; overhunting threatens native sea turtle populations.

Since there are no streams or rivers and groundwater is not potable, most water needs must be met by catchment systems with storage facilities (the Japanese Government has built one desalination plant and plans to build one other).

Most of the population does not have access to a reliable supply of potable water; deforestation.


119,00921.8 years0-14 years: 33.7% 15-64 years: 62% 65 years and over: 4.3%



ECONOMY Tonga has a small, open, South Pacifi c island economy. It has a narrow export base in agricultural goods. Squash, vanilla beans, and yams are the main crops, and agricultural exports, including fi sh, make up two-thirds of total exports. The country must import a high proportion of its food, mainly from New Zealand. The country remains dependent on external aid and remittances from Tongan communities overseas to offset its trade defi cit. Tourism is the second-largest source of hard currency earnings following remittances.

Tuvalu consists of a densely populated, scattered group of nine coral atolls with poor soil. Subsistence farming and fi shing are the primary economic activities. Fewer than 1,000 tourists, on average, visit Tuvalu annually. About 15% of the adult male population work as seamen on merchant ships abroad and remittances are a vital source of income. Substantial income is received annually from the Tuvalu Trust Fund (TTF) established in 1987. Tuvalu also derives royalties from the lease of its “.tv” Internet domain name.

This South Pacifi c island economy is based primarily on small-scale agriculture, which provides a living for 65% of the population. Fishing, offshore fi nancial services, and tourism, with more than 60,000 visitors in 2005, are other mainstays of the economy.


$5,100 $1,600 $3,900

LABOUR FORCE agriculture: 65% industry and services: 35%

People make a living mainly through exploitation of the sea, reefs, and atolls and from wages sent home by those abroad (mostly workers in the phosphate industry and sailors).


EXPORTS ($US) $22 million $1 million $40 million

IMPORTS ($US) $139 million $12.91 million $156 million


55 N/A 120

Information from CIA The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/profi leguide.html


Additional information

The Pacifi c OceanThe Pacifi c Ocean is the largest of the world’s fi ve oceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The division between the Pacifi c Ocean and the Southern Ocean is at 60 degrees south.

ClimateAir pressure systems and resultant wind patterns are similar for the south and east: trade winds and westerly winds are well-developed patterns, modifi ed by seasonal fl uctuations; tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico from June to October and affect Mexico and Central America; continental infl uences cause climatic uniformity to be much less pronounced in the eastern and western regions at the same latitude in the North Pacifi c Ocean; the western Pacifi c is monsoonal – a rainy season occurs during the summer months, when moisture-laden winds blow from the ocean over the land, and a dry season during the winter months, when dry winds blow from the Asian landmass back to the ocean; tropical cyclones (typhoons) may strike southeast and east Asia from May to December

TerrainIslands in the Pacifi c Ocean are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs, and uplifted coral platforms.

Continental islands include New Guinea, the islands of New Zealand, and the Philippines. These islands are structurally associated with nearby continents.

High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and the Solomon Islands.

The third and fourth types of islands are both the result of coralline island building. Coral reefs are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava fl ows under the ocean’s surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef.

A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands.

Surface currents in the northern Pacifi c are dominated by a clockwise, warm-water circular system of currents, and in the southern Pacifi c by a counterclockwise, cool-water system. The ocean fl oor in the eastern Pacifi c is dominated by the East Pacifi c Rise, while the western Pacifi c is dissected by deep trenches, including the Mariana Trench, which is the world’s deepest.

Natural hazardsThese include a zone of violent volcanic and earthquake activity sometimes referred to as the “Pacifi c Ring of Fire”; subject to tropical cyclones (typhoons) in southeast and east Asia from May to December (most frequent from July to October); tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico and strike Central America and Mexico from June to October (most common in August and September); cyclical El Nino/La Nina phenomenon occurs in the equatorial Pacifi c, infl uencing weather in the Western Hemisphere and the western Pacifi c.

EconomyThe Pacifi c Ocean is a major contributor to the world economy and particularly to those nations its waters directly touch. It provides low-cost sea transportation between East and West, extensive fi shing grounds, offshore oil and gas fi elds, minerals, and sand and gravel for the construction industry. In 1996, over 60% of the world’s fi sh catch came from the Pacifi c Ocean. Exploitation of offshore oil and gas reserves is playing an ever-increasing role in the energy supplies of the US, Australia, NZ, China, and Peru.

