INTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY

Dr. Rose HuberDr. Rose Huber

FALL 2010FALL 2010

Chapter 1Chapter 1

The Science of The Science of

PsychologyPsychology

What Is Psychology?What Is Psychology?• PsychologyPsychology - scientific study of - scientific study of

behavior and mental processes.behavior and mental processes.– BehaviorBehavior - outward or overt actions - outward or overt actions

and reactionsand reactions– Mental processesMental processes - - internal, covert internal, covert

activity of our mindsactivity of our minds

• Psychology is a sciencePsychology is a science– Prevent possible biases from leading Prevent possible biases from leading

to faulty observations to faulty observations – Precise and careful measurementPrecise and careful measurement

LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology

Psychology’s Four GoalsPsychology’s Four Goals

1.1. DescriptionDescription– What is happening?What is happening?

2.2. ExplanationExplanation• Why is it happening?Why is it happening?• TheoryTheory - general explanation of a set of - general explanation of a set of

observations or factsobservations or facts

3.3. PredictionPrediction• Will it happen again?Will it happen again?

4.4. ControlControl• How can it be changed?How can it be changed?

LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology

Psychology’s RootsPsychology’s RootsAristotle (384-322 B.C.)Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, a naturalist and philosopher, theorized Aristotle, a naturalist and philosopher, theorized about psychology’s concepts. He suggested that about psychology’s concepts. He suggested that

the soul and body are not separate and that the soul and body are not separate and that knowledge grows from experience. knowledge grows from experience.

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StructuralismStructuralism

• StructuralismStructuralism - focused on - focused on structure or basic elements of structure or basic elements of the mind.the mind.

• Structuralism died out in early Structuralism died out in early 1900s.1900s.

LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism

Psychological Science is BornPsychological Science is Born

Wundt and psychology’s first Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the graduate students studied the

“atoms of the mind” by “atoms of the mind” by conducting experiments at conducting experiments at

Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. This Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. This work is considered the birth of work is considered the birth of

psychology as we know it psychology as we know it today.today.

Developed the technique of Developed the technique of objective introspection – objective introspection –

process of objectively process of objectively examining and measuring one’s examining and measuring one’s thoughts and mental activities.thoughts and mental activities.

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FunctionalismFunctionalism

• FunctionalismFunctionalism - how the mind - how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, allows people to adapt, live, work, and play.and play.

• Proposed by William James. Proposed by William James.

• Influenced the modern fields of:Influenced the modern fields of:• Educational psychologyEducational psychology• Evolutionary psychologyEvolutionary psychology• Industrial/organizational psychologyIndustrial/organizational psychology

LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism

Psychological Science is BornPsychological Science is Born

American philosopher William James wrote an American philosopher William James wrote an important 1890 psychology textbook. Mary Calkins, important 1890 psychology textbook. Mary Calkins,

James’s student, became the APA’s first female James’s student, became the APA’s first female president.president.

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Psychological Science is BornPsychological Science is Born

Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, and his Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, and his followers emphasized the importance of the followers emphasized the importance of the

unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.

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Psychological Science is BornPsychological Science is Born

Psychology originated in many disciplines and countries. It was, until the 1920s, defined as the science of

mental life.

Psychological Science Psychological Science DevelopsDevelops

BehavioristsBehaviorists

Watson and later Skinner emphasized the Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter study of overt behavior as the subject matter

of scientific psychology. of scientific psychology.

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Psychological Science Psychological Science DevelopsDevelops

Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic Psychology

Maslow and Rogers emphasized current Maslow and Rogers emphasized current environmental influences on our growth environmental influences on our growth

potential and our need for love and acceptance. potential and our need for love and acceptance.

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Gestalt PsychologyGestalt Psychology• GestaltGestalt – “good figure” – “good figure”

psychology.psychology.

• Started with Wertheimer, who Started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and studied sensation and perception.perception.

• Gestalt ideas are now part of Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of the study of cognitive cognitive psychologypsychology, a field focusing not , a field focusing not only on perception but also on only on perception but also on learning, memory, thought learning, memory, thought processes, and problem solving.processes, and problem solving.

