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Introduction to CinemaModule III

ContentsArticles

Film director 1Auteur theory 9Jean-Luc Godard 12James Monaco 22Rotten Tomatoes 23Internet Movie Database 27Actor 33Constantin Stanislavski 37Method acting 49Presentational and representational acting 54Stanislavski's system 58Heath Ledger 64Makarand Deshpande 78Irrfan Khan 81Naseeruddin Shah 87Atul Kulkarni 95Academy Award 99

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 114Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 120

Article LicensesLicense 121

Film director 1

Film directorA film director is a person who directs the making of a film. Generally, a film director controls a film's artistic anddramatic aspects, and visualizes the script while guiding the technical crew and actors in the fulfillment of thatvision.[]

Responsibilities

The film director, on the right, gives last minutedirection to the cast and crew, while filming a

costume drama on location in London.

Film directors create an "overall vision" through which a film getseventually "born".[] Realizing this vision includes to oversee "thecinematography and the technical aspects" as well as directing theshooting timetable and meeting deadlines.[] This means organizing "thearray of people working under him on how to best capture his artisticvision for the film".[] [1] This requires "good leadership andmotivational skills" as well as "the ability to stay calm in stressfulsituations".[] Moreover it is necessary to have "an artistic eye to frameshots" and to give precise feedback to cast and crew.[] Subsequentlyexcellent communication skills are a must.[] Since he depends on asuccessful cooperation of a lot of different creative individuals withpossibly strongly contradicting artistic ideals and visions, he also needs"to be a diplomat" in order mediate whenever necessary .[2] Thus hemakes sure all assembled talent "blends into a single consciousness".[]

The set of varying challenges he has to tackle have been described as"a multi-dimensional jigsaw puzzle with egos and weather thrown infor good measure".[] It adds to the pressure that the success of a filmcan influence when and how they will work again. [3] Alwaysomnipresent are the boundaries of his budget.[4] He might also have toensure an intended age rating.[5] Theoretically the director has "to answer only to executive producers". [] [] Still a"real-life brawl" between a film director and an actor can possibly cause that the film director gets fired if the actor isa major film star.[6] Even so, "from the first day of brainstorming to the final release" directors often spend moreworking hours on films than "any actor, technician, or editor" and consequently the profession can be "physically,mentally, and emotionally draining".[] It has been said that "20-hour days are not unusual".[]

Becoming a film directorSome film directors started as actors, film editors or screenwriters.[7] Other film directors have visited a film school to "get formal training and education in their craft". [8] Film students can study "the basic principles, techniques and procedures of film direction and production"[9] This includes for example "preparation, shot lists and storyboards, blocking, protocols of dealing with professional actors, reading scripts, the construction of film".[10] Some film schools are equipped with sound stages and "extensive post-production facilities"[11] Besides "organizational and technical skills" students also achieve "insights into social contexts and relationships"[12] Students are led to explore their own creativity and moreover they are introduced in "ways of working that foster the important exchange of ideas".[13] They are finally supposed to be fit to deal with all forms and genres.[14] A full degree course can be designed for upt to five years of studying.[15] Future directors usually complete short films during their enrolment.[] The National Film School of Denmark has the student's final projects presented on national TV. [16] Some film schools retain the rights for their students' works.[17] Many directors successfully prepared for making feature films by working in televison.[18] The German Film and Television Academy Berlin consequently cooperates with the

Film director 2

Berlin/Brandenburg TV station RBB (Berlin-Brandenburg Broadcasting) and ARTE.[19] Director, screenwriter and film producer Luc Besson founded his own film school "Ecole de la Cité" for directingand screenwriting in 2013. On its homepage he explained that because he wasn't given the chance to attend a filmschool he had to go very long way and "carried tons of gear". He started at the bottom of the ladder as an unpaidintern on a short film and is still grateful to the technicians who have given him "kindly and patiently" training on thejob.[20] In the USA there is also an "Assistant Directors Training Program" sponsored by the Director’s Guild of America. []

The trainee gets paid and receives HMO. [21]

Characteristics of film directors

Here, director William Eubank performs multipleroles on-set as both director and camera operator.

Different directors can vary immensely amongst themselves, undervarious characteristics. Several examples are:• Outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue.

Notable examples include Ingmar Bergman, Christopher Guest,Wong Kar-wai, Spike Lee, Wim Wenders, Mike Leigh, BarryLevinson, Jean-Luc Godard, Miklós Jancsó, Gus Van Sant, JuddApatow, Jay and Mark Duplass, and occasionally Robert Altman,Sergio Leone and Federico Fellini.

• Control every aspect, and demand that the actors and crew followinstructions precisely. Notable examples include David Lean, AkiraKurosawa, Steven Spielberg, Victor Fleming, James Cameron,George Lucas, Stanley Kubrick, Sidney Lumet, Christopher Nolan, David Fincher, Guillermo del Toro and AlfredHitchcock.

• Write their own screenplays. Notable examples include Woody Allen, Werner Herzog, Alejandro Jodorowsky,John Cassavetes, Ingmar Bergman, Stanley Kubrick, Quentin Tarantino, James Cameron, George Lucas, J. F.Lawton, David Cronenberg, Charlie Chaplin, Billy Wilder, Ed Wood, David Lynch, the Coen brothers, FrancisFord Coppola, Sofia Coppola, Pedro Almodóvar, John Hughes, Nick Park, Edward Burns, Kevin Smith, ToddField, Cameron Crowe, Oren Peli, Eli Roth, Paul Thomas Anderson, Guillermo del Toro, Rainer WernerFassbinder, Oliver Stone, Terrence Malick, John Singleton, Spike Lee, Orson Welles, Akira Kurosawa, HayaoMiyazaki, M. Night Shyamalan, Paul Haggis, Billy Bob Thornton, James Wong, Tyler Perry, Robert Rodriguez,Christopher Nolan, George A. Romero, Sergio Leone, Satyajit Ray, Joss Whedon and David O. Russell. StevenSpielberg and Sidney J. Furie have written screenplays for a small number of their films.

• Collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners. Notable examples include Alejandro GonzálezIñárritu and Guillermo Arriaga, Elia Kazan and Tennessee Williams, Terry Gilliam and Charles McKeown/TonyGrisoni, Wes Anderson and Owen Wilson/Noah Baumbach, Edgar Wright and Simon Pegg, Martin Scorsese andNicholas Pileggi/Paul Schrader/Jay Cocks, Yasujirō Ozu and Kôgo Noda, Peter Jackson and Fran Walsh,Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor, Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale, Luis Buñuel and Jean-Claude Carrière/LuisAlcoriza, Krzysztof Kieślowski/Krzysztof Piesiewicz, Frank Capra/Robert Riskin, MichelangeloAntonioni/Tonino Guerra, Billy Wilder/I.A.L. Diamond, Sergio Leone and Sergio Donati, Guillermo del Toroand Matthew Robbins, and Christopher Nolan/Jonathan Nolan/David S. Goyer.

• Be the cinematographer and/or editor. Notable examples include Nicolas Roeg, Akira Kurosawa, Peter Hyams,Steven Soderbergh, Josef von Sternberg, David Lean, Don Coscarelli, Robert Rodriguez, James Cameron, EdWood, Gaspar Noe, Tony Kaye, Takeshi Kitano, Andy Warhol, Shinya Tsukamoto, Kenneth Anger, the Coenbrothers.

• Appear in their films. Notable examples include Clint Eastwood, Orson Welles, Mel Gibson, Martin Scorsese, Peter Jackson, John Waters, John Carpenter, Spike Lee, Tyler Perry, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Kevin Costner,

Film director 3

Kenneth Anger, Woody Allen, Jon Favreau, Quentin Tarantino, Eli Roth, Michael Bay, Mel Brooks, Ben Stiller,Alejandro Jodorowsky, Charlie Chaplin, Terry Jones, Edward Burns, Sam Raimi, Roman Polanski, Billy BobThornton, Sylvester Stallone, M. Night Shyamalan, Harold Ramis, Robert De Niro, John Woo, Kevin Smith,Warren Beatty, Kenneth Branagh and Ed Wood. Alfred Hitchcock, Abel Ferrara, Shawn Levy, Edgar Wright andSpike Jonze made cameo appearances in their films.

• Compose a music score for their films. Notable examples include Charlie Chaplin, Clint Eastwood, David Lynch,Alejandro Jodorowsky, John Carpenter, Alejandro Amenábar, Satyajit Ray, Robert Rodriguez, Tom Tykwer andVishal Bhardwaj.

Professional organizationsIn the United States, directors usually belong to the Directors Guild of America. The Canadian equivalent is theDirectors Guild of Canada. In the UK, directors usually belong to Directors UK or the Directors Guild of GreatBritain.In Europe, FERA, the Federation of European Film Directors, represents 37 national directors' guilds in 30 countries.

Notable film directors•• Ben Affleck•• Woody Allen•• Pedro Almodóvar•• Robert Altman•• Lindsay Anderson•• Michael Anderson•• Paul Thomas Anderson•• Wes Anderson•• Theodoros Angelopoulos•• Jean-Jacques Annaud•• Sathyan Anthikad•• Michelangelo Antonioni•• Judd Apatow•• Andrea Arnold•• Dario Argento•• Darren Aronofsky•• Dorothy Arzner•• Richard Attenborough•• Kailasam Balachander•• Mario Bava•• Ingmar Bergman•• Bharathan•• Bharathiraja•• Kathryn Bigelow•• Brad Bird•• John Boorman•• Danny Boyle•• Robert Bresson•• Mel Brooks•• Tod Browning

Film director 4

•• Luis Buñuel•• Tim Burton•• James Cameron•• Jane Campion•• Frank Capra•• John Carpenter•• John Cassavetes•• Liliana Cavani•• Nuri Bilge Ceylan•• Gurinder Chadha•• Charlie Chaplin•• Yash Chopra•• Henri-Georges Clouzot•• Coen brothers•• Chris Columbus•• Francis Ford Coppola•• Sophia Coppola•• Roger Corman•• Wes Craven•• David Cronenberg•• Alfonso Cuaron•• Stephen Daldry•• Joe Dante•• Frank Darabont•• Julie Dash•• Guillermo del Toro•• Brian De Palma•• Vittorio De Sica•• Andrew Dominik•• Stanley Donen•• Carl Theodor Dreyer•• Guru Dutt•• Clint Eastwood•• Sergei Eisenstein•• Roland Emmerich•• Nora Ephron•• Víctor Erice•• Rainer Werner Fassbinder•• Federico Fellini•• Todd Field•• David Fincher•• Victor Fleming•• John Ford•• Miloš Forman•• John Frankenheimer•• William Friedkin•• Lucio Fulci

Film director 5

•• Samuel Fuller•• Ritwik Ghatak•• Lewis Gilbert•• Terry Gilliam•• Jean-Luc Godard•• D. W. Griffith•• Michael Haneke•• Renny Harlin•• Hal Hartley•• Howard Hawks•• Amy Heckerling•• Werner Herzog•• George Roy Hill•• Walter Hill•• Alfred Hitchcock•• Tobe Hooper•• Tom Hooper•• Ron Howard•• John Hughes•• John Huston•• Kon Ichikawa•• Miklós Jancsó•• Peter Jackson•• Jean-Pierre Jeunet•• Rian Johnson•• Joe Johnston•• Chuck Jones•• Connor Osoro•• Elia Kazan•• Buster Keaton•• Abbas Kiarostami•• Krzysztof Kieślowski•• Masaki Kobayashi•• Stanley Kramer•• Stanley Kubrick•• Akira Kurosawa•• Emir Kusturica•• Fritz Lang•• John Lasseter•• David Lean•• Ang Lee•• Spike Lee•• Sergio Leone•• Barry Levinson•• Ken Loach•• Joseph Losey•• George Lucas

Film director 6

•• Sidney Lumet•• Ernst Lubitsch•• David Lynch•• Maria Maggenti•• Samira Makhmalbaf•• Terrence Malick•• Louis Malle•• Joseph L. Mankiewicz•• Michael Mann•• Rob Marshall•• Steve McQueen•• Deepa Mehta•• Georges Méliès•• Sam Mendes•• Márta Mészáros•• Anthony Minghella•• Hayao Miyazaki•• Kenji Mizoguchi•• F. W. Murnau•• Mira Nair•• Christopher Nolan•• Frank Oz•• Yasujirō Ozu•• Padmarajan•• Park Chan-Wook•• Sergei Parajanov•• Alan Parker•• Sam Peckinpah•• Arthur Penn•• Dadasaheb Phalke•• Roman Polanski•• Sally Potter•• Otto Preminger•• Powell and Pressburger•• Priyadarshan•• Sam Raimi•• Harold Ramis•• Ranjith•• Mani Ratnam•• Nicholas Ray•• Satyajit Ray•• Rob Reiner•• Ivan Reitman•• Jason Reitman•• Jean Renoir•• Alain Resnais•• Leni Riefenstahl

Film director 7

•• Éric Rohmer•• George A. Romero•• Roberto Rossellini•• Eli Roth•• Bimal Roy•• John Sayles•• Franklin J. Schaffner•• Martin Scorsese•• Ridley Scott•• Tony Scott•• Shankar•• V. Shantaram•• M. Night Shyamalan•• Don Siegel•• Robert Siodmak•• Kevin Smith•• Steven Soderbergh•• Paolo Sorrentino•• Steven Spielberg•• George Stevens•• Oliver Stone•• John Sturges•• Preston Sturges•• István Szabó•• Quentin Tarantino•• Andrei Tarkovsky•• Bela Tarr•• Jiří Trnka•• Jacques Tourneur•• François Truffaut•• Jon Turteltaub•• Agnès Varda•• Gore Verbinski•• Paul Verhoeven•• King Vidor•• Luchino Visconti•• Lars von Trier•• The Wachowskis•• James Wan•• Peter Weir•• Orson Welles•• Wim Wenders•• James Whale•• Joss Whedon•• Billy Wilder•• Robert Wise•• Ed Wood