CIA World Fact Book and Wikipedia Pacifi c Islands


Are sea levels rising in the Pacific?INVESTIGATION 2

There are six sets of possible scenarios or predictions for the next hundred years of climate warming and sea level rises:

Prediction 1 2 3 4 5 6

Temp rise (and range) (°C) 1.8 (1. – 2.9) 2.4 (1.4 – 3.8) 2.4 (1.4 – 3.8) 2.8 (1.7 – 4.4) 3.4 (2.0 – 5.4) 4.0 (2.4 – 6.4)

Sea level rise (cm) 18 – 38 20 – 45 20 – 43 21 – 48 23 – 51 26 – 59

Group Activity 3You have seen that several of the Pacifi c nations are very low-lying — and will be in trouble if sea levels rise. Even those that have high mountain peaks may also be in trouble — as most of the population and facilities of these nations are located in the coastal areas, as are the beaches that provide the tourist appeal that many rely on.

So a rise in sea levels may be disastrous for many Pacifi c nations.

Is the Pacifi c sea level rising?

Look at the following evidence and answer these questions on the Report Page Part C on page 94:

Are Pacifi c sea levels rising? If so, what are the main causes? How do we know this? How certain can we be about this knowledge? If sea levels are changing, what are the predicted

smallest and largest rises that can be expected over the next 100 years?

SOURCE A An explanation of changes in sea levels

Sea levels around islands are not static. They are affected by many infl uences, including tides, winds, air pressure, heat, the nature of the sea fl oor, the rising or sinking of land, and the introduction of new water into an area.

Think of the sea as an area of water encased in a rubber envelope – a water bed! If you were to press down on that waterbed some water would move to another area, and the area where you were pressing down would be lower. This is basically what happens with an area of high pressure — some of the water is pressed lower, and it displaces to raise some other areas higher.

Imagine that this is happening in several places at once, and you can see that sea levels can be different in different areas at the same time.

• Mountain glaciers and snow cover have declined on average in both hemispheres.

• Losses from the land-based ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica have very likely contributed to sea level rise between 1993 and 2003.

• Ocean warming causes seawater to expand, which contributes to sea level rising.

Water also expands if it is heated. So, if the atmosphere is getting hotter the sea level will rise.

Sea levels will also rise if large new quantities of water are introduced into an area — such as by melting land ice (but not melting sea ice).

The earth is subject to movements — earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, shifts along fault lines, continental drift, erosion can all have an impact on the height of the land in the sea.

The sea is tidal, and periodically there can be unusually high tides that can affect the level of the sea in relation to the land.

Sea level changes can also be temporary, but major, through weather events such as cyclones and tsunamis.

Often it is a combination of several of these elements that create catastrophic impacts of the sea on the land.

• Sea level rose at an average rate of about 1.7mm over the last century, about 1.8 mm/year during the years 1961-2003, and an average rate of 3.1 mm/year during 1993-2003. It is not clear whether this is a long-term trend or just variability.

• Antarctic sea ice shows no signifi cant overall trend, consistent with a lack of warming in that region.

SOURCE B Some fi ndings of an expert report

Based on the fi ndings of the IPCC Report 2007 www.ipc.ch/ipccreport/ar4-syr.htm


SEA LEVEL AND CLIMATE CHANGE MONITORING STATION

Wind Monitor &Air Temperature

Satellite Telemetry Antenna

BarometricPressureSensor

AcousticSensor

Calibration& SoundingTube

Instantaneouswater levelinside well

Tide Staff

Pressure & Water Temperature SensorSOURCE: National Tidal Centre, AustraliaThe fi ndings from these

monitoring stations are:

Net relative sea level rise in millimetres/year to June 2008

Location Installation date

Net trend mm/yr

Change from June 2007

Cook Islands 19/02/1993 5.3 1.1

Tonga 21/01/1993 7.4 1.0

Fiji 23/10/1992 3.4 1.2

Vanuatu 15/01/1993 3.3 0.8

Samoa 26/02/1993 5.2 0.6

Tuvalu 02/03/1993 5.6 0.6

Kiribati 02/12/1992 4.1 -1.5

Nauru 07/07/1993 4.8 -1.6

Solomon Islands 28/07/1994 7.6 2.8

Papua New Guinea 28/09/1994 6.1 1.6

Federated States of Micronesia 17/12/2001 22.5 6.1

Marshall Islands 07/05/1993 3.1 -0.2

SOURCE C The South Pacifi c Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project

In 1991 Australia responded to increasing concerns among Pacifi c nations about possible climate change leading to rising sea levels.