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism

PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis• PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis - the theory and therapy - the theory and therapy

based on the work of Sigmund Freud.based on the work of Sigmund Freud.

• Freud’s patients suffered from nervous Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders with no found physical cause.disorders with no found physical cause.– Freud proposed that there is an Freud proposed that there is an unconscious unconscious

(unaware) mind into which we push, or (unaware) mind into which we push, or repressrepress, all of our threatening urges and , all of our threatening urges and desires.desires.

– He believed that these repressed urges, in He believed that these repressed urges, in trying to surface, created nervous disorders.trying to surface, created nervous disorders.

– Freud stressed the importance of early Freud stressed the importance of early childhood experiences.childhood experiences.

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism

Psychology TodayPsychology Today

We define psychology today as the We define psychology today as the scientific study of behavior (what we scientific study of behavior (what we

do) and mental processes (inner do) and mental processes (inner thoughts and feelings).thoughts and feelings).

Psychological Associations & Psychological Associations & SocietiesSocieties

The American Psychological Association is the The American Psychological Association is the largest organization of psychology with 160,000 largest organization of psychology with 160,000

members world-wide, followed by the British members world-wide, followed by the British Psychological Society with 34,000 members.Psychological Society with 34,000 members.

Psychology’s Big QuestionPsychology’s Big Question

Nature versus NurtureNature versus Nurture

The controversy over the relative The controversy over the relative contributions of biology and experience.contributions of biology and experience.

Nurture works on what nature endows.

Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Psychology’s Three Main Levels of AnalysisAnalysis

Psychology’s Current Psychology’s Current PerspectivesPerspectivesPerspectivePerspective FocusFocus Sample QuestionsSample QuestionsNeuroscienceNeuroscience How the body and How the body and

brain enables brain enables emotions?emotions?

How are messages How are messages transmitted in the body? transmitted in the body? How is blood chemistry How is blood chemistry linked with moods and linked with moods and motives?motives?

EvolutionaryEvolutionary How the natural How the natural selection of traits the selection of traits the promotes the promotes the perpetuation of one’s perpetuation of one’s genes?genes?

How does evolution How does evolution influence behavior influence behavior tendencies?tendencies?

Behavior Behavior geneticsgenetics

How much our genes How much our genes and our environments and our environments influence our influence our individual differences?individual differences?

To what extent are To what extent are psychological traits such psychological traits such as intelligence, as intelligence, personality, sexual personality, sexual orientation, and orientation, and vulnerability to vulnerability to depression attributable to depression attributable to our genes? To our our genes? To our environment?environment?

Psychology’s Current Psychology’s Current PerspectivesPerspectivesPerspectivePerspective FocusFocus Sample QuestionsSample Questions

PsychodynamiPsychodynamicc

How behavior springs How behavior springs from unconscious from unconscious drives and conflicts?drives and conflicts?

How can someone’s How can someone’s personality traits and personality traits and disorders be explained in disorders be explained in terms of sexual and terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as aggressive drives or as disguised effects of disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?childhood traumas?

BehavioralBehavioral How we learn How we learn observable responses?observable responses?

How do we learn to fear How do we learn to fear particular objects or particular objects or situations? What is the situations? What is the most effective way to alter most effective way to alter our behavior, say to lose our behavior, say to lose weight or quit smoking?weight or quit smoking?

Psychology’s Current Psychology’s Current PerspectivesPerspectives

PerspectivePerspective FocusFocus Sample QuestionsSample QuestionsCognitiveCognitive How we encode, How we encode,

process, store and process, store and retrieve information?retrieve information?

How do we use How do we use information in information in remembering? remembering? Reasoning? Problem Reasoning? Problem solving?solving?

Social-Social-culturalcultural

How behavior and How behavior and thinking vary across thinking vary across situations and situations and cultures?cultures?