Film director 8

•• Edgar Wright•• William Wyler•• David Yates•• Peter Yates•• Karel Zeman•• Robert Zemeckis•• Mai Zetterling•• Fred Zinnemann

Bibliography• Spencer Moon: Reel Black Talk: A Sourcebook of 50 American Filmmakers, Greenwoood Press 1997• The St. James Women Filmmakers Encyclopedia: Women on the Other Side of the Camera, Visible Ink Press,

1999• International dictionary of films and filmmakers, ed. by Tom Pendergast, 4 volumes, Detroit [etc.]: St. James

Press, 4th edition 2000, vol. 2: Directors• Contemporary North American Film Directors: A Wallflower Critical Guide (Wallflower Critical Guides to

Contemporary Directors), ed. by Yoram Allon Del Cullen and Hannah Patterson, Second Edition, Columbia UnivPress 2002

• Alexander Jacoby, Donald Richie: A Critical Handbook of Japanese Film Directors: From the Silent Era to thePresent Day, Stone Bridge Press, 2008, ISBN 1-933330-53-8

• Rebecca Hillauer: Encyclopedia of Arab Women Filmmakers, American University in Cairo Press, 2005, ISBN977-424-943-7

• Roy Armes: Dictionary of African Filmmakers, Indiana University Press, 2008, ISBN 0-253-35116-2• Philippe Rege: Encyclopedia of French Film Directors, Scarecrow Press, 2009

Notes

External links• Federation of European Film Directors (http:/ / www. filmdirectors. eu/ )• Directors Guild of America (http:/ / www. dga. org)• Directors Guild of Canada (http:/ / www. dgc. ca/ page. php?id=100)• Directors UK (http:/ / www. directors. uk. com)• Directors Guild of Great Britain (http:/ / www. dggb. org)• A comprehensive collection of interviews with a century's worth of European film directors (http:/ / zakka. dk/

euroscreenwriters/ interviews/ interviews. htm)• Films101 The best directors picked by critics and filmmakers (http:/ / www. films101. com/ direcr. htm)• Senses of Cinema - Great Directors (http:/ / archive. sensesofcinema. com/ contents/ directors/ index. html)• Getting started in film, TV and interactive digital media (http:/ / www. screenaustralia. gov. au/ documents/

SA_publications/ IG/ GettingStarted. pdf)• How to become a film director (http:/ / www. youth. gov. hk/ en/ special/ innoaction/ video07. htm)• Assistant Directors Training Program (http:/ / www. trainingplan. org/ jobdescription. html)• Film directing, the director's job (http:/ / preproduction. 4filmmaking. com/ directors-job. html)• Career and Salary (http:/ / degreedirectory. org/ articles/ Film_Director_Career_and_Salary_FAQs. html)

Auteur theory 9

Auteur theoryIn film criticism, auteur theory holds that a director's film reflects the director's personal creative vision, as if theywere the primary "auteur" (the French word for "author"). In spite of—and sometimes even because of—theproduction of the film as part of an industrial process, the auteur's creative voice is distinct enough to shine throughall kinds of studio interference and through the collective process.In law, the film is treated as a work of art, and the auteur, as the creator of the film, is the original copyright holder.Under European Union law, the film director is considered the author or one of the authors of a film, largely as aresult of the influence of auteur theory.[1]

Auteur theory has influenced film criticism since 1954, when it was advocated by film director and critic FrançoisTruffaut. This method of film analysis was originally associated with the French New Wave and the film critics whowrote for the French film review periodical Cahiers du Cinéma. Auteur theory was developed a few years later in theUnited States through the writings of The Village Voice critic Andrew Sarris. Sarris used auteur theory as a way tofurther the analysis of what defines serious work through the study of respected directors and their films.

OriginAuteur theory draws on the work of a group of cinema enthusiasts who wrote for Cahiers du Cinéma and argued thatfilms should reflect a director's personal vision. The championed filmmakers such as Akira Kurosawa, Satyajit Ray,Alfred Hitchcock, Howard Hawks, and Jean Renoir are known as absolute 'auteurs' of their films. Although AndréBazin, co-founder of the Cahiers, provided a forum for Auteurism to flourish, he explained his concern about itsexcesses in his article "On the Auteur Theory" (Cahier # 70, 1957). Another element of Auteur theory comes fromAlexandre Astruc's notion of the caméra-stylo or "camera-pen," which encourages directors to wield cameras aswriters use pens and to guard against the hindrances of traditional storytelling.Truffaut and the members of the Cahiers recognized that movie-making was an industrial process. However, theyproposed an ideal to strive for, encouraging the director to use the commercial apparatus as a writer uses a pen, and,through the mise en scène, imprint his or her vision on the work (minimizing the role of the screenwriter).Recognizing the difficulty of reaching this ideal, they valued the work of directors who came close.The definition of an Auteur was debated upon since the 1940s. Andre Bazin and Roger Leenhardt presented thetheory that it is the director that brings the film to life and uses the film to express their thoughts and feelings aboutthe subject matter as well as a world view as an auteur. An auteur can use lighting, camerawork, staging and editingto add to their vision.[2]

Truffaut's developmentIn his 1954 essay "Une certaine tendance du cinéma français" ("A certain tendency in French cinema"), FrançoisTruffaut coined the phrase "la politique des Auteurs", asserting that the worst of Jean Renoir's movies would alwaysbe more interesting than the best of the movies of Jean Delannoy. "Politique" might very well be translated as"policy" or "program"; it involves a conscious decision to value and look at films in a certain way. One might see itas the policy of treating any director that uses a personal style or a unique world view as an Auteur. Truffautcriticized the Cinema of Quality as "Scenarists' films", which are works that lack originality and rely on literaryclassics. According to Truffaut, this means that the director is only a metteur en scene, a "stager". This traditionsuggests that the screenwriter hands the script to the director and the director simply adds the performers andpictures.[3] Truffaut provocatively said: "(t)here are no good and bad movies, only good and bad directors".Truffaut's article, by his own admission, dealt primarily with scenarists or screenwriters, precisely the screenwriting duo Jean Aurenche and Pierre Bost, who, Truffaut believed, simplified and compromised many of the great works of French literature in order to support the political agenda of their day. In Truffaut's article, he references the director

Auteur theory 10

Claude Autant-Lara's characterization of his adaptation of Raymond Radiguet's Devil in the Flesh as an "anti-war"book, citing the problem that the book pre-dated the Second World War. Truffaut applied the term "auteur" todirectors like Jean Renoir, Max Ophüls, Jacques Becker, Jacques Tati, and Robert Bresson, who, aside from exertingtheir distinct style, wrote the screenplays or worked on the writing of screenplays of their films.In its embryonic form, the auteur theory dealt with the nature of literary adaptations and Truffaut's discomfort withthe screenwriters Aurenche's and Bost's maxim that any film adaptation of a novel should capture the spirit of thenovel and deal only with its "filmable" aspects. Truffaut believed that film directors like Robert Bresson were able touse the film narrative to approach even the so-called "unfilmable" scenes. To support this assertion, he used the filmversion of Georges Bernanos's Diary of a Country Priest.Much of the writing of Truffaut and his colleagues at the film criticism magazine Cahiers du cinéma was designed tolambaste not only the post-war French cinema but especially the big production films of the cinéma de qualité("quality films"). Truffaut's circle referred to these films with disdain as sterile, old-fashioned cinéma de papa (or"Dad's cinema"). During the Nazi occupation, the Vichy government did not allow the exhibition of U.S. films suchas The Maltese Falcon and Citizen Kane. In 1946, when French film critics were finally able to see the 1940s U.S.movies, they were enamoured with these films.Truffaut's theory maintains that a good director (and many bad ones) exerts such a distinctive style or promotes sucha consistent theme that his or her influence is unmistakable in the body of his or her work. Truffaut himself wasappreciative of directors whose work showed a marked visual style (such as Alfred Hitchcock) as well as thosewhose visual style was less pronounced but whose movies reflected a consistent theme (such as Jean Renoir'shumanism). Truffaut et al. made the distinction between auteurs and 'metteurs en scene', the latter not beingdescribed as inferior directors making inherently poor films, just lacking the authorial signature.

ImpactThe auteur theory was used by the directors of the nouvelle vague (New Wave) movement of French cinema in the1960s (many of whom were also critics at the Cahiers du Cinéma) as justification for their intensely personal andidiosyncratic films. One of the ironies of the Auteur theory is that, at the very moment Truffaut was writing, thebreak-up of the Hollywood studio system during the 1950s was ushering in a period of uncertainty and conservatismin American cinema, with the result that fewer of the sort of films Truffaut admired were actually being made.The "auteur" approach was adopted in English-language film criticism in the 1960s. In the UK, Movie adoptedAuteurism, while in the U.S., Andrew Sarris introduced it in the essay, "Notes on the Auteur Theory in 1962". Thisessay is where the term, "Auteur theory", originated. To be classified as an "auteur", according to Sarris, a directormust accomplish technical competence in their technique, personal style in terms of how the movie looks and feels,and interior meaning (although many of Sarris's auterist criteria were left vague[citation needed]). Later in the decade,Sarris published The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929–1968, which quickly became the unofficialbible of auteurism.The auteurist critics—Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, Éric Rohmer—wrote mostly about directors,although they also produced some shrewd appreciations of actors. However later Truffaut wrote: the auteur theory"was started by Cahiers du Cinema and is forgotten in France, but still discussed in American periodicals."

CriticismStarting in the 1960s, some film critics began criticising auteur theory's focus on the authorial role of the director. Pauline Kael and Sarris feuded in the pages of The New Yorker and various film magazines.[4][5] One reason for the backlash is the collaborative aspect of shooting a film, and in the theory's privileging of the role of the director (whose name, at times, has become more important than the movie itself). In Kael's review of Citizen Kane, a classic film for the auteur model, she points out how the film made extensive use of the distinctive talents of co-writer

Auteur theory 11

Herman J. Mankiewicz and cinematographer Gregg Toland.[6] But Kael's objections to the "auteur theory" weremany and are best learned by reading her essay "Circles and Squares".Notable screenwriters such as Ernest Lehman,[7] Nicholas Kazan,[8] Robert Riskin[9] and William Goldman[10] havepublicly balked at the idea that directors are more authorial than screenwriters, while film historian Aljean Harmetz,referring to the creative input of producers and studio executives in classical Hollywood, argues that the auteurtheory "collapses against the reality of the studio system".[11]

The auteur theory was also challenged by the influence of New Criticism, a school of literary criticism. The NewCritics argued that critics made an "intentional fallacy" when they tried to interpret works of art by speculating aboutwhat the author meant, based on the author's personality or life experiences. New Critics argued that information orspeculation about an author's intention was secondary to the words on the page as the basis of the experience ofreading literature.[citation needed]

In 2006, David Kipen coined the term Schreiber theory to refer to the theory of the screenwriter as the principalauthor of a film.[12]

References[1] Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=_PqJYG9ihusC& pg=PA153& lpg=PA153)[4] A Survivor of Film Criticism’s Heroic Age (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 07/ 12/ movies/ 12powe. html?pagewanted=all)[5] Pauline and Me: Farewell, My Lovely (http:/ / www. observer. com/ node/ 44957)[6] Kael, Pauline, Raising Kane, The New Yorker, February 20, 1971.[7] Sight and Sound, Autumn, 190[8] Los Angeles Times Magazine, "Lip Service," March 25, 2001[9] Ian Scott, In Capra's Shadow: The Life and Career of Screenwriter Robert Riskin[10] William Goldman, Which Lie Did I Tell?[11] Aljean Harmetz, Round up the Usual Suspects, p. 29.[12][12] Kipen, David (2006). The Schreiber Theory: A Radical Rewrite of American Film History. Melville House ISBN 0-9766583-3-X.