It established a series of monitoring stations at 12 sites to record sea levels.

The stations are designed to take into account the main variables that can affect sea change, including the instability of the land itself (rising or falling).

http://www.globaleducation.edna.edu.au/globaled/go/pid/3111

Note:

1 The readings for Federated States of Micronesia are considered less reliable because of the short period of observations.

2 The readings at Tonga are to be treated with caution because of possible tectonic movement of the island.

3 June 2007 – July 2008 was a period of stronger than normal trade wind activity due to La Nina conditions.

4 As sea level records become longer they will become more reliable.

South Pacifi c Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project, Sea Level Data Summary Report, July 2007-June 2008 www.bom.gov.au/ntc/IDO60102/IDO60102_2008_1.pdf

Complete Part C of your report.


What impacts might rising sea levels have?

The evidence that follows shows some of the consequences of rising sea levels and/or extreme weather events (such as tidal surges or cyclones) for low-lying Pacifi c islands, or low-lying coastal areas on those islands that have areas of higher elevation.

Tuvalu, one of the lowest-lying nations in the Pacifi c, is one of the nations most likely to be affected. The main island is Funafuti.

Here are headings for some of the main consequences that would occur on low-lying Pacifi c islands through sustained sea level rises and increased sea surges:

Beaches Biodiversity Coral reefs Culture Disease Economy Erosion Fishing Food Fresh water Health Housing Infrastructure Jobs Land Mangroves Migration Population pressuresTourism Trees

Divide these among groups in your class. Then look at the following evidence, identify from the topic headings in the left column if each document is relevant to your topics, and if so read it and use it to create Part D of your report on page 94.

INVESTIGATION 3

Group Activity 4

Images courtesy www.tuvaluislands.com/


(i) 5.00pm, Tuesday, Feb 8, 2005, found a lot of Tuvaluans on the capital island of Funafuti watching the tides and wondering if this is truly the beginning of the end of our tiny nation.

Waves crashed one metre away from the main road bringing rocks, debris of all sorts right to the middle of the main road, slowing traffi c and endangering the lives of local people.

The seawalls that were constructed to be barriers from the wrath of the waves and the sea stood no chance against the damages of the sea over the years, and now they are only tatters of wire among debris along the shores.

Homes located on the narrower parts of the island experience fl ooding every time the tides are high. Sea water come fl owing from the sea right into these people’s properties … water streaming into nearby houses, gardens, and pig pens, when the weather and tides are like this.

(ii) Tepuka’s coral sands make walking in thongs tricky, and it’s hot on the beach with the dazzling sunshine belting down and barely a breeze, but I dare not walk in bare feet because my soft Palagi (Westerner, outsider) soles would be cut by hidden shells, allowing bacteria in the sand to infect me … made worse by sewage from septic tanks seeping onto the atoll and into the Lagoon when periodic and increasing, localised fl ooding events occur.

“I’ve noticed that throughout the last four years there’s been a lot of erosion here on this side of the island. The beach used to be where the water is now, and I’ve seen a lot of trees taken away by the sea,” [Chief Medical Offi cer Dr Steve Homasi] says.

(iii) We turn to look across the lagoon at the barren brown rock that used to be Tepuka Vili Vili, a smaller cousin to Tepuka which used to have the same kind of dense palm and pandanus forest crown and dazzling coral sands beach all around it.

In 1997, Cyclone Meli ripped much of Tepuka Vili Vili’s green cap and coral sands beach away, and the indefatigable Pacifi c Ocean battering against the defenseless remains fi nished the job.

Sam and I turn back to the depressing, distressing sight of as many as two dozen large skeletal-white coconut and pandanus palms lying on the beach where they’ve fallen over the last few years.