How are we — as How are we — as Africans, Asians, Africans, Asians, Australians or North Australians or North Americans – alike as Americans – alike as members of human members of human family? As products of family? As products of different environmental different environmental contexts, how do we contexts, how do we differ?differ?

Psychology’s Subfields: Psychology’s Subfields: ResearchResearch

PsychologistPsychologist What she doesWhat she does

BiologicalBiological Explore the links between brain and Explore the links between brain and mind.mind.

DevelopmentalDevelopmental Study changing abilities from womb Study changing abilities from womb to tomb.to tomb.

CognitiveCognitive Study how we perceive, think, and Study how we perceive, think, and solve problems.solve problems.

PersonalityPersonality Investigate our persistent traits.Investigate our persistent traits.

SocialSocial Explore how we view and affect one Explore how we view and affect one another.another.

Psychology’s Subfields: Psychology’s Subfields: ResearchResearch

Data: APA 1997

Psychology’s Subfields: Psychology’s Subfields: AppliedApplied

PsychologistPsychologist What she doesWhat she does

ClinicalClinical Studies, assesses, and treats people Studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorderswith psychological disorders

CounselingCounseling Helps people cope with academic, Helps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges.vocational, and marital challenges.

EducationalEducational Studies and helps individuals in Studies and helps individuals in school and educational settingsschool and educational settings

Industrial/Industrial/

OrganizationalOrganizationalStudies and advises on behavior in Studies and advises on behavior in the workplace.the workplace.

Psychology’s Subfields: Psychology’s Subfields: AppliedApplied

Data: APA 1997

A A clinical psychologistclinical psychologist (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) studies, assesses, and treats troubled studies, assesses, and treats troubled

people with psychotherapy. people with psychotherapy.

PsychiatristsPsychiatrists on the other hand are medical on the other hand are medical professionals (M.D. or D.O.) who use professionals (M.D. or D.O.) who use

treatments like drugs and psychotherapy to treatments like drugs and psychotherapy to treat psychologically diseased patients.treat psychologically diseased patients.

Clinical Psychology vs. PsychiatryClinical Psychology vs. Psychiatry

Why study Psychology?Why study Psychology?

1.1. How can we differentiate between How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined uniformed opinions and examined conclusions?conclusions?

2.2. The science of psychology helps The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding which leads to our understanding of how people of how people feel, think, and actfeel, think, and act as they do!as they do!

What About Intuition & What About Intuition & Common Sense?Common Sense?

Many people believe that intuition and Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth common sense are enough to bring forth

answers regarding human nature.answers regarding human nature.

Intuition and common sense may aid Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.queries, but they are not free of error.

Limits of IntuitionLimits of Intuition

Personal interviewers may Personal interviewers may rely too much on their “gut rely too much on their “gut

feelings” when meeting feelings” when meeting with job applicants.with job applicants.

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Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.phenomenon.

After learning the outcome of an event, many After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that people believe they could have predicted that

very outcome. We only knew the dot.com very outcome. We only knew the dot.com stocks would plummet after they actually did stocks would plummet after they actually did

plummet.plummet.

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias

OverconfidenceOverconfidenceSometimes we think we know Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know. more than we actually know.

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ENTRYENTRYETYRNETYRN

WATERWATERWREATWREATHow long do you think it How long do you think it would take to unscramble would take to unscramble

these anagrams?these anagrams?

People said it would take People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on about 10 seconds, yet on

average they took about 3 average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).minutes (Goranson, 1978).

The Scientific AttitudeThe Scientific Attitude

The scientific attitude is composed of The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity curiosity (passion for exploration), (passion for exploration), skepticismskepticism

(doubting and questioning) and (doubting and questioning) and humilityhumility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).(ability to accept responsibility when wrong).

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Critical thinking does Critical thinking does not accept arguments not accept arguments

and conclusions and conclusions blindly.blindly.

It examines It examines assumptions, discerns assumptions, discerns

hidden values, hidden values, evaluates evidence evaluates evidence

and assesses and assesses conclusions.conclusions. The Amazing Randi

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How Do Psychologists Ask & How Do Psychologists Ask & Answer Questions?Answer Questions?