External links• BBC guide Auteur Theory in Film Criticism (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ A22928772)• Teachers guide to auteur theory pdf (http:/ / www. mvla. net/ teachers/ GalenR/ Film Analysis/ Documents/ Class

Readings/ AUTEUR THEORY. pdf)• acu.edu course guide to auteur theory (http:/ / dlibrary. acu. edu. au/ staffhome/ siryan/ screen/ auteur theory. htm)• Film journal article on Saris and Kael (http:/ / ardfilmjournal. wordpress. com/ 2009/ 02/ 11/

a-couple-of-squared-circles-sarris-and-kael-–-part-one-notes-on-the-auteur-theory-in-1962-–-andrew-sarris/ )• Auteur Theory History/Criticism (http:/ / www. indianauteur. com/ ?p=86)• 16+ source guides: Auteur Theory/Auteurs (http:/ / www. bfi. org. uk/ filmtvinfo/ publications/ 16+ / auteur.

html) at the British Film Institute• Authorship and The Films of David Lynch (http:/ / www. zenbullets. com/ britfilm/ lynch) - a critical essay from

The British Film Resource• Auteur theory (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt1241707/ ) at the Internet Movie Database• Criticisms of auteur theory at scribd (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 1250735/ The-Auteur-Theory)

Jean-Luc Godard 12

Jean-Luc Godard

Jean-Luc Godard

Jean-Luc Godard, 1968Born 3 December 1930

Paris, France

Citizenship French, Swiss

Alma mater University of Paris

Occupation Film critic, director, actor, cinematographer, screenwriter, editor, producer

Years active 1950–present

Notable work(s) Breathless, Pierrot le Fou, Band of Outsiders, Contempt, My Life to Live

Style French New Wave

Influenced by Roberto Rossellini, Satyajit Ray,[1] André Bazin, John Ford, Jean Renoir, Karl Marx, Alfred Hitchcock, Robert Bresson,Jean Vigo, Kenji Mizoguchi, Carl Theodor Dreyer, Nicholas Ray, Orson Welles, Charlie Chaplin, Fritz Lang, Max Ophüls,Howard Hawks, Henri Langlois, Marcel Carné, Jean Cocteau, F. W. Murnau, D.W. Griffith, Bertolt Brecht, existentialism

Influenced Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Sofia Coppola, Martin Scorsese, Bernardo Bertolucci, Michael Mann, Abel Ferrara, StevenSoderbergh, Jim Jarmusch, Philippe Garrel, Pedro Costa, Edward Yang, Serge Daney, Gregg Araki, ApichatpongWeerasethakul, Wong Kar-wai, Abbas Kiarostami, Leos Carax, Olivier Assayas, Quentin Tarantino, Harmony Korine

Spouse(s) Anna Karina (1961–67)Anne Wiazemsky (1967–79)Anne-Marie Miéville (not official)

Awards • Honorary Academy Award (2010)• Honorary César (1987, 1998)• Prix Jean Vigo (1960)

Signature

Jean-Luc Godard (French: [ʒɑ̃lyk ɡɔdaʁ]; born 3 December 1930) is a French-Swiss film director, screenwriter andfilm critic. He is often identified with the 1960s French film movement La Nouvelle Vague, or "New Wave".[2]

Like his New Wave contemporaries, Godard criticized mainstream French cinema's "Tradition of Quality",[2] which"emphasized craft over innovation, privileged established directors over new directors, and preferred the great worksof the past to experimentation."[3] To challenge this tradition, he and like-minded critics started to make their ownfilms.[2] Many of Godard's films challenge the conventions of traditional Hollywood in addition to Frenchcinema.[citation needed] He is often considered the most radical French filmmaker of the 1960s and 1970s.[4] Several ofhis films express his political views.[4] His films express his knowledge of film history through their references toearlier films. In addition, Godard's films often cite existentialism, as he was an avid reader of existential and Marxistphilosophy.[citation needed] His radical approach in film conventions, politics and philosophies made him an influentialfilmmaker of the French New Wave.

Jean-Luc Godard 13

After the New Wave, his politics have been much less radical and his recent films are about representation andhuman conflict from a humanist, and a Marxist perspective.[4]

In a 2002 Sight & Sound poll, Godard ranked third in the critics' top ten directors of all time (which was put togetherby assembling the directors of the individual films for which the critics voted).[5] He has created "one of the largestbodies of critical analysis of any filmmaker since the mid-twentieth century."[6] He and his work have been central tonarrative theory and have "challenged both commercial narrative cinema norms and film criticism's vocabulary."[7]

In 2010, Godard was awarded an Academy Honorary Award, but did not attend the award ceremony.[8] Godard'sfilms have inspired diverse directors like Martin Scorsese, Quentin Tarantino, Steven Soderbergh, D. A.Pennebaker,[9] Robert Altman, Jim Jarmusch, Wong Kar-wai, Wim Wenders,[] Bernardo Bertolucci,[10] Pier PaoloPasolini,[10] Paul Thomas Anderson, Arthur Penn, Hal Hartley, Richard Linklater, Gregg Araki, Jørgen Leth, JohnWoo, Abel Ferrara, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Brian De Palma, Oliver Stone, Mamoru Oshii, Richard Ayoade, WesAnderson and Ken Loach.

Early lifeGodard was born in Paris on 3 December 1930,[] the son of Odile (née Monod) and Paul Godard, a Swissphysician.[11] His wealthy parents came from Protestant families of Franco-Swiss descent, and his mother was thegreat-granddaughter of theologian Adolphe Monod. Relatives on his mother's side include composer Jacques-LouisMonod, naturalist Théodore Monod and pastor Frédéric Monod.[12][13] Godard attended school in Nyon, Switzerlandand the Lycée Rohmer. In 1949, he registered for a certificate in anthropology at the University of Paris (Sorbonne),but did not attend class.[14] He got involved with the young group of film critics at the ciné-clubs that started theNew Wave. Godard originally only held French citizenship, when he then in 1953 became a citizen of Gland, cantonof Vaud, Switzerland possibly through simplified naturalisation through his Swiss father.

Film criticism and early filmmakingAfter attending school in Nyon, Godard returned to Paris in 1948. It was there, in the Latin Quarter just prior to1950, that ciné-clubs (film societies) were gaining prominence. Godard began attending these clubs, where he soonmet the man who was perhaps most responsible for the birth of the New Wave, André Bazin, as well as those whowould become his contemporaries, including Jacques Rivette, Claude Chabrol, François Truffaut, Jacques Rozier,and Jacques Demy. Godard was part of a generation for whom cinema took on a special importance. He has said: "Inthe 1950s cinema was as important as bread – but it isn't the case any more. We thought cinema would assert itselfas an instrument of knowledge, a microscope ... a telescope.... At the Cinémathèque I discovered a world whichnobody had spoken to me about. They'd told us about Goethe, but not Dreyer. ... We watched silent films in the eraof talkies. We dreamed about film. We were like Christians in the catacombs."His approach to film began in the field of criticism. Along with Éric Rohmer and Rivette, he founded the short-livedfilm journal, Gazette du cinéma, which saw publication of five issues in 1950. When Bazin co-founded theinfluential critical magazine Cahiers du cinéma in 1951, Godard, with Rivette and Rohmer, was among the firstwriters. They, along with several other writers for Cahiers du cinéma in the 1950s, started making brief forays intofilm direction.Godard, while taking a job as a construction worker on a dam in 1953, shot a documentary about the building,Opération béton (1955). As he continued to work for Cahiers, he made Une femme coquette (1955), a ten-minuteshort; All the Boys Are Named Patrick (1957) another short fiction film; and Une histoire d'eau (1958), which wascreated largely out of unused footage shot by Truffaut.In 1958 Godard, with a cast that included Jean-Paul Belmondo and Anne Colette, made his last short before gaininginternational prominence as a filmmaker, Charlotte et son Jules, a homage to Jean Cocteau.

Jean-Luc Godard 14

Cinematic periodHis most celebrated period as a filmmaker is roughly from his first feature, Breathless (1960), through to Week End(1967) focused on relatively conventional works that often refer to different aspects of film history. This cinematicperiod stands in contrast to the revolutionary period that immediately followed it, during which Godard ideologicallydenounced much of cinema’s history as "bourgeois" and therefore without merit.

FilmsGodard's Breathless (À bout de souffle, 1960), starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Jean Seberg distinctly expressed theFrench New Wave's style, and incorporated quotations from several elements of popular culture – specificallyAmerican cinema. The film employed various innovative techniques such as jump cuts, character asides andbreaking the eyeline match rule in continuity editing. Truffaut co-wrote Breathless with Godard and introducedGodard to the producer who ultimately funded the film, Georges de Beauregard.Godard viewed film making as an extension of criticism and was more interested in redefining film structure andstyle than actually being understood by the public. Often his movies were more about the presentation of a story thananything else. The stories in his films were very simple yet unfocused and constantly digressing from the main storyline (Jean-Luc Godard and Vivre Sa Vie by Tom Milne, 1962).From the beginning of his career, Godard included more film references into his movies than any of his New Wavecolleagues. In Breathless, his citations include a movie poster showing Humphrey Bogart (whose expression the leadactor Jean-Paul Belmondo tries reverently to imitate); visual quotations from films of Ingmar Bergman, SamuelFuller, Fritz Lang, and others; and an onscreen dedication to Monogram Pictures, an American B-movie studio. Mostof all, the choice of Jean Seberg as the lead actress was an overarching reference to Otto Preminger, who haddiscovered her for his Saint Joan, and then cast her in his acidulous 1958 adaptation of Bonjour Tristesse. If, inRohmer’s words, "life was the cinema", then a film filled with movie references was supremely autobiographical.The following year, Godard made Le Petit Soldat (The Little Soldier), which dealt with the Algerian War ofIndependence. Most notably, it was the first collaboration between Godard and Danish-born actress Anna Karina,whom he later married in 1961 (and divorced in 1967). The film, due to its political nature, was banned by theFrench government until January 1963. Karina appeared again, along with Belmondo, in A Woman Is a Woman(1961), intended as a homage to the American musical. Angela (Karina) desires a child, prompting her to pretend toleave her boyfriend (Jean-Claude Brialy) and make him jealous by pursuing his best friend (Belmondo) as asubstitute.Godard's next film, Vivre sa vie (My Life to Live) (1962), was one of his most popular among critics. Karina starredas Nana, an errant mother and aspiring actress whose financially strained circumstances lead her to the life of astreetwalker. It is an episodic account of her rationalizations to prove she is free, even though she is tethered at theend of her pimp's short leash. In one touching scene in a cafe, she spreads her arms out and announces she is free toraise or lower them as she wishes. The film's style, much like that of Breathless, boasted the type of camera-liberatedexperimentation that made the French New Wave so influential.Les Carabiniers (1963) was about the horror of war and its inherent injustice. It was the influence and suggestion of Roberto Rossellini that led Godard to make the film. It follows two peasants who join the army of a king, only to find futility in the whole thing as the king reveals the deception of war-administrating leaders. His most commercially successful film was Le Mépris (Contempt) (1963), starring Michel Piccoli and one of France's biggest female stars, Brigitte Bardot. A coproduction between Italy and France, Contempt became known as a pinnacle in cinematic modernism with its profound reflexivity. The film follows Paul (Piccoli), a screenwriter who is commissioned by the arrogant American movie producer Prokosch (Jack Palance) to rewrite the script for an adaptation of Homer's Odyssey, which the Austrian director Fritz Lang has been filming. Lang's 'high culture' interpretation of the story is lost on Prokosch, whose character is a firm indictment of the commercial motion picture hierarchy. Another prominent theme is the inability to reconcile love and labor, which is illustrated by Paul's

Jean-Luc Godard 15

crumbling marriage to Camille (Bardot) during the course of shooting.In 1964, Godard and Karina formed a production company, Anouchka Films. He directed Bande à part (Band ofOutsiders), another collaboration between the two and described by Godard as "Alice in Wonderland meets FranzKafka." It follows two young men, looking to score on a heist, who both fall in love with Karina, and quotes fromseveral gangster film conventions.Une femme mariée (A Married Woman) (1964) followed Band of Outsiders. It was a slow, deliberate, toned-downblack and white picture without a real story. The film was entirely produced over the period of one month andexhibited a loose quality unique to Godard. Godard made the film while he acquired funding for Pierrot le fou(1965).In 1965, Godard directed Alphaville, a futuristic blend of science fiction, film noir, and satire. Eddie Constantinestarred as Lemmy Caution, a detective who is sent into a city controlled by a giant computer named Alpha 60. Hismission is to make contact with Professor von Braun (Howard Vernon), a famous scientist who has fallenmysteriously silent, and is believed to be suppressed by the computer. Pierrot le fou (1965) featured a complexstoryline, distinctive personalities, and a violent ending. Gilles Jacob, an author, critic, and president of the CannesFilm Festival, called it both a "retrospective" and recapitulation in the way it played on so many of Godard’s earliercharacters and themes. With an extensive cast and variety of locations, the film was expensive enough to warrantsignificant problems with funding. Shot in color, it departed from Godard’s minimalist works (typified by Breathless,Vivre sa vie, and Une femme mariée). He solicited the participation of Jean-Paul Belmondo, by then a famous actor,in order to guarantee the necessary amount of capital.Masculin, féminin (1966), based on two Guy de Maupassant stories, La Femme de Paul and Le Signe, was a study ofcontemporary French youth and their involvement with cultural politics. An intertitle refers to the characters as "Thechildren of Marx and Coca-Cola." Although Godard's cinema is sometimes thought to depict a wholly masculinepoint of view, Phillip John Usher has demonstrated how the film, by the way it connects images and disparateevents, seems to blur gender lines.[15]

Godard followed with Made in U.S.A (1966), whose source material was Richard Stark's The Jugger; and Two orThree Things I Know About Her (1967), in which Marina Vlady portrays a woman leading a double life as housewifeand prostitute. A Classic New Wave crime thiller, "Made in the U.S.A" is inspired by American Noir films. AnnaKarina stars as the anti-hero searching for her murdered lover; includes a cameo by Marianne Faithful.La Chinoise (1967) saw Godard at his most politically forthright so far. The film focused on a group of students andengaged with the ideas coming out of the student activist groups in contemporary France. Released just before theMay 1968 events, the film is thought by some to foreshadow the student rebellions that took place.That same year, Godard made a more colorful and political film, Week End. It follows a Parisian couple as they leaveon a weekend trip across the French countryside to collect an inheritance. What ensues is a confrontation with thetragic flaws of the over-consuming bourgeoisie. The film contains some of the most written-about scenes in cinema'shistory. One of them, an eight-minute tracking shot of the couple stuck in an unremitting traffic jam as they leave thecity, is cited as a new technique Godard used to deconstruct bourgeois trends.[16] Startlingly, a few shots containextra footage from, as it were, before the beginning of the take (while the actors are preparing) and after the end ofthe take (while the actors are coming out of character). Week End's enigmatic and audacious end title sequence,which reads "End of Cinema", appropriately marked an end to the narrative and cinematic period in Godard'sfilmmaking career.