(iv) Islander’s fresh water tanks are full to overfl owing, but the water table just beneath the atoll is saturated, the water brackish and unusable, contaminated by sea water seeping into the atoll from below.

Poisonous to any root crops, like the large, yam-like vegetable called pulaka, once a staple in the Tuvaluan’s diet, planted around the atoll.

Dr Mark D Hayes, www.tuvaluislands.com/news/archives/2005/2005-02-22_tmta.htm

www.tuvaluislands.com/news/archives/2005/2005-02-22_tmta2.htmwww.tuvaluislands.com/news/archives/2005/2005-02-22_tmta3.htm

SOURCE A Extracts from /Tuvalu Mo Te Atua’ (Tuvalu For The Almighty)

This document will tell you about:BeachesDiseaseErosionFoodFresh waterHealthHousingInfrastructureTrees

This document will tell you about:BeachesEconomyFoodTourism

(i) Economic activity is mostly located along the coasts. Take commercial agriculture in Fiji, for example. Sugar cane – the third-biggest foreign-currency earner – is grown mostly on fl at areas along coasts or in low-lying river deltas. Over the last 50 years or so increasing seawater penetration of coastal aquifers has been identifi ed as a reason for falling sugar content in cane. Research is currently being pursued to develop more salt-tolerant strains of sugarcane and other crops.

(ii) Or take tourism – increasingly important as a source of revenue throughout the Pacifi c islands. Tourists are attracted by sun, sand and sea. But tourist beaches are being eroded by sealevel rise. Some resort owners spend huge amounts of money maintaining a beach which 50 years ago maintained itself.

New Internationalist www.newint.org/issue291/global.htm

SOURCE B Extracts from ‘Global Warning


SOURCE C ‘Our Pacifi c Neighbours Under Threat’(i) In Tonga, a collection of 175 small

islands in the South Pacifi c, the rise in the sea level has already contaminated the drinking water supply of the central and northern islands. That, along with frequent droughts, has required the shipment of drinking water to the islands for the past two years.

(ii) Many diseases are linked to climate variability in the region. For example, vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever occur in the region. In combination with rapid urbanisation, dengue has spread throughout the region and currently presents a major health risk. Water-borne diseases, such as typhoid, remain problematic in Papua New Guinea and Tonga, and intestinal worms are still common in the region … Since the health and medical facilities are often not well developed in many of the small island states, even a marginal increase in the incidence of disease would place great stress on their public health systems.

(iii) Warmer temperatures have led to the bleaching of the Pacifi c Islands’ main source of survival — the coral reefs. Bleaching occurs when reef-building corals, reacting to stress such as warmer waters, loosen the algae that help feed them. Because the algae give them colour, the starved corals look pale, thus the term “bleaching”. Continued bleaching ultimately kills corals.

(iv) Coral reefs serve as a major source of coastal protection for low-lying atolls because they act as natural breakwaters to protect shorelines and beaches from erosion. They also provide shelter for one quarter of all marine life, and are a source of food and income for islanders. The well being of coral reefs is, therefore, vital to the islanders’ survival.

(v) Rising seas have covered low-lying coconut plantation in Vanuatu. In Niue, breadfruit trees, which supply a staple food, once produced fruit for three months of the year. Now, however, they were developing fruit all year, but the immature fruit was dropping off the trees before it ripened.

(vi) The loss of beaches and the bleaching of coral are perhaps the most devastating damages to the natural tourist amenities of the Pacifi c islands. Some countries, such as the Cook Islands and Palau, are very vulnerable, since a high percentage of their national income is generated from the tourist industry.

www.geocities.com/wingian_chan/globwarm/pacifi c.htm

SOURCE D ‘The Pacifi c Nations and the impact of global warming’Coastal roads, bridges and plantation are suffering increasing erosion, even on islands that have not experienced inappropriate coastal development. Increased occurrences of climatic extremes, for instance, more intense storms and increased incidence of fl oods, impacts on housing and community infrastructure, including culturally signifi cant sites such as graveyards. In Majuro, in the Marshall Islands, sea walls have been constructed to try to protect existing infrastructure and halt the impacts of erosion.

www.foe.org.au/resources/chain-reaction/editions/91/the-pacifi c-nations-and-the-impacts-of-global-warming/

SOURCE E Vulnerability of island countries to climate changeThe main islands of Fiji, Tonga, and Western Samoa are all comparatively large and high islands. Large portions of their coastlines consist of coral limestone and/or hard lava, which resist wave action. On these islands, however, the population is concentrated on narrow, low-lying areas fringing the mountains along the coast. Even though the area of the whole island is large and the average elevation is high enough, the economic activities are mostly concentrated on the coast. The capital of each of these 3 countries is situated on a large coastal area. Therefore, the effects of inundation and fl ooding are not small for them.