Psychologists, like all scientists, use Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct the scientific method to construct

theories that organize, summarize and theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.simplify observations.

AA theory theory isis an explanation that an explanation that integrates principles and organizes integrates principles and organizes

and predicts behavior or events.and predicts behavior or events.

For example, low self-esteem For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.contributes to depression.

TheoryTheory

AA hypothesis hypothesis is a testable prediction, is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable often prompted by a theory, to enable

us to accept, reject or revise the us to accept, reject or revise the theory.theory.

People with low self-esteem are apt to People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.feel more depressed.

HypothesisHypothesis

ResearchResearch would require us to would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and administer tests of self-esteem and

depression. Individuals who score low depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our depression test would confirm our

hypothesis.hypothesis.

Research ObservationsResearch Observations

Research ProcessResearch Process

The Scientific Method

Psychology: An ExplorationCiccarelli © 2010

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LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method

DescriptionDescriptionCase StudyCase Study

A technique in which one person is studied in depth A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.to reveal underlying behavioral principles.

Is language uniquely human?

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SurveySurvey

A technique for ascertaining the self-A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of

people usually done by questioning a people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people. representative, random sample of people.

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SurveySurvey

Wording can change the results of a survey. Wording can change the results of a survey.

Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)

Wording EffectsWording Effects

SurveySurvey

Random SamplingRandom Sampling

If each member of a If each member of a population has an equal population has an equal chance of inclusion into chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a a sample, it is called a

random sample random sample (unbiased). If the survey (unbiased). If the survey

sample is biased, its sample is biased, its results are not valid.results are not valid.

The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic ObservationObserving and recording the behavior of animals in the Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.

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Descriptive MethodsDescriptive Methods

Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation describe

behaviors.

SummarySummary

CorrelationCorrelation

When one trait or behavior accompanies When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.another, we say the two correlate.

Correlation coefficient

Indicates directionof relationship

(positive or negative)

Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)

r = 0.37+

Correlation Coefficient is a Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the statistical measure of the relationship between two relationship between two

variables.variables.

or

Correlation and CausationCorrelation and CausationCorrelation does not mean causation!

Psychology: An ExplorationCiccarelli © 2010

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LO 1.9 Correlational technique

Figure 1.3 Five Scatterplots

Illusory CorrelationIllusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where no relationship The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.

Confirming Confirming evidenceevidence

Disconfirming Disconfirming evidenceevidence

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adoptadopt

Disconfirming Disconfirming evidenceevidence

Confirming Confirming evidenceevidence

AdopAdoptt

Do not Do not conceiveconceiveConceiveConceive

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Given random data, we look for order and Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.meaningful patterns.

Order in Random EventsOrder in Random Events

Your chances of being dealt either of these hands Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.

Order in Random EventsOrder in Random Events

Given large numbers of random outcomes, Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.a few are likely to express order.

Angelo and Maria Gallina won two Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day.California lottery games on the same day.

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ExperimentationExperimentation

Like other sciences, experimentation is the Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychological research. backbone of psychological research.

Experiments isolate causes and their effects.Experiments isolate causes and their effects.

Exploring Cause and EffectExploring Cause and Effect

Many factors influence our behavior. Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments Experiments (1)(1) manipulatemanipulate factors that factors that interest us, while other factors are kept interest us, while other factors are kept

under under (2) control(2) control..

Effects generated by manipulated factors Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.isolate cause and effect relationships.

Exploring Cause & EffectExploring Cause & Effect

In evaluating drug therapies, patients In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter’s assistants should and experimenter’s assistants should

remain unaware of which patients had the remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the

placebo treatment. placebo treatment.

Evaluating TherapiesEvaluating Therapies

Double-blind ProcedureDouble-blind Procedure

Assigning participants to experimental Assigning participants to experimental (breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) (breast-fed) and control (formula-fed)

conditions by random assignment minimizes conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two pre-existing differences between the two

groups.groups.