Jean-Luc Godard 16

PoliticsPolitics are never far from the surface in Godard's films. One of his earliest features, Le Petit Soldat, dealt with theAlgerian War of Independence, and was notable for its attempt to present the complexity of the dispute rather thanpursue any specific ideological agenda. Along these lines, Les Carabiniers presents a fictional war that is initiallyromanticized in the way its characters approach their service, but becomes a stiff anti-war metonym. In addition tothe international conflicts Godard sought an artistic response to, he was also very concerned with the social problemsin France. The earliest and best example of this is Karina's potent portrayal of a prostitute in Vivre sa vie.In 1960s Paris, the political milieu was not overwhelmed by one specific movement. There was, however, a distinctpost-war climate shaped by various international conflicts such as the colonialism in North Africa and SoutheastAsia. The side that opposed such colonization included the majority of French workers, who belonged to the Frenchcommunist party, and the Parisian artists and writers who positioned themselves on the side of social reform andclass equality. A large portion of this group had a particular affinity for the teachings of Karl Marx. Godard's Marxistdisposition did not become abundantly explicit until La Chinoise and Week End, but is evident in several films —namely Pierrot and Une femme mariée.Godard has been accused by some of harboring anti-Semitic views: in 2010, in the lead-up to the presentation ofGodard's honorary Oscar, a prominent article in the New York Times by Michael Cieply drew attention to the idea,which had been circulating through press in previous weeks, that Godard might be an anti-Semite, and thusundeserving of the accolade. Cieply makes reference to Richard Brody's book, "Everything is Cinema: The WorkingLife of Jean-Luc Godard," and alluded to a previous, longer article published by the Jewish Journal as lying near theorigin of the debate.[17] The article also draws upon Brody's book, for example in the following quotation, whichGodard made on television in 1981: "Moses is my principal enemy...Moses, when he received the commandments,he saw images and translated them. Then he brought the texts, he didn't show what he had seen. That's why theJewish people are accursed."[18] Immediately after Cieply's article was published, Brody made a clear point ofcriticizing the "extremely selective and narrow use" of passages in his book, and noted that Godard's work hasapproached the Holocaust with "the greatest moral seriousness".[19] Godard himself has previously identifiedexplicitly as an anti-Zionist but has denied the accusations of anti-Semitism.[20]

Vietnam War

Godard produced several pieces that directly address the Vietnam War. Furthermore, there are two scenes in Pierrotle fou that tackle the issue. The first is a scene that takes place in the initial car ride between Ferdinand (Belmondo)and Marianne (Karina). Over the car radio, the two hear the message "garrison massacred by the Viet Cong who lost115 men". Marianne responds with an extended musing on the way the radio dehumanizes the Northern Vietnamesecombatants.In the same film, the lovers accost a group of American sailors along the course of their liberating crime spree. Theirimmediate reaction, expressed by Marianne, is "Damn Americans!" an obvious outlet of the frustration so manyFrench communists felt towards American hegemony. Ferdinand then reconsiders, "That’s OK, we’ll change ourpolitics. We can put on a play. Maybe they’ll give us some dollars." Marianne is puzzled but Ferdinand suggests thatsomething the Americans would like would be the Vietnam War. The ensuing sequence is a makeshift play whereMarianne dresses up as a stereotype Vietnamese woman and Ferdinand as an American sailor. The scene ends on abrief shot revealing a chalk message left on the floor by the pair, "Long live Mao!" (Vive Mao!).Notably, he also participated in Loin du Vietnam (1967). An anti-war project, it consists of seven sketches directedby Godard (who used stock footage from La Chinoise), Claude Lelouch, Joris Ivens, William Klein, Chris Marker,Alain Resnais and Agnès Varda.

Jean-Luc Godard 17

Bertolt BrechtGodard's engagement with German poet and playwright Bertolt Brecht stems primarily from his attempt to transposeBrecht's theory of epic theatre and its prospect of alienating the viewer (Verfremdungseffekt) through a radicalseparation of the elements of the medium (in Brecht's case theater, but in Godard's, film). Brecht's influence iskeenly felt through much of Godard's work, particularly before 1980, when Godard used filmic expression forspecific political ends.For example, Breathless' elliptical editing, which denies the viewer a fluid narrative typical of mainstream cinema,forces the viewers to take on more critical roles, connecting the pieces themselves and coming away with moreinvestment in the work's content. [citation needed] Godard also employs other devices, including asynchronous soundand alarming title frames, with perhaps his favorite being the character aside. In many of his most political pieces,specifically Week End, Pierrot le fou, and La Chinoise, characters address the audience with thoughts, feelings, andinstructions.

MarxismA Marxist reading is possible with most if not all of Godard’s early work. Godard’s direct interaction with Marxismdoes not become explicitly apparent, however, until Week End, where the name Karl Marx is cited in conjunctionwith figures such as Jesus Christ. A constant refrain throughout Godard's cinematic period is that of the bourgeoisie’sconsumerism, the commodification of daily life and activity, and man’s alienation — all central features of Marx’scritique of capitalism.In an essay on Godard, philosopher and aesthetics scholar Jacques Rancière states, "When in Pierrot le fou, 1965, afilm without a clear political message, Belmondo played on the word 'scandal' and the 'freedom' that the Scandalgirdle supposedly offered women, the context of a Marxist critique of commodification, of pop art derision atconsumerism, and of a feminist denunciation of women’s false 'liberation', was enough to foster a dialectical readingof the joke and the whole story." The way Godard treated politics in his cinematic period was in the context of ajoke, a piece of art, or a relationship, presented to be used as tools of reference, romanticizing the Marxist rhetoric,rather than solely being tools of education.Une femme mariée is also structured around Marx's concept of commodity fetishism. Godard once said that it is "afilm in which individuals are considered as things, in which chases in a taxi alternate with ethological interviews, inwhich the spectacle of life is intermingled with its analysis". He was very conscious of the way he wished to portraythe human being. His efforts are overtly characteristic of Marx, who in his Economic and Philosophical Manuscriptsof 1844 [21] gives one of his most nuanced elaborations, analyzing how the worker is alienated from his product, theobject of his productive activity. Georges Sadoul, in his short rumination on the film, describes it as a "sociologicalstudy of the alienation of the modern woman".

Revolutionary periodThe period that spans from May 1968 indistinctly into the 1970s has been subject to an even larger volume ofvarying labeling. They include everything from his "militant" period, to his "radical" period, along with terms asspecific as "Maoist" and vague as "political". The period saw Godard align himself with a specific revolution andemploy a consistent revolutionary rhetoric.

FilmsAmid the upheavals of the late 1960s Godard became interested in Maoist ideology. He formed the socialist-idealistDziga-Vertov cinema group with Jean-Pierre Gorin and produced a number of shorts outlining his politics. In thatperiod he travelled extensively and shot a number of films, most of which remained unfinished or were refusedshowings. His films became intensely politicized and experimental, a phase that lasted until 1980.

Jean-Luc Godard 18

According to Elliott Gould, he and Godard met to discuss the possibility of Godard directing Jules Feiffer's 1971surrealist play Little Murders. During this meeting Godard said his two favorite American writers were Feiffer andCharles M. Schulz. Godard soon declined the opportunity to direct; the job later went to Alan Arkin.[citation needed]

Jean-Pierre GorinAfter the events of May 1968, when the city of Paris saw total upheaval in response to the "authoritarian de Gaullerepublic", and Godard's professional objective was reconsidered, he began to collaborate with like-mindedindividuals in the filmmaking arena. The most notable of these collaborations was with a young Maoist student,Jean-Pierre Gorin, who displayed a passion for cinema that grabbed Godard’s attention.Between 1968 and 1973, Godard and Gorin collaborated to make a total of five films with strong Maoist messages.The most prominent film from the collaboration was Tout va bien, which starred Jane Fonda and Yves Montand, atthe time very big stars. Jean-Pierre Gorin now teaches the study of film at the University of California, San Diego.

The Dziga Vertov groupThe small group of Maoists that Godard had brought together, which included Gorin, adopted the name DzigaVertov Group. Godard had a specific interest in Vertov, a Soviet filmmaker—whose adopted name is derived fromthe verb to spin or rotate[22] and is best remembered for Man with the Movie Camera (1929) and a contemporary ofboth the great Soviet montage theorists, most notably Sergei Eisenstein, and Russian constructivist and avant-gardeartists such as Alexander Rodchenko and Vladimir Tatlin. Part of Godard’s political shift after May 1968 was towarda proactive participation in the class struggle.

SonimageIn 1972, Godard and Swiss filmmaker Anne-Marie Miéville started the alternative video production and distributioncompany Sonimage, based in Grenoble.[23] Under Sonimage, Godard produced both Numero Deux (1975) and"Sauve qui peut (la vie)" (1980). In 1976, Godard began collaborating with Swiss filmmaker Anne-Marie Miéville,his wife,[24] on a series of innovative video works for European broadcast television called "Six fois deux/Sur et sousla communication" (1976)[25] and "France/tour/détour/deux/enfants" (1978).

1980–1999His return to somewhat more traditional fiction was marked with Sauve qui peut (la vie) (1980), the first of a seriesof more mainstream films marked by autobiographical currents: for example Passion (1982), Lettre à Freddy Buache(1982), Prénom Carmen (1984), and Grandeur et décadence (1986). There was, though, another flurry ofcontroversy with Je vous salue, Marie (1985), which was condemned by the Catholic Church for alleged heresy, andalso with King Lear (1987), an extraordinary but much-excoriated essay on William Shakespeare and language. Alsocompleted in 1987 was a segment in the film ARIA which was based loosely from the plot of Armide; it is set in agym and uses several arias by Jean-Baptiste Lully from his famous Armide.His later films have been marked by great formal beauty and frequently a sense of requiem — Nouvelle Vague (NewWave, 1990), the autobiographical JLG/JLG, autoportrait de décembre (JLG/JLG: Self-Portrait in December, 1995),and For Ever Mozart (1996). Allemagne année 90 neuf zéro (Germany Year 90 Nine Zero, 1991) was a quasi-sequelto Alphaville but done with an elegiac tone and focus on the inevitable decay of age. Between 1988 and 1998 heproduced perhaps the most important work of his career in the multi-part series Histoire(s) du cinéma, a monumentalproject which combined all the innovations of his video work with a passionate engagement in the issues oftwentieth-century history and the history of film itself.

Jean-Luc Godard 19

2000–presentGodard has continued to work actively into his seventies. In 2001, Eloge de l'Amour (In Praise of Love) wasreleased. This film is notable for its use of both film and video – the first half captured in 35 mm black and white,the latter half shot in color on DV – and subsequently transferred to film for editing. The blending of film and videorecalls the statement from Sauve Qui Peut, in which the tension between film and video evokes the struggle betweenCain and Abel. Eloge de l'Amour is rich with themes of aging, love, separation, and rediscovery as we follow theyoung artist Edgar contemplating a new work on the four stages of love (should it be an opera? a film?). He meets upwith a lost love who is terminally ill, and at her death we are thrust into the second half of the film where Edgarmeets with her at her grandparent's house two years before. Producers for Steven Spielberg are negotiating thepurchase of her grandparent's World War II story; the young woman attempts to stall the deal.In Notre musique (2004), Godard turns his focus to war, specifically, the war in Sarajevo, but with attention to allwar, including the American Civil War, the war between the US and Native Americans, and the Israeli–Palestinianconflict. The film is structured into three Dantean kingdoms: Hell, Purgatory and Paradise. Godard's fascination withparadox is a constant in the film. It opens with a long, ponderous montage of war images that occasionally lapsesinto the comic; Paradise is shown as a lush wooded beach patrolled by US Marines.Godard's latest film, Film Socialisme, premiered in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2010 Cannes FilmFestival.[26][27] It was released theatrically in France in May 2010.He is rumored to be considering directing a film adaptation of Daniel Mendelsohn's The Lost: A Search for Six of SixMillion, an award-winning book about the Holocaust.[28] His next feature film is called Adieu au Language(Farewell to Language) and was shot in 3-D.[29][30] The film revolves around a couple who cannot communicatewith each other until their pet dog acts as an interpreter for them. In 2013 he also contributed a short called TheThree Disasters to the omnibus film 3X3D with filmmakers Peter Greenaway and Edgar Pera.[31]

Tributes• " From Hollywood to the Third World, from the mainstream to the Avant-Garde, Godard's name is perhaps the

only one that occurs wherever cinema is discussed or produced." – Colin Myles MacCabe• " Like Picasso, Godard reveals to us throughout his work his world as source and subject; the artist's studio, the

objects of his daily life, the references to and repetitions of his own works, the layering of words and images, thewomen he has loved, the horrors of war." – Mary Lea Bandy.

• " Godard's is an art of plastic age, of fluent, pliable, putty characters." – Raymond Durgnat• " Godard's importance lies in his development of an authentic modernist cinema in opposition to (though, during

the early period, at the same time within) mainstream cinema: it is with his work that film becomes central to ourcentury's major aesthetic debate, the controversy developed through such figures as Lukacs, Brecht, Benjamin andAdorno as to whether realism or modernism is the more progressive form." –Robin Wood.

Jean-Luc Godard 20

References[2][2] Grant 2007, Vol. 4, p. 235.[3][3] Grant 2007, Vol. 2, p. 259.[4][4] Grant 2007, Vol. 4, p. 126.[6][6] Grant 2007, Vol. 4, p. 238.[7][7] Grant 2007, Vol. 4, p. 202.[10][10] Grant 2007, Vol. 3, p. 49.[11] Morrey 2005, p. 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Kby7RaRmTt4C& pg=PA1).[14] MacCabe 2005, p. 36 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FwLqbp0cEp8C& pg=PA37).[15] (http:/ / muse. jhu. edu/ journals/ french_forum/ v034/ 34. 2. usher. html), Usher, Phillip John. (2009). "De sexe incertain: Masculin,

Féminin de Godard". French Forum, vol. 34, no 2, p. 97-112.[21] http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ marx/ works/ 1844/ manuscripts/ preface. htm

• Grant, Barry Keith, ed. (2007). Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film. Detroit, MI: Schirmer Reference.ISBN 0-02-865791-8.