The risk of inundation and fl ooding is further intensifi ed by social factors. In recent years, many countries in the South Pacifi c have experienced the migration of people from outer islands to the capitals, and a sharp increase in the population of the low-lying coastalareas. Such migration is often associated with economic diffi culties, and the land-ownership system does not allow the migrants to buy new land in some countries. Therefore, people tend to live in very low and unsafe areas, such as a lagoon coast in Nuku’alofa, Tonga. Such population pressure also drives intensive landfi lls along the coasts. All of these social tendencies make the areas surrounding and including these islands’ capitals very vulnerable to sea level rise and climate change.

Nobuo Mimura, ‘Vulnerability of island countries in the South Pacifi c to sea level rise and climate change’, Climate Research Vol 12:137-143, 1999

www.int-res.com/articles/cr/12/c012p137.pdf

This document will tell you about:BeachesBiodiversityCoral reefsDiseaseErosionFishingFoodFresh waterHealthTourismTrees

This document will tell you about:CultureErosionHousingInfrastructure

This document will tell you about:CultureEconomyMigrationPopulation pressures


Mangrove communities are found throughout the coastal margins of the Asia/Pacifi c region, and thus such impacts from sea-level rise are likely to be felt quite broadly … Like coral reefs, mangroves provide critical habitat for the Asia/Pacifi c’s coastal biodiversity, shoreline protection, and are valuable resources for human populations.

CSIRO, Climate Change in the Asia/Pacifi c Region, 2006 www.csiro.au/resources/pfkd.html

This document will tell you about:CultureDiseaseHealthMigration

This document will tell you about:Migration

This document will tell you about:BiodiversityMangroves

SOURCE F Mangroves and climate change

Projected changes in mangrove area in various Pacifi c Island nations by 2100. Horizontal green bars represent minimum impacts based upon extrapolation of historical sea-level rise. Red horizontal bars represents upper limit of mangrove loss based upon Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s upper range of 21st century sea-level rise.

SOURCE G Climate Change ‘Refugees’ and International LawThe constant wet ground has also led to an increase in mosquitoes, which has led to an increase in malaria. The [Carteret] islanders’ diet is limited now to fi sh, coconut and seaweed, supplemented by rice delivered from the mainland once every six months.

These changes to diet have led to increased rates of diabetes and diarrhoea. The people of the Carteret Islands see their relocation to Bougainville as the only viable option, despite the fact that it remains a dangerous place rife with automatic weapons that remain from the confl ict. Despite the perils they face, it is not an easy decision to move. It means uprooting cultural, family and traditional ties, and leaving an ancestral home. Some of the islanders would rather drown than move at all.

Jane McAdam, NSW Bar Association, 24 October 2007 www.nswbar.asn.au/circulars/climatechange1.pdf

SOURCE H What Will Become of Tuvalu’s Climate Refugees?Environmentalists have long worried about the fate of this tiny Pacifi c state. Now, however, international legal experts have also taken up the topic of its imminent demise. A nation’s “territorial integrity” is one of the paramount legal principles. It’s unprecedented, however, for a country to completely lose its territory without the use of military force …

Only one thing seems clear so far: without a physical territory, all the Tuvaluans become stateless. There is no general right to a back-up nation or to citizenship of a neighboring country. Those who are already emigrating are not considered refugees. Even so, their numbers are growing …

Young families in particular are fl eeing the earth that is slowly sinking beneath their feet. Over 3,000 Tuvaluans have already left their homeland; the largest exile community is in Auckland, New Zealand. In the meantime, however, refugees are increasingly knocking on locked doors, particularly in nearby Australia, where immigration has long been an election issue.