Evaluating TherapiesEvaluating Therapies

Random AssignmentRandom Assignment

An An independent variableindependent variable is a factor is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the of the independent variable is the focus of the

study. study.

For example, when examining the effects of For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding upon intelligence, breast breast

feedingfeeding is the independent variable. is the independent variable.

Independent VariableIndependent Variable

AA dependent variable dependent variable is a factor that may is a factor that may change in response to an independent change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a variable. In psychology, it is usually a

behavior or a mental process. behavior or a mental process.

For example, in our study on the effect of For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligenceintelligence

is the dependent variable.is the dependent variable.

Dependent VariableDependent Variable

ExperimentationExperimentationA summary of steps during experimentation.A summary of steps during experimentation.

Ethics in Psychological Ethics in Psychological ResearchResearch• Animal research – answers questions we Animal research – answers questions we

could never do with human research.could never do with human research.• Focus is on avoiding exposing them to Focus is on avoiding exposing them to

unnecessaryunnecessary pain or suffering. pain or suffering.• Animals are used in approximately 7% Animals are used in approximately 7%

of psychological studies.of psychological studies.

These rabbits are part of a drug-testing study. Their bodies are enclosed in the metal cases to prevent movement during the test. What steps might the researchers using these animals take totreat the animals ethically?

LO 1.12 Ethical concerns in conducting research

ComparisonComparisonBelow is a comparison of different Below is a comparison of different

research methods.research methods.

FAQFAQ

Q1.Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?everyday life?

Ans:Ans: Artificial laboratory conditions are created to Artificial laboratory conditions are created to study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to find underlying principles that govern behavior.find underlying principles that govern behavior.

FAQFAQQ2Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender? . Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?

AnsAns: Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary : Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes

are much the same. Biology determines our sex, and are much the same. Biology determines our sex, and culture further bends the genders. However, in many ways culture further bends the genders. However, in many ways

woman and man are similarly human.woman and man are similarly human.

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FAQFAQQ3.Q3. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it Why do psychologists study animals, and is it

ethical to experiment on animals?ethical to experiment on animals?

AnsAns: Studying animals gives us the understanding of : Studying animals gives us the understanding of many behaviors that may have common biology many behaviors that may have common biology

across animals and humans. From animal studies, we across animals and humans. From animal studies, we have gained insights to devastating and fatal have gained insights to devastating and fatal

diseases. All researchers who deal with animal diseases. All researchers who deal with animal research are required to follow ethical guidelines in research are required to follow ethical guidelines in

caring for these animals.caring for these animals.

D. Shapiro, © Wildlife Conservation Society

FAQFAQ

Q4.Q4. Is it ethical to experiment on people? Is it ethical to experiment on people?

AnsAns: Yes. Experiments that do not involve : Yes. Experiments that do not involve any kind of physical or psychological harm any kind of physical or psychological harm beyond normal levels encountered in daily beyond normal levels encountered in daily

life may be carried out.life may be carried out.

FAQFAQ

Q5.Q5. Is psychology free of value judgments? Is psychology free of value judgments?

AnsAns: No. Psychology emerges from people who : No. Psychology emerges from people who subscribe to a set of values and judgments.subscribe to a set of values and judgments.

© Roger Shepard

FAQFAQ

Q6.Q6. Is psychology potentially dangerous? Is psychology potentially dangerous?

AnsAns: It can be, but it is not. The purpose of : It can be, but it is not. The purpose of psychology is to help humanity with psychology is to help humanity with

problems such as war, hunger, prejudice, problems such as war, hunger, prejudice, crime, family dysfunction, etc.crime, family dysfunction, etc.

Survey: Survey: What you are about to read, including What you are about to read, including chapter outlines and section heads.chapter outlines and section heads.

Question:Question: Ask questions. Make notes. Ask questions. Make notes. Read:Read: Look for the answer to your questions by Look for the answer to your questions by

reading a manageable amount at a time.reading a manageable amount at a time. Rehearse:Rehearse: Recall what you’ve read in your own Recall what you’ve read in your own

words. Test yourself with quizzes.words. Test yourself with quizzes. Review:Review: What you learn. Read over notes and What you learn. Read over notes and

quickly review the whole chapter.quickly review the whole chapter.