• MacCabe, Colin (2005). Godard: A Portrait of the Artist at Seventy (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=FwLqbp0cEp8C). New York: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-21105-0.

• Morrey, Douglas (2005). Jean-Luc Godard (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Kby7RaRmTt4C& pg=PA1).New York: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-6759-4.

• Steritt, David. (1998) Jean-Luc Godard: Interviews. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi.•• Usher, Phillip John. (2009). "De sexe incertain: Masculin, Féminin de Godard". French Forum, vol. 34, no 2, p.

97-112.

Further reading• Godard, Jean-Luc. 2012 Introduction to a True History of Cinema and Television. Montreal: caboose. ISBN

978-0-9811914-1-6• Brody, Richard. 2008. Everything is Cinema: The Working Life of Jean-Luc Godard. ISBN 978-0-8050-6886-3• Temple, Michael. Williams, James S. Witt, Michael. (eds) 2007. For Ever Godard. London: Black Dog

Publishing• Dixon, Wheeler Winston. The Films of Jean-Luc Godard. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997.• Godard, Jean-Luc: The Future(s) of Film. Three Interviews 2000/01. Bern — Berlin: Verlag Gachnang &

Springer, 2002. ISBN 978-3-906127-62-0• Loshitzky, Yosefa. The Radical Faces of Godard and Bertolucci.• Silverman, Kaja and Farocki, Harun. 1998. Speaking About Godard. New York: New York University Press.• Temple, Michael and Williams, James S. (eds). 2000. The Cinema alone: Essays on the Work of Jean-Luc

Godard 1985–2000. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.• Almeida, Jane. Dziga Vertov Group (http:/ / www. witz. com. br/ dzigavertov). São Paulo: witz, 2005. ISBN

85-98100-05-6.• Nicole Brenez, David Faroult, Michael Temple, James E. Williams, Michael Witt (eds), Jean-Luc

Godard:Documents, Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 2007• Godard Bibliography (via UC Berkeley) (http:/ / www. lib. berkeley. edu/ MRC/ godardbib. html)• Diane Stevenson, "Godard and Bazin" in the Andre Bazin special issue, Jeffrey Crouse (ed.), Film International,

Issue 30, Vol. 5, No. 6, 2007, pp. 32–40.

Jean-Luc Godard 21

External links• Jean-Luc Godard (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm419/ ) at the Internet Movie Database• Jean-Luc Godard (http:/ / www. criterion. com/ explore/ 12-jean-luc-godard) at the Criterion Collection• Jean Luc Godard Biography (http:/ / www. newwavefilm. com/ french-new-wave-encyclopedia/ jean-luc-godard.

shtml) at newwavefilm.com• Jean-luc Godard Timeline (http:/ / www. carleton. edu/ curricular/ MEDA/ classes/ media110/ Friesema/ intro.

html)• Detailed filmography of Jean-Luc Godard (http:/ / en. unifrance. org/ directories/ person/ 15597/ jean-luc-godard)

on unifrance.org• Jean-Luc Godard (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ film/ jeanlucgodard) at The Guardian Film• Jean-Luc Godard (http:/ / movies. nytimes. com/ person/ 91804/ Jean-Luc-Godard) at The New York Times

Movies• Jean-Luc Godard (http:/ / topics. nytimes. com/ top/ reference/ timestopics/ people/ g/ jeanluc_godard/ index.

html) collected news and commentary at The New York Times• Works by or about Jean-Luc Godard (http:/ / worldcat. org/ identities/ lccn-n79-55544) in libraries (WorldCat

catalog)• Guardian Interview (04/2005) (http:/ / film. guardian. co. uk/ interview/ interviewpages/ 0,6737,1472494,00.

html)• Video dialog -in french- between Godard and the french writer Stéphane Zagdanski about Literature and Cinema,

November 2004 (http:/ / parolesdesjours. free. fr/ gozag. htm)

James Monaco 22

James Monaco

James MonacoBorn 1942

Flushing, NY, U.S.

Occupation Film critic, film historian, publisher

Years active 1965–2011

Spouse(s) Susan Schenker(3 children)

Website

[1]

James Monaco (born 1942) is an American film critic, author, publisher, and educator.He has written seven books, including The New Wave : Truffaut, Godard, Chabrol, Rohmer, Rivette (1976), How ToRead A Film (1977, 1981, 1999, 2009) and American Film Now (1979), and edited four others.He founded Baseline in 1982, an early online database about the entertainment industry, and a forerunner of theIMDb. It was taken over by The New York Times Company in 2006.He has taught at The New School for Social Research, Columbia University, New York University, and the CityUniversity of New York. He was a media commentator for Morning Edition on NPR in the 1980s, and has writtenfor The New York Times, The Village Voice, and The Christian Science Monitor.Monaco is the founder and current president of UNET 2 Corporation. He runs Harbor Electronic Publishing in NewYork and Sag Harbor.

External links• About James Monaco - readfilm.com [1]

References[1] http:/ / www. readfilm. com/ Monaco. htm

Rotten Tomatoes 23

Rotten Tomatoes

Rotten Tomatoes

URL rottentomatoes.com [1]

Commercial? Yes

Type of site Film review aggregator and forum

Registration Optional

Owner • Flixster, part of Warner Bros. subsidiary of Time Warner

[]

Created by Senh Duong

Launched August 12, 1998

Rotten Tomatoes is a website devoted to reviews, information, and news of films, widely known as a film reviewaggregator. Its name derives from the cliché of audiences throwing rotten tomatoes or vegetables at a poor stageperformance. The company has been owned by Flixster, a Warner Bros. company, since May 2011.As of 2007, the website's editor-in-chief is Matt Atchity.[2]

HistoryRotten Tomatoes was launched on August 12, 1998, as a spare time project by Senh Duong.[3] His goal in creatingRotten Tomatoes was "to create a site where people can get access to reviews from a variety of critics in the US".[4]

His inspiration came when, as a fan of Jackie Chan, Duong started collecting all the reviews of Chan's movies asthey were coming out in the United States. The first movie reviewed on Rotten Tomatoes was Your Friends &Neighbors. The website was an immediate success, receiving mentions by Yahoo!, Netscape, and USA Today withinthe first week of its launch; it attracted "600 – 1000 daily unique visitors" as a result.[citation needed]

Duong teamed up with University of California, Berkeley classmates Patrick Y. Lee and Stephen Wang, his formerpartners at the Berkeley, California-based web design firm Design Reactor, to pursue Rotten Tomatoes on a full-timebasis, officially launching on April 1, 2000.[5]

In June 2004, IGN Entertainment acquired Rottentomatoes.com for an undisclosed sum.[6] In September 2005, IGNwas bought by News Corp's Fox Interactive Media.[7] In January 2010, IGN sold the website to Flixster, whichproduces the most popular movie ratings app for the iPad and other mobile devices.[] The combined reach of bothcompanies is 30 million unique visitors a month across all different platforms, according to the companies.[8] In May2011, Flixster was acquired by Warner Bros.[]

Rotten Tomatoes users can create and join groups that allow them to discuss different aspects of film, and onegroup – "The Golden Oyster Awards" – has its members vote for their winners of different awards, much like theOscars or Golden Globes. However, when Flixster bought Rotten Tomatoes, they disbanded the groups, saying: "TheGroups area has been discontinued to pave the way for new community features coming soon. In the meantime,please use the Forums to continue your conversations about your favorite movie topics."As of February 2011, new community features have shown up and others have been removed. For example, users areno longer able to sort out fresh ratings from rotten ratings, and vice versa.

Rotten Tomatoes 24

DescriptionRotten Tomatoes staff first collect online reviews from authors that are certified members of various writing guildsor film critic associations. To become a critic at the site, a critic's original reviews must garner a specific amount of"likes". Top Critics are generally ones that write for a notable newspaper. The staff then determine for each reviewwhether it is positive ("fresh", marked by a small icon of a red tomato) or negative ("rotten", marked by a small iconof a green splattered tomato). At the end of the year one film will receive the "Golden Tomato", meaning it is thehighest rated film that year.[citation needed]

The website keeps track of all of the reviews counted (which can approach 270 for major, recently released films)and the percentage of positive reviews is tabulated. If the positive reviews make up 60% or more, the film isconsidered "fresh" in that a supermajority of the reviewers approve of the film. If the positive reviews are less than60%, then the film is considered "rotten". In addition, major film reviewers like Roger Ebert, Desson Thomson,Stephen Hunter, Owen Gleiberman, Lisa Schwarzbaum, Peter Travers and Michael Philips are listed in a sub-listingcalled "Top Critics", which tabulates their reviews separately, while still including their opinions in the generalrating. When there are sufficient reviews to form a conclusion, a consensus statement is posted which is intended toarticulate the general reasons for the collective opinion of the film.[citation needed]

This rating in turn is marked with an equivalent icon when the film is listed, giving the reader a one glance look atthe general critical opinion about the work. Movies with a "Tomatometer" of 75% or better and at least 40 reviewsfrom Tomatometer Critics (including 5 Top Critics) receive the "Certified Fresh" seal. Furthermore, films earningthis status will keep it unless the critical percentage drops below 70%.[9] As a result of the requirements for quantityof ratings, there may be films with 100% positive ratings which don't have the certificate due to insufficient reviewsto be sure of the "freshness".[citation needed]

In addition to reviews, Rotten Tomatoes hosts message forums, where thousands of participants take part in thediscussion of movies, video games, music and other topics. In addition, users are able to rate and review filmsthemselves. Every movie also features a "user average" that calculates the percentage of users that have rated thefilm positively in a manner similar to how the critics' reviews are calculated. However, this score is more specific asthe users are able to rate the movie on a scale of 0–10 (compared to critic reviews, which usually use 4-star ratingsand are often simply qualitative). Like the critic's reviews, a score of 6 or higher is considered "fresh". In January2010, on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the New York Film Critics Circle, Armond White, its chairman,cited Rotten Tomatoes in particular and film review aggregators in general, as examples of how "the Internet takesrevenge on individual expression" by "dumping reviewers onto one website and assigning spuriouspercentage-enthusiasm points to the discrete reviews"; according to White, such websites "offer consensus as asubstitute for assessment".[10]

InternationalLocalized versions of the site are available in Britain, India and Australia. Readers accessing Rotten Tomatoes fromFrance and Germany are automatically redirected to the British version of the site that provides local release dates,cinema listings, box office results and promotes reviews from British critics. The US version is available via a "USsite" button on the homepage. The localized versions of the site contain all of the US editorial content, reviews andfilm lists and are augmented by local content maintained by an international editor based in Los Angeles.

Rotten Tomatoes 25

The Rotten Tomatoes Show

The Rotten Tomatoes Show onCurrent

Genre Movie Review ProgramHumor

Created by Current

Written by Mark GanekEllen FoxJoel Church-Cooper

Presented by Brett ErlichEllen FoxDaniel Higgs

Country of origin United States

Original language(s) English

No. of seasons 2

No. of episodes 77

Production

Executive producer(s) Jeffrey PlunkettBrett Erlich

Producer(s) Ben SteinJohn Lichman

Editor(s) Dan StonebergSzu-Hua WangJames Stanton

Running time 22 minutes

Broadcast

Original channel Current TV

Original run March 5, 2009 – September 16, 2010

Chronology

Followed by Rotten Tomatoes on InfoMania

In early 2009, Current Television launched the televised version of the web review site, The Rotten Tomatoes Show,which was hosted by Brett Erlich and Ellen Fox and written by Mark Ganek. The show aired every Thursday at10:30 EST on the Current TV network.[11] Depending on when an episode is filmed and originally aired, ratings ofmovies might differ from ratings currently found on the website. The last episode aired on September 16, 2010,although it did return as a much shorter segment of InfoMania.

Rotten Tomatoes 26

References[1] https:/ / www. rottentomatoes. com/[2] Matt Atchity on The Young Turks Show (http:/ / www. theyoungturks. com/ story/ 2009/ 1/ 22/ 214324/ 147)[8] News Corp. Unloads Rotten Tomatoes Onto Flixster | TechCrunch (http:/ / techcrunch. com/ 2010/ 01/ 04/ rotten-tomatoes-flixster/ )

External links• Official website (https:/ / www. rottentomatoes. com/ ) , including a list of approved Rotten Tomatoes Critics

(https:/ / www. rottentomatoes. com/ critics/ authors. php) and the Rotten Tomatoes forums (https:/ / www.rottentomatoes. com/ vine/ forumdisplay. php?f=2)

Internet Movie Database 27

Internet Movie Database

Internet Movie Database (IMDb)

IMDb homepage on August 21, 2012

URL imdb.com [1]

Commercial? Yes

Type of site Online database for movies, television, and video games

Registration Registration is optional for members to participate in discussions, comments, ratings, and voting.

Available language(s) English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese

Owner Amazon.com

Created by Col Needham

Launched October 17, 1990

Current status Active

The Internet Movie Database (IMDb) is an online database of information related to films, television programs,and video games. This includes actors, production crew personnel, and fictional characters featured in these threevisual entertainment media.It is one of the most popular online entertainment destinations, with over 100 million unique users each month and asolid and rapidly growing mobile presence.[2] IMDb was launched on October 17, 1990, and in 1998 was acquiredby Amazon.com. As of March 22, 2013, IMDb had 2,467,314 titles (includes episodes) and 5,132,299 personalitiesin its database,[3] as well as 42 million registered users. The website has an Alexa rank of 48.