Anwen Roberts, 14 Sept 2007 www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,505819,00.html

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SOURCE I Storm surges associated with Tropical Cyclone Meena, February 1 2008Impact on Trader Jack’s Bar and Restaurant, Rarotonga, Cook Islands

www.ipcc.ch/pdf/presentations/wg2-presentations/climate-changes-impact-small-islands.pdf

This document will tell you about:BeachesErosionTourism

This document will tell you about:FoodHousingInfrastructure

SOURCE J Extracts from ‘Tuvalu struggles to hold back tide’

The group of nine tiny islands in the South Pacifi c only just break the surface of the ocean – but for how much longer?

During a King Tide, which is what the islanders call the highest tides of the year, waves rolling off the ocean can have a devastating effect.

The islands’ main road is submerged and nearby homes are threatened by the rising waters.

“We have never seen this in the past,” a concerned resident tells me. “We have never seen water coming in this far.”

The higher the King Tides get, the harder it is to keep things going here. A woman tells me that she is unable to grow any food crops because the land has become too salty.

The sea water is poisoning the soil and people are nervous. “It makes me feel scared,” another woman confesses. “What will happen to us in 10 years’ time?”

And the problem is getting worse. A local meteorologist tells me that the King Tides are getting higher, and it is a trend set to continue …

Only a small rise will see parts of the islands disappear.

This includes the runway, which is a vital lifeline to the outside world.

People here say there must be a technological fi x if a rich country like UAE can build entirely new islands.

But the problem is that these islands are founded on coral which is porous; saving these islands will cost a fortune.

But with a population of just 11,000 people, will the outside world think it is worthwhile?

David Shukman http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7203313.stm


How might the Australian Defence Force be involved as a Pacific neighbour in this issue?

Australia is a part of the Pacifi c region. In 2007 the Australian Strategic Policies Institute (ASPI) published a special report on Australia and the South Pacifi c: rising to the challenge. The ASPI report stressed three key ideas:

If changes in sea levels lead to increasing problems in some Pacifi c nations the Australian Government might be called on to provide assistance by the Australian Defence Force.

INVESTIGATION 4

Group Activity 5

1 Many of the states in the Pacifi c region have problems, including possible climate change impacts:

The island states of the South Pacifi c face severe challenges to the security needs of their peoples: most have between 30 and 40% of their population aged fourteen or under, their economic growth is slow with income levels falling and high youth unemployment; and there are problems of governance, including corruption. High rates of population growth will produce rising poverty unless income growth rates can be raised. Other problems include transnational crime, natural disasters and sea level rise.

2 Australia has important interests in the region: The stability of the region is an important factor in our

own security, and this translates into on-going defence, security, economic, aid, environmental and humanitarian activities.

3 Australia also has both the responsibility and the capacity to help the region:

We also have substantial assets to advance those interests, whilst also helping the Pacifi c Island countries. On occasions this might mean Australia having to directly respond to regional crises but more should be done to avert such outcomes. Australia has made a huge investment to date in partnerships in the Pacifi c, and this should continue. Australia’s global partners expect us to lead in the region but increasing economic and political interest from other external powers may undermine Australia’s ability to shape outcomes in the South Pacifi c.

Australia and the South Pacifi c: rising to the challenge, page 1. Available as PDF at http://www.aspi.org.au>www.aspi.org.au

SOURCE A The ADF is able to:• Construct simple buildings such as houses• Provide communications• Repair electrical and mechanical damage• Bring in supplies of food and water• Set up emergency medical facilities• Repair roads and runways• Build temporary bridges• Provide maritime protection• Transport people by air or ship for people and equipment• Provide troops for security and order• Set up a water purifi cation process.

1 Why is the ADF able to be so effective with such relief? Look back at your answers to question 1 on the fi rst page of this unit for help.

2 Is such relief more likely to be permanent or temporary? Explain your views.

3 Look at the following document, which sets out some of the new challenges that the ADF might face with climate change. Summarise the main point made in each paragraph of the report.

Your fi nal task is to complete Part E of your report on page 95, to provide the Australian Government with some ideas about how the ADF might be able to help in various situations, and what the advantages and disadvantages of action would be in each case.

Divide the situation listed in Part E of the report on page 95 among groups. Each group should be responsible for reporting on one or two of these situations to the whole class.