Tips for Studying PsychologyTips for Studying PsychologyPsychology can teach you how to ask and answer Psychology can teach you how to ask and answer

important questions.important questions.

SSurvey, urvey, QQuestion, uestion, RRead, ead, RRehearse and ehearse and RReview eview (SQ3R)(SQ3R)

Distribute your time.Distribute your time. Learn to think critically.Learn to think critically. Listen actively in class.Listen actively in class. Overlearn.Overlearn. Be a smart test-taker.Be a smart test-taker.

Tips for Studying PsychologyTips for Studying Psychology

Additional Study HintsAdditional Study Hints

Which of the following is Which of the following is TRUE?TRUE?

A. A. Hypnosis is an effective way to help people Hypnosis is an effective way to help people relive long-buried or repressed memories.relive long-buried or repressed memories.

B. Electroconvulsive therapy is no longer used.B. Electroconvulsive therapy is no longer used.

C.C. Most people do not suffer from unrealistically Most people do not suffer from unrealistically low self-esteem.low self-esteem.

D. Opposites generally attract.D. Opposites generally attract.

Naturalistic observations are Naturalistic observations are conducted in order to:conducted in order to:

A. describe behavior.A. describe behavior.

B. explain behavior.B. explain behavior.

C. predict behavior.C. predict behavior.

D. control behavior.D. control behavior.

Which of the following Which of the following correlation coefficients correlation coefficients indicates the strongest indicates the strongest relationship between relationship between

variables?variables?A. positive .05A. positive .05

B. negative .25B. negative .25

C. positive .75C. positive .75

D. negative .95D. negative .95

After watching their favorite After watching their favorite team lose a game, Emma and team lose a game, Emma and

her friends commented to each her friends commented to each other about how they had other about how they had always known the loss was always known the loss was

inevitable. Psychologists call inevitable. Psychologists call this: this:

A. overconfidence.A. overconfidence.

B. the false consensus effect.B. the false consensus effect.

C. the hindsight bias.C. the hindsight bias.

D. an illusory correlation.D. an illusory correlation.

Dr. Anderson conducts an experiment to Dr. Anderson conducts an experiment to see whether exposure to helpful models see whether exposure to helpful models

leads to helping behavior in young leads to helping behavior in young children. Of the 40 girls and boys in his children. Of the 40 girls and boys in his

study, half are exposed to helpful study, half are exposed to helpful models while the other half watch the models while the other half watch the same models not engaged in helping same models not engaged in helping

behavior. In this experiment, the behavior. In this experiment, the dependent variable is:dependent variable is:

A. the gender of the children.A. the gender of the children.B. helpful or non-helpful models.B. helpful or non-helpful models.C. the age of the children.C. the age of the children.D. helping behavior.D. helping behavior.

Which of the following is the Which of the following is the best way to generate a random best way to generate a random

sample of students for a sample of students for a research study?research study?

A. mail out a questionnaire that students could A. mail out a questionnaire that students could voluntarily complete and returnvoluntarily complete and return

B. stand by the door of the library and ask people B. stand by the door of the library and ask people who pass by to answer your questionswho pass by to answer your questions

C. offer extra credit for students in a particular C. offer extra credit for students in a particular classroom who choose to participateclassroom who choose to participate

D. use a table of random numbers to pick D. use a table of random numbers to pick participants from a student listing participants from a student listing

A significant disadvantage A significant disadvantage of the correlational of the correlational approach is that it: approach is that it:

A. does not provide evidence of cause and effect.A. does not provide evidence of cause and effect.

B. cannot be used to examine relationships B. cannot be used to examine relationships between variables that exist naturally.between variables that exist naturally.

C. does not aid in the process of prediction.C. does not aid in the process of prediction.

D. does not provide information about how two D. does not provide information about how two variables are related.variables are related.