History

History before websiteIMDb originated with a Usenet posting by British film fan and professional computer programmer Col Needhamentitled "Those Eyes", about actresses with beautiful eyes. Others with similar interests soon responded withadditions or different lists of their own. Needham subsequently started a (male) "Actors List", while Dave Knightbegan a "Directors List", and Andy Krieg took over "THE LIST", which would later be renamed the "Actress List".Both lists had been restricted to people who were alive and working, but soon retired people were added, soNeedham started what was then (but did not remain) a separate "Dead Actors/Actresses List". The goal of theparticipants now was to make the lists as inclusive as possible. By late 1990, the lists included almost 10,000 moviesand television series correlated with actors and actresses appearing therein.On October 17, 1990, Needham developed and posted a collection of Unix shell scripts which could be used to search the four lists, and thus the database that would become the IMDb was born. At the time, it was known as the "rec.arts.movies movie database", but by 1993 had been moved out of the Usenet group as an independent website underwritten and controlled by Needham and personal followers. Other website users were invited to contribute data which they may have collected and verified, on a volunteer basis, which greatly increased the amount and types of data to be stored. Entire new sections were added. As the site grew hugely, full production crews, uncredited performers and other demographic data were added. Needham's group allowed some advertising to support ongoing operations of the site, including the hiring of full-time paid data managers. All the primary staff came (and still

Internet Movie Database 28

come) from the burgeoning computer industry and/or training schools and did not have extensive expertise in thevisual media.[citation needed] In 1998, unable to secure sufficient funding from limited advertising, contributions andunable to raise support from the visual media industries or academia, Needham sold the IMDb to Amazon.com, oncondition that its operation would remain in the hands of Needham and his small cadre of managers, who soon wereable to move into full-time paid staff positions.

On the webThe database had been expanded to include additional categories of filmmakers and other demographic material, aswell as trivia, biographies, and plot summaries; the movie ratings had been properly integrated with the list data; anda centralized email interface for querying the database had been created by Alan Jay. Later in theyearWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items it moved onto the World Wide Web (anetwork in its infancy at that time) under the name of Cardiff Internet Movie Database.[4] The database resided onthe servers of the computer science department of Cardiff University in Wales. Rob Hartill was the original webinterface author. In 1994 the email interface was revised to accept the submission of all information, meaning thatpeople no longer had to email the specific list maintainer with their updates. However, the structure remained thatinformation received on a single film was divided among multiple section managers, the sections being defined anddetermined by categories of film personnel and the individual filmographies contained therein. Over the next fewyears, the database was run on a network of mirrors across the world with donated bandwidth.[citation needed]

The website is Perl-based.[5] As of May 2011, the site has been filtered in China for more than one year, althoughmany users address it through proxy server or by VPN.[6]

On October 17, 2010, IMDb launched original video (www.imdb.com/20) in celebration of its 20th anniversary.[7]

As an independent companyIn 1996 IMDb was incorporated in the United Kingdom, becoming the Internet Movie Database Ltd. Founder ColNeedham became the primary owner as well as the identified figurehead. General revenue for site operations wasgenerated through advertising, licensing and partnerships.

As Amazon.com subsidiaryIn 1998, Jeff Bezos, founder, owner and CEO of Amazon.com, struck a deal with Col Needham and other principalshareholders to buy IMDb outright and attach it to Amazon as a subsidiary, private company.[8] This gave IMDb theability to pay the shareholders salaries for their work, while Amazon.com would be able to use the IMDb as anadvertising resource for selling DVDs and videotapes.IMDb continued to expand its functionality. On January 15, 2002, it added a subscription service known asIMDbPro, aimed at entertainment professionals. IMDbPro was announced and launched at the 2002 Sundance FilmFestival. It provides a variety of services including film production and box office details, as well as a companydirectory.As an additional incentive for users, as of 2003, users identified as one of "the top 100 contributors" of hard datareceived complimentary free access to IMDbPro for the following calendar year; for 2006 this was increased to thetop 150 contributors, and for 2010 to the top 250.[9] In 2008 IMDb launched their first official foreign languageversion with the German IMDb.de. Also in 2008, IMDb acquired two other companies, Withoutabox and Box OfficeMojo.In 2011 IMDb was sued by an unknown actress for more than US$1 million due to IMDb revealing her age (40). Theactress claims that revealing her age could cause her to lose acting opportunities.[10] A federal judge in Seattledismissed the lawsuit, saying the actress had no grounds to proceed with an anonymous complaint. She re-filed andso revealed that the complainant is a Huong Hoang of Texas, who uses the stage name Junie Hoang.[11]

Internet Movie Database 29

Television episodesOn January 26, 2006, "Full Episode Support" came online, allowing the database to support separate cast and crewlistings for each episode of every television series. This was described by Col Needham as "the largest change we'veever made to our data model"[citation needed], and increased the number of titles in the database from 485,000 to nearly755,000.[citation needed]

Characters filmographyOn October 2, 2007, the characters' filmography was added. Character entries are created from character listings inthe main filmography database and as such don't need any additional verification by IMDb staff. They have alreadybeen verified when they are added to the main filmography.

Instant viewingOn September 15, 2008, a feature was added that enables instant viewing of over 6,000 movies and television showsfrom CBS, Sony and a number of independent film makers, with direct links from their profiles.[12] Due to licensingrestrictions, this feature is only available to viewers in the United States.[13]

Ancillary features

User ratings of filmsAs one adjunct to data, the IMDb offers a rating scale that allows users to rate films on a scale of one to ten. Therating system is recognized as being severely flawed for several reasons. [14][15]

Filters and weights

IMDb indicates that submitted ratings are filtered and weighted in various ways in order to produce a weighted meanthat is displayed for each film, series, and so on. It states that filters are used to avoid ballot stuffing; the method isnot described in detail to avoid attempts to circumvent it. In fact, it sometimes produces an extreme differencebetween the weighted average and the arithmetic mean. For example, Jonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience isconsidered to be the worst film with a weighted average of 1.3 as of March 2009, but has a rather ordinary arithmeticmean of 4.1.[16][17]

Ranking (IMDb Top 250)

The IMDb Top 250 is intended to be a listing of the top 'rated' 250 films, based on ratings by the registered users ofthe website using the methods described.[18] Only non-documentary theatrical releases running at least forty-fiveminutes with over 25,000 ratings are considered; all other products are ineligible.[19] Also, the 'top 250' rating isbased on only the ratings of "regular voters". The exact number of votes a registered user would have to make to beconsidered to be a user who votes regularly has been kept secret. IMDb has stated that to maintain the effectivenessof the top 250 list they "deliberately do not disclose the criteria used for a person to be counted as a regularvoter".[20] In addition to other weightings, the top 250 films are also based on a weighted rating formula referred toin actuarial science as a credibility formula.[21] This label arises because a statistic is taken to be more credible thegreater the number of individual pieces of information; in this case from eligible users who submit ratings. IMDbuses the following formula to calculate the weighted rating:

where:= weighted rating

Internet Movie Database 30

= average for the movie as a number from 0 to 10 (mean) = (Rating)= number of votes for the movie = (votes)

= minimum votes required to be listed in the Top 250 (currently 25,000)= the mean vote across the whole report (currently 7.1)

The in this formula is equivalent to a Bayesian posterior mean (See Bayesian statistics).The IMDb also has a Bottom 100 feature which is assembled through a similar process although only 1500 votesmust be received to qualify for the list.[22]

The top 250 list comprises a wide range of films, including major releases, cult films, independent films, criticallyacclaimed films, silent films and non-English language films.

Top 20 of the 250

Rank Film Year

1. The Shawshank Redemption 1994

2. The Godfather 1972

3. The Godfather: Part Two 1974

4. Pulp Fiction 1994

5. The Good, the Bad and the Ugly 1966

6. 12 Angry Men 1957

7. The Dark Knight 2008

8. Schindler's List 1993

9. The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King 2003

10. Fight Club 1999

11. Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back 1980

12. The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring 2001

13. One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest 1975

14. Inception 2010

15. Goodfellas 1990

16. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope 1977

17. Seven Samurai 1954

18. Forrest Gump 1994

19. The Matrix 1999

20. The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers 2002

Message boardsOne of the most used features of the Internet Movie Database is the message boards that coincide with every title (excepting, as of 2006, TV episodes[23]) and name entry, along with over 140 main boards. This section is one of the more recent features of IMDb, having its beginnings in 2001. In order to post on the message boards a user needs to "authenticate" their account via cell phone, credit card, or by having been a recent customer of the parent company Amazon.com. Message boards have expanded in recent years. The Soapbox started in 2001 is a general message board meant for debates on any subject. The Politics board started in 2007 is a message board to discuss politics, news events and current affairs as well as history and economics. Both these message boards have become the most

Internet Movie Database 31

popular message boards in IMDb, more popular on a long term basis than any individual movie message board.

Content and format

Data provided by subjectsIn 2006, IMDb introduced its "Résumé subscription service", where actors and crew can post their own résumé andupload photos of themselves[24] for a yearly fee.[25] The base annual charge for including a photo with an accountwas $39.95 until 2010, when it was increased to $54.95. IMDb résumé pages are kept on a sub-page of the regularentry about that person, with a regular entry automatically created for each résumé subscriber who does not alreadyhave one.[26]

As of 2012, Resume Services is now included as part of an IMDbPro subscription, and is no longer offered as aseparate subscription service.

Copyright, vandalism, and error issuesAll volunteers who contribute content to the database technically retain copyright on their contributions but thecompilation of the content becomes the exclusive property of IMDb with the full right to copy, modify, andsublicense it and they are verified before posting.[27] Credit is not given on specific title or filmography pages to thecontributor(s) who have provided information. Conversely, a credited text entry, such as a plot summary, may be"corrected" for content, grammar, sentence structure, perceived omission or error, by other contributors withouthaving to add their names as co-authors. Due to the process of having the submitted data or text reviewed by asection manager, IMDb is different from database projects like Wikipedia, Discogs, or OpenStreetMap in thatcontributors cannot add, delete, or modify the data or text on impulse, and the manipulation of data is controlled byIMDb technology and salaried staff.[28] Nevertheless, although it is generally assumed to be reliable[29], IMDb hasbeen subject to deliberate additions of false information, as acknowledged by a spokesperson in 2012: "We make iteasy for users and professionals to update much of our content, which is why we have an 'edit page.' The data that issubmitted goes through a series of consistency checks before it goes live. Given the sheer volume of the information,occasional mistakes are inevitable, and, when reported, they are promptly fixed. We always welcomecorrections."[30]

The Java Movie Database (JMDB)[] is reportedly creating an IMDb_Error.log file that lists all the errors found whileprocessing the IMDb plain text files. A Wiki alternative to IMDb is omdb (Open Media Database) whose content isalso contributed by users but licensed under CC-by and the GFDL. Since 2007, IMDb has been experimenting withwiki-programmed sections for complete film synopses, parental guides, and FAQs about titles as determined by (andanswered by) individual contributors.

Data format and accessIMDb does not provide an API for automated queries. However most of the data can be downloaded as compressedplain text files and the information can be extracted using the command-line interface tools provided.[31] Beside thatthere is the Java-based graphical user interface (GUI) application available that is able to process the compressedplain text files and allow to search and display the information.[] This GUI application supports different languagesbut the movie related data is of course English as made available by IMDb. A Python package called IMDbPY canalso be used to process the compressed plain text files into a number of different SQL databases, enabling easieraccess to the entire dataset for searching or data mining.[32]

Internet Movie Database 32

Film titlesThe IMDb has sites in English as well as versions translated completely or in part into other languages (Portuguese,Finnish, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romanian and Spanish). The non-English language sitesdisplay film titles in the specified language. While originally the IMDb's English-language sites displayed titlesaccording to their original country-of-origin language, in 2010 the IMDb began allowing individual users in the UKand USA to choose primary title display by either the original-language titles, or the US or UK release title(normally, in English).

CriticismVisitors of IMDb often express concern over the excessive advertisement banners and pop-ups displayed on thewebpage, which are often the cause for slowdowns. There have been numerous complaints from registered membersof IMDb Message Boards, criticizing the overwhelming amount of trolls who often harass newcomers or posterswith disagreeing opinions, and usually have several sockpuppet accounts, which they tend to use to file abuse reportsover certain message board members who may have different or disagreeing opinions on certain subjects, such as thelikability of certain popular movies or TV shows, and general disagreements over various popular subjects andtopics.[citation needed]

IMDb staff often suppresses all complaints over these issues[citation needed], and puts high posting-quotas on messageboard members who issue them, deletes their posting histories entirely as a punishment for inappropriate behavior, oreven disables their accounts if users complain too often. IMDb staff argues that this is justifiable based on the factthat their Message Board registration is payment-free, even though the member registration requires credit cardinformation, and IMDb Pro feature requires additional payment. One user have sued IMDb for violation of herprivacy.[33]

Notes[1] http:/ / www. imdb. com/[5] What software/hardware are you using to run the site? (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ help/ show_leaf?techinfo) imdb.com[16] IMDb Charts: IMDb Bottom 100 (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ chart/ bottom?tt1229827). imdb.com[17] Jonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience (2009) – User ratings (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt1229827/ ratings). imdb.com[20] The user votes average on film X is 9.4, so it should appear in your top 250 films listing, yet it doesn't. Why? (http:/ / www. imdb. com/

help/ search?domain=helpdesk_faq& index=1& file=notintop250)[21] mirror (http:/ / isfaserveur. univ-lyon1. fr/ ~norberg/ links/ papers/ CRED-eas. pdf)[23][23] Each TV episode uses the same message board for the whole series[24] Lycos Europe and IMDb sign sales agreement for 9 European markets (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061023141910/ http:/ / www.

lycos-europe. com/ Index-Eng/ G-English-Files/ PR-20060710-IMDb. html). Lycos Europe press release, July 10, 2006.[25] IMDb Resume FAQ: Can I subscribe only for one month or one year? (http:/ / resume. imdb. com/ help/ show_leaf?resumenotrecurring).

Retrieved January 22, 2008.[26] IMDb Resume FAQ: Is there any difference between a regular IMDb name page and an IMDb name page created via IMDb Resume? (http:/

/ resume. imdb. com/ help/ show_leaf?resumenamepagediff). Retrieved January 22, 2008.[27] IMDb Copyright and Conditions of Use (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ help/ show_article?conditions). imdb.com[28] The Plain Text Data Files (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ interfaces#plain) IMDb – Alternate Interfaces[29][29] It may be assumed to be generally reliable but the IMDb doesn't claim that it is 100% accurate.

Internet Movie Database 33

References

External links• Official website (http:/ / www. imdb. com)

• mobile version (http:/ / m. imdb. com/ )

ActorAn actor (alternatively actress for a female; see terminology) is a person who acts in a dramatic or comic productionand works in film, television, theatre, or radio in that capacity.[1] The ancient Greek word for an "actor," ὑποκριτής(hypokrites), means literally "one who interprets";[2] in this sense, an actor is one who interprets a dramaticcharacter.[3]

TerminologyAfter 1660, when women first appeared on stage, actor and actress were initially used interchangeably for femaleperformers, but later, influenced by the French actrice, actress became the usual term. The etymology is a simplederivation from actor with ess added.[] The word actor refers to a person who acts regardless of gender, and this term"is increasingly preferred", although actress, referring specifically to a female person who acts, "remains in generaluse".[] Within the profession, however, the re-adoption of the neutral term dates to the 1950s–60s, the post-warperiod when women's contribution to cultural life in general was being re-evaluated.[] Actress remains the commonterm used in major acting awards given to female recipients.[]

The gender-neutral term "player" was common in film in the early days of the Motion Picture Production Code withregards to the cinema of the United States, but is now generally deemed archaic. However, it remains in use in thetheatre, often incorporated into the name of a theatre group or company (such as the East West Players)[citation

needed].

HistoryThe first recorded case of an actor performing took place in 534 BC (though the changes in calendar over the yearsmake it hard to determine exactly) when the Greek performer Thespis stepped on to the stage at the TheatreDionysus and became the first known person to speak words as a character in a play or story. Prior to Thespis' act,stories were only known to be told in song and dance and in third person narrative. In honour of Thespis, actors arecommonly called Thespians. Theatrical legend to this day maintains that Thespis exists as a mischievous spirit, anddisasters in the theatre are sometimes blamed on his ghostly intervention.Actors were traditionally not people of high status, and in the Early Middle Ages travelling acting troupes were oftenviewed with distrust. In many parts of Europe, actors could not even receive a Christian burial, and traditional beliefsof the region and time period held that this left any actor forever condemned. However, this negative perception waslargely reversed in the 19th and 20th centuries as acting has become an honoured and popular profession and art.[4]

Actor 34

Techniques

Method actingMethod acting is a term created by Lee Strasberg after he had left the Group Theatre and created his own ActorsStudio. The techniques developed in the work of the Group Theatre were based on the acting theory of KonstantinStanislavski created in the early 20th century in his work at the Moscow Art Theatre and its studios. The GroupTheatre first became known in the 1930s; its practices were subsequently advanced and developed in new directionsby Stella Adler, Sanford Meisner, Uta Hagen, Lee Strasberg (at the Actors Studio in the 1940s and 50s), andothers.[5] In Stanislavski's system', the actor analyzes the character in order to play him or her with psychologicalrealism and emotional authenticity. Using the Method, an actor may recall emotions or reactions from his or her ownlife and use them to identify with the character being portrayed.Method actors are often characterized as immersing themselves so totally in their characters that they continue toportray them even off-stage or off-camera for the duration of the project. However, this is a popular misconception.While some actors do employ this approach, it is generally not taught as part of the Method. Stella Adler, who was amember of the Group Theatre, along with Strasberg, emphasised a different approach of using creative imagination.[]

Method acting offers a systematic form of actor training in which the actor's sensory, psychological, and emotionalabilities are developed; it revolutionized theatre in the United States.[citation needed]

Presentational and representational actingPresentational acting refers to a relationship between actor and audience, whether by direct address or indirectly byspecific use of language, looks, gestures or other signs indicating that the character or actor is aware of the audience'spresence.[] (Shakespeare's use of punning and wordplay, for example, often has this function of indirect contact.)In representational acting, "actors want to make us 'believe' they are the character; they pretend."[] The illusion of thefourth wall with the audience as voyeurs is striven for.[6]

As opposite genderIn the past, only men could become actors in some societies. In the ancient Greece and Rome[7] and the medievalworld, it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on the stage, and this belief persisted until the 17th century,when in Venice it was broken. In the time of William Shakespeare, women's roles were generally played by men orboys.[8]

When an eighteen-year Puritan prohibition of drama was lifted after the English Restoration of 1660, women beganto appear on stage in England. Margaret Hughes is credited by some as the first professional actress on the Englishstage.[9] This prohibition ended during the reign of Charles II in part due to the fact that he enjoyed watchingactresses on stage.[10] The first occurrence of the term actress was in 1700 according to the OED and is ascribed toDryden.[]

In Japan, men (onnagata) took over the female roles in kabuki theatre when women were banned from performing onstage during the Edo period. This convention has continued to the present. However, some forms of Chinese dramahave women playing all the roles.In modern times, women sometimes play the roles of prepubescent boys. The stage role of Peter Pan, for example, istraditionally played by a woman, as are most principal boys in British pantomime. Opera has several "breechesroles" traditionally sung by women, usually mezzo-sopranos. Examples are Hansel in Hänsel und Gretel, Cherubinoin The Marriage of Figaro and Octavian in Der Rosenkavalier.Women in male roles are uncommon in film with the notable exceptions of the films The Year of Living Dangerously and I'm Not There. In the former film Linda Hunt played the pivotal role of Billy Kwan, for which she received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. In the latter film Cate Blanchett portrayed Jude Quinn, a

Actor 35

representation of Bob Dylan in the sixties, for which she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best SupportingActress. Women playing men in live theatre is particularly common in presentations of older plays, such as those ofShakespeare, that have large numbers of male characters in roles where the gender no longer matters in moderntimes.[citation needed]

Having an actor dress as the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long-standing tradition in comic theatre and film.Most of Shakespeare's comedies include instances of overt cross-dressing, such as Francis Flute in A MidsummerNight's Dream. The movie A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum stars Jack Gilford dressing as a youngbride. Tony Curtis and Jack Lemmon famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the Billy Wilder film SomeLike It Hot. Cross-dressing for comic effect was a frequently used device in most of the thirty Carry On films. DustinHoffman and Robin Williams have each appeared in a hit comedy film (Tootsie and Mrs. Doubtfire, respectively) inwhich they played most scenes dressed as a woman.Occasionally, the issue is further complicated, for example, by a woman playing a woman acting as a manpretending to be a woman, like Julie Andrews in Victor/Victoria, or Gwyneth Paltrow in Shakespeare in Love. In It'sPat: The Movie, filmwatchers never learn the gender of the androgynous main characters Pat and Chris (played byJulia Sweeney and Dave Foley).A few roles in modern films, plays and musicals are played by a member of the opposite sex (rather than a charactercross-dressing), such as the character Edna Turnblad in Hairspray—played by Divine in the original film, HarveyFierstein in the Broadway musical, and John Travolta in the 2007 movie musical. Linda Hunt won an AcademyAward for Best Supporting Actress for playing Billy Kwan in The Year of Living Dangerously. Felicity Huffmanwas nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress for playing Bree Osbourne (a male-to-female transsexual) inTransamerica.

References[2] Hypokrites (related to our word for hypocrite) also means, less often, "to answer" the tragic chorus. See Weimann (1978, 2); see also Csapo

and Slater, who offer translations of classical source material that utilises the term hypocrisis (acting) (1994, 257, 265–267).[3] This is true whether the character than an actor plays is based on a real person or a fictional one, even themselves (when the actor is 'playing

themselves,' as in some forms of experimental performance art, or, more commonly, as in John Malkovich's performance in the film BeingJohn Malkovich); to act is to create a character in performance: "The dramatic world can be extended to include the 'author', the 'audience' andeven the 'theatre'; but these remain 'possible' surrogates, not the 'actual' referents as such" (Elam 1980, 110).

[7] Women Actors in Ancient Rome (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio4/ womanshour/ 2002_52_fri_04. shtml) 27 December 2002, BBC

Sources• Csapo, Eric, and William J. Slater. 1994. The Context of Ancient Drama. Ann Arbor: The U of Michigan P. ISBN

0-472-08275-2.• Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen.

ISBN 0-416-72060-9.• Weimann, Robert. 1978. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension

of Dramatic Form and Function. Ed. Robert Schwartz. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins UniversityPress. ISBN 0-8018-3506-2.

Actor 36

Further reading• An Actor's Work by Constantin Stanislavski• A Dream of Passion: The Development of the Method by Lee Strasberg (Plume Books, ISBN 0-452-26198-8,

1990)• Sanford Meisner on Acting by Sanford Meisner (Vintage, ISBN 0-394-75059-4, 1987)• Letters to a Young Actor by Robert Brustein (Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-00806-2, 2005).• The Empty Space by Peter Brook• The Technique of Acting by Stella Adler

External links• Actors' Equity Association (AEA) (http:/ / www. actorsequity. org/ ): a union representing U. S. theatre actors and

stage managers.• American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) (http:/ / www. aftra. org/ ): a union representing

U. S. television and radio actors and broadcasters (on-air journalists, etc.).• British Actors' Equity (http:/ / www. equity. org. uk/ ): a trade union representing UK artists, including actors,

singers, dancers, choreographers, stage managers, theatre directors and designers, variety and circus artists,television and radio presenters, walk-on and supporting artists, stunt performers and directors and theatre fightdirectors.

• Media Entertainment & Arts Alliance (http:/ / www. alliance. org. au): an Australian/New Zealand trade unionrepresenting everyone in the media, entertainment, sports, and arts industries.

• Screen Actors Guild (SAG) (http:/ / www. sag. org/ ): a union representing U. S. film and TV actors.

Constantin Stanislavski 37

Constantin Stanislavski

Constantin Stanislavski

Born Константин Сергеевич Станиславский17 January 1863[1]

Moscow, Russian Empire

Died 7 August 1938 (aged 75)Moscow, Soviet Union

Occupation •• Theatre director•• Actor•• Theatre theorist

Literary movement •• Naturalism•• Psychological realism•• Socialist realism•• Symbolism

Notable work(s) • Founder of the Moscow Art Theatre•• An Actor's Work•• My Life in Art

Spouse(s) Maria Petrovna Perevostchikova (stage name: Maria Liliana)

Constantin Sergeyevich Stanislavski (Russian: Константи́н Серге́евич Станисла́вский; IPA: [kənstɐnʲˈtʲinsʲɪrˈgʲejɪvʲɪtɕ stənʲɪˈslafskʲɪj]; 17 January [O.S. 5 January] 1863 – 7 August 1938) was a Russian actor and theatredirector.[2] His system of acting has developed an international reach.Stanislavski treated theatre-making as a serious endeavour, requiring dedication, discipline and integrity. Throughouthis life, he subjected his own acting to a process of rigorous artistic self-analysis and reflection. His development ofa theorized praxis – in which practice is used as a mode of inquiry and theory as a catalyst for creative development– identifies him as the first great theatre practitioner.Stanislavski's work was as important to the development of socialist realism in the Soviet Union as it was to that ofpsychological realism in the United States.[3] It draws on a wide range of influences and ideas, including his study ofthe modernist and avant-garde developments of his time (naturalism, symbolism and Meyerhold's constructivism),Russian formalism, Yoga, Pavlovian behavioural psychology, James-Lange (via Ribot) psychophysiology and theaesthetics of Pushkin, Gogol, and Tolstoy. He described his approach as 'spiritual Realism'.Stanislavski wrote several works, including An Actor Prepares, An Actor's Work on a Role, and his autobiography,My Life in Art.

Constantin Stanislavski 38

Biography

Family backgroundStanislavski grew up in one of the richest families in Russia, the Alekseyevs.[4] He was born Constantin SergeyevichAlexeyev – "Stanislavski" was a stage name that he adopted in 1884 in order to keep his performance activitiessecret from his parents.[5] The prospect of becoming a professional actor was taboo for someone of his social class;actors had an even lower social status in Russia than in the rest of Europe, having only recently been serfs and theproperty of the nobility.[6] The Alexeyevs were a prosperous, bourgeois family, whose factories manufactured goldand silver braiding for military decorations and uniforms.[7] Until the Russian revolution in 1917, Stanislavski oftenused his inherited wealth to fund his theatrical experiments in acting and directing.[8] His family's discouragementmeant that he appeared only as an amateur onstage and as a director until he was thirty-three.[8]

As a child, Stanislavski was exposed to the rich cultural life of his family.[9] His interests included the circus, theballet, and puppetry.[10] In 1877, his father, Sergei Vladimirovich Alekseyev, was elected head of the merchant classin Moscow (one of the most important and influential positions in the city); that year, he had a fully equipped theatrebuilt on his estate at Liubimovka, providing a forum for Stanislavski's adolescent theatrical impulses.[11] After hisdebut performance there, Stanislavski started what would become a lifelong series of notebooks filled with criticalobservations on his acting, aphorisms, and problems.[12] It was from this habit of self-analysis and critique thatStanislavski's system later emerged.[13] The family's second theatre was added in 1881 to their mansion at RedGates, on Sadovaya Street in Moscow (where Stanislavski lived from 1863 to 1903); their house became a focus forthe artistic and cultural life of the city.[14] Stanislavski chose not to attend university, preferring to work in the familybusiness.[15]

Early influencesIncreasingly interested in "living the part," Stanislavski experimented with the ability to maintain a characterizationin real life, disguising himself as a tramp or drunk and visiting the railway station, or disguising himself as afortune-telling gypsy; he extended the experiment to the rest of the cast of a short comedy in which he performed in1883, and as late as 1900 he amused holiday-makers in Yalta by taking a walk each morning "in character".[16] In1884, he began vocal training under Fyodor Petrovich Komissarzhevsky, a professor at the Moscow Conservatoryand leading tenor of the Bolshoi (and father of the famous actress Vera Komissarzhevskaya), with whom he alsoexplored the co-ordination of voice and body.[17] Together they devised exercises in moving and sitting stationary"rhythmically", which anticipated Stanislavski's later use of physical rhythm when teaching his 'system' to operasingers.[18] Komissarzhevski provided one of the models (the other was Stanislavski himself) for the character ofTortsov in his actor's manual An Actor's Work (1938).[19] A year later, in 1885, Stanislavski briefly studied at theMoscow Theatre School, where students were encouraged to mimic the theatrical tricks and conventions of theirtutors.[20] Disappointed by this approach, he left after little more than two weeks.[20]

Instead, Stanislavski devoted particular attention to the performances of the Maly Theatre, the home of psychologicalrealism in Russia.[21] Psychological realism had been developed here by Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol andMikhail Shchepkin.[22] In 1823, Pushkin had concluded that what united the diverse classical authors—Shakespeare,Racine, Corneille and Calderón—was their common concern for truth of character and situation, understood ascredible behaviour in believable circumstances:[23]

Constantin Stanislavski 39

Stanislavski as the Knight in The Society of Art andLiterature's 1888 production of Alexander Pushkin's

The Miserly Knight.

The truth concerning the passions, verisimilitude in thefeelings experienced in the given circumstances, that is whatour intelligence demands of a dramatist.

— Pushkin's aphorism, 1830.[24]

Gogol, meanwhile, campaigned against overblown, effect-seekingacting.[25] In an article of 1846, he advises a modest, dignifiedmode of comic performance in which the actor seeks to grasp"what is dominant in the role" and considers "the character's mainconcern, which consumes his life, the constant object of histhought, the 'bee in his bonnet.'"[26] This inner desire forms the"heart of the role," to which the "tiny quirks and tiny externaldetails" are added as embellishment.[26] The Maly soon becameknown as the House of Shchepkin, the father of Russian realisticacting who, in 1848, promoted the idea of an "actor of feeling."[27]

This actor would "become the character" and identify with histhoughts and feelings: he would "walk, talk, think, feel, cry, laugh as the author wants him to."[28] A copy ofShchepkin's Memoirs of a Serf-Actor, in which the actor describes his struggle to achieve a naturalness of style, washeavily annotated by Stanislavski.[28] Shchepkin's student, Glikeriya Fedotova, was Stanislavski's teacher (she wasresponsible for instilling the rejection of inspiration as the basis of the actor's art, along with the stress on theimportance of training and discipline, and the practice of responsive interaction with other actors that Stanislavskicame to call "communication").[29] Shchepkin's legacy included the emphasis on a disciplined, ensemble approach,the importance of extensive rehearsals, and the use of careful observation, self-knowledge, imagination and emotionas the cornerstones of the craft.[30]

As well as the artists of the Maly company, performances given by foreign star actors—who would often come toMoscow during Lent (when Russian actors were prohibited from appearing)—also influenced Stanislavski.[31] Theeffortless, emotive and clear playing of the Italian actor Ernesto Rossi, who performed major Shakespearean tragicprotagonists in Moscow in 1877, particularly impressed Stanislavski.[31] So too did Tommaso Salvini's 1882performance of Othello.[32] Years later, Stanislavski wrote that Salvini was the "finest representative" of the "art ofexperiencing" approach to acting.[33]

Constantin Stanislavski 40

The Society of Art and Literature

Stanislavski with his soon-to-be wife MariaLiliana, playing Ferdinand and Louise in TheSociety of Art and Literature's production of

Schiller's Intrigue and Love in 1889.

By the age of twenty-five, Stanislavski was well known as an amateuractor.[34] He made a proposal to Fyodor Sollogub and AlexanderFedotov (a theatre director and estranged husband of GlikeriyaFedotova) to establish a society that would unite amateur andprofessional actors and artists.[35] The profits from his family's factorywere particularly high in 1887–1888; Stanislavski decided to use thesurplus 25,000–30,000 roubles to form the Society of Art andLiterature, for which he had the Ginzburg House on Tverskaya Streetconverted into a luxurious clubhouse with its own large stage andexhibition rooms.[36] Fedotov became head of the dramatic section,Komissarzhevski was the head of the operatic and musical section,while Sollogub was appointed head of the graphic arts section; thedrama and opera sections each had a school.[37] To research thecurriculum of the society's drama school, Stanislavski spent the summerof 1888 studying the classes and performances of theComédie-Française in Paris.[38] The society's school was to offer classesin dramatic art, the history of costume, make-up, drama, Russianliterature, aesthetics, fencing and dancing.[39] The school opened on 8October 1888 while the society itself was officially inaugurated on 3November with a ceremony attended by Anton Chekhov.[40] Under theauspices of the society, Stanislavski performed in plays by Molière,Schiller, Pushkin, and Ostrovsky, as well as gaining his first experiencesas a director.[41] With the guidance of Fedotov and Sollogub, Stanislavski finally abandoned the operatic conventionsand theatrical clichés in his acting that he had mimicked from other actors' performances.[42] He also becameinterested in the aesthetic theories of Vissarion Belinsky.[43] From Belinsky he took his conception of the role of theartist, on which he based a moral justification for his desire to perform that accorded with his family's sense of socialresponsibility and ethics.[44] At this time Stanislavski warned in his diary:[45]

Young actors, beware of your female admirers! Make love to them, if it amuses you, but do not discuss artwith them! Learn in time to listen to, to understand and love the bitter truth about yourselves! And get to knowthose who can tell it to you. It is with them that you should discuss art.

On 5 July 1889, Stanislavski married Lilina (the stage name of Maria Petrovna Perevostchikova), with whom he hadjust performed in Intrigue and Love.[46] Their first child, Xenia, died of pneumonia in May 1890 less than twomonths after she was born.[47] Their second daughter, Kira, was born on 21 July 1891.[48] In January 1893,Stanislavski's father died.[49] Their son Igor was born 14 September 1894.[50]

Constantin Stanislavski 41

'When you play a good man,

'try to find out where he is bad,

'and when you play a villain,

'try to find where he is good.

Stanislavski, 1889.

In 1889 in the society's production of Aleksey Pisemsky's historical play Men Above The Law, Stanislavskidiscovered his "principle of opposites," as expressed in his aphoristic advice to the actor: "When you play a goodman, try to find out where he is bad, and when you play a villain, try to find where he is good."[51] Stanislavskiinsisted that the actors learnt their parts thoroughly, almost entirely removing the prompter from the society'sproductions.[52]

Stanislavski described his production of Leo Tolstoy's The Fruits of Enlightenment in February 1891 as his first fullyindependent directorial work.[53] His directorial methods at this time were closely modeled on the disciplined,autocratic approach of Ludwig Chronegk, the director of the Meiningen Ensemble, whose productions of JuliusCaesar, The Merchant of Venice and Twelfth Night, as well as a number of plays by Schiller, Stanislavski hadstudied enthusiastically during their second visit to Moscow in 1890.[54] The Ensemble's general approach includedhistorical accuracy in set, props and costumes and complex crowd effects achieved through a tightly drilled rehearsalprocess.[55] Its use of off-stage sound to produce the illusion of a reality beyond the visible stage particularlyimpressed Stanislavski.[56] Their productions demonstrated a model for artistic achievement with relatively unskilledactors that Stanislavski was to adopt for the early part of his career as a director.[56] By means of a rigid and detailedcontrol of the mise-en-scène, including the strict choreography of the actors' every gesture, in Stanislavski's words"the inner kernel of the play was revealed by itself."[57] Whereas the Ensemble's effects tended toward the grandiose,however, Stanislavski introduced lyrical elaborations through the mise-en-scène that dramatised more mundane andordinary elements of life, in keeping with Belinsky's ideas about the "poetry of the real":[58]

Stanislavski as Othello in 1896.

Stanislavski uses the theatre and its technical possibilities as aninstrument of expression, a language, in its own right. The dramaticmeaning is in the staging itself. [...] He went through the whole playin a completely different way, not relying on the text as such, withquotes from important speeches, not providing a 'literary'explanation, but speaking in terms of the play's dynamic, its action,the thoughts and feelings of the protagonists, the world in which theylived. His account flowed uninterruptedly from moment to moment.

Writing years later in his autobiography My Life in Art (1925), Stanislavskidescribed Chronegk's approach as one in which the director is "forced towork without the help of the actor."[59] Jean Benedetti suggests thatStanislavski's task at this stage was to unite the realistic tradition of thecreative actor inherited from Shchepkin and Gogol with thedirector-centered, organically unified naturalistic aesthetic of theEnsemble's approach.[47]

It was at this time that Stanislavski first met Leo Tolstoy.[60] Tolstoyre-wrote the fourth act of his The Power of Darkness along the lines ofStanislavski's suggestions in 1896.[61] Tolstoy was another important influence on the development of Stanislavski'sthought; his What Is Art? (1898) promoted immediate intelligibility and transparency as an aesthetic principle.[62] Onthe eve of creating the Moscow Art Theatre, Stanislavski wrote of the importance of simplicity, directness andaccessibility in art.[63]

Constantin Stanislavski 42

From 1894 onwards, as part of his painstaking rehearsals for Karl Gutzkow's melodrama Uriel Acosta andShakespeare's Othello, Stanislavski began to assemble detailed prompt-books that included a directorial commentaryon the entire play and from which not even the smallest detail was allowed to deviate in rehearsals.[64] Stanislavski'sOthello (1896) made a strong impression on the 22-year-old Vsevolod Meyerhold, who was later to work with himbefore becoming an important director and theatre practitioner in his own right.[65] "The task of our generation,"Stanislavski wrote at this time, is "to liberate art from outmoded tradition, from tired cliché and to give greaterfreedom to imagination and creative ability."[66]

The Moscow Art TheatreSee also: MAT production of The Seagull and MAT production of Hamlet

In 1896 Stanislavski discussed with Nikolai Efros his ideas for a scheme to establish a network of touring theatrecompanies that would bring high-quality drama to the surrounding area of selected towns.[67] He proposed to callthem "open" or "accessible" theatres, in a bid to avoid alarming the authorities with their connection to thedangerously democratizing "popular theatre" movement that was spreading across Europe, spearheaded by RomainRolland.[68] In February 1897 Stanislavski joined Anton Chekhov, whom he had met on 15 February at aliterary-musical evening, in an open public discussion on the creation of a popular theatre that was reported in thepress.[69] At this time he also helped to organise the first all-Russian conference on the theatre, whose keynotespeaker, Yevtikhiy Karpov, urged the creation of a "Russian people's theatre."[70]

Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko,co-founder with Stanislavski of the

Moscow Art Theatre, photographed in1922.

It was Stanislavski's historic meeting with Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenkoon 22 June 1897, however, that would create what was called initially the"Moscow Public-Accessible Theatre" but which came to be known as theMoscow Art Theatre (MAT).[71] Their eighteen-hour discussion—lastingfrom lunch at 2pm in a private room in the Slavic Bazaar restaurant to 8amthe following morning over breakfast at Stanislavski's family estate atLiubimovka—has acquired a legendary status in the history of theatre.[72]

Nemirovich was a successful playwright (whose work was performed by theMaly and whose play The Worth of Life had beaten Chekhov's The Seagull towin the Griboyedov prize, much to the author's dismay), critic, theatredirector and acting teacher at the Philharmonic school (where he taughtVsevolod Meyerhold and Olga Knipper), who was also committed to the ideaof a popular theatre.[73] Their abilities complemented one another:Nemirovich needed Stanislavski's directorial talent for creating vivid stageimages and selecting significant details, while Stanislavski neededNemirovich's talent for dramatic and literary analysis, his professionalexpertise and his ability to manage a theatre.[74] Stanislavski later compared

their discussions to the Treaty of Versailles, their scope was so wide-ranging; they agreed on the conventionalpractices they wished to abandon and, on the basis of the working method they found they had in common, theyworked out the policy of their new theatre.[75] Together they would forge a professional company with an ensembleethos that discouraged individual vanity, selecting actors from Nemirovich's class at the Philharmonic school andStanislavski's amateur Society of Art and Literature group, along with other professional actors; they would create arealistic theatre of international renown, with popular prices for seats, whose organically unified aesthetic wouldbring together the techniques of the Meiningen Ensemble and those of André Antoine's Théâtre Libre (whichStanislavski had seen during trips to Paris).[76] Responsibility was