Look at the situations you have been allocated, decide what the ADF could do, and provide a major argument for and against involvement in each situation.

To do this you should look at segment 5, ‘Do we want the ADF involved in global humanitarian aid?’ of Focus on the Force, on the Defence 2020 CD-ROM, also available online at www.defence2020.info. This will provide you with some arguments for and against ADF involvement in such activities.

You also need to look at Sources A-C below, showing what the ADF can and does do in emergency relief situations, and how it is tackling the issue.


SOURCE B A change in climate for the Australian Defence Force

SOURCE C The Asia Pacifi c Civil-Military Centre of ExcellenceThe Asia Pacifi c Civil-Military Centre of Excellence … which sits within the Department of Defence, will enhance the effectiveness of Australia’s civilian and military collaboration to prevent, mitigate and respond to the impact of natural disasters and confl icts in the Asia Pacifi c region.

The Centre will support Australian Government agencies to strengthen civil-military collaboration through research, and the development of training and doctrine.

The Centre, located in Queanbeyan, New South Wales, will be staffed by Government offi cials from a range of departments and agencies that play a central role in Australia’s international engagement. The Centre will develop linkages with non-government and international organisations.

Anthony Bergin and Jacob Townsend, ASPI Special Report Issue 7 – A change in climate for the Australian Defence Force, pages 2-3.

Available as PDF at http://www.aspi.org.au>www.aspi.org.au

to be increased illegal fi shing in Australian waters as climate change exacerbates the impacts of over-fi shing in regional fi sheries. Protecting our marine resources might require more ADF enforcement efforts.

Main point:

(iv) In responding to the direct and indirect effects of climate change, it’s unlikely that the ADF would be deployed to pressure another state to change its carbon emissions policies. It may, however, fi nd itself on more missions that blend disaster relief, development assistance and state-building.

Main point:

(v) Finally, nuclear industries in the Asia–Pacifi c are likely to expand, as states take a fresh look at the potential of nuclear power to mitigate climate change. Along with the possible creation of special police units and the use of private security fi rms, the ADF may also be required to secure any nuclear enrichment, supply and power generation facilities we might develop here. Additionally, ADF counter-proliferation missions, such as those under the Proliferation Security Initiative, may become more frequent.

Main point:

4 How will this new Centre make Australia a better regional neighbour?

Use all this information to complete Part E of your report.

ConclusionNow that you have completed your report you can use the information to make your own decisions about these questions involving Australian Government policies about the use of the Australian Defence Force:

1 Is the Australian Defence Force capable of providing effective help for Pacifi c region neighbours in time of crisis? Explain your answer.

2 Do you think it is appropriate for the ADF to be involved in emergency relief in the Pacifi c region? Why or why not?

3 Do you think the ADF should be involved in longer-term activities that might help Pacifi c nations manage the impact of possible sea level changes? Why or why not?

4 Is it desirable for the Australian Government to accept ‘climate change refugees’ if they exist and claim residence in Australia? Prepare a debate on this issue.

Anthony Bergin and Jacob Townsend, ASPI Special Report Issue 7 – A change in climate for the Australian Defence Force, pages 2-3. Available as PDF at www.aspi.org.au

(i) Several countries on the coast between Thailand and Vietnam are vulnerable, as well as Indonesia, the Philippines and the atoll states of the South Pacifi c. Coastal Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia could be threatened with more regular and/or intense fl ooding. Mass movements of people may require more ADF border protection activities.

Main point:

(ii) Indirectly, climate change could act as a threat multiplier for instability in our neighbourhood, particularly by intensifying resource confl ict within and between states and by inducing migration. Many countries already struggle to cope with natural disasters. Food production patterns could change because of higher temperatures and more variable rainfall. Some areas will struggle to grow current food staples, such as rice. Climate change may increase the geographic range of vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, Ross River virus and yellow fever, while increasing the risk of water-borne disease. It will also increase pressure on water supplies in most regions of Asia.

Main point:

(iii) Of particular concern is the potential for climate change to induce fi sh stock migration and other changes in marine biosystems. Island nation economies that rely on marine resources would be adversely affected if those resources migrated beyond their maritime jurisdiction. There is likely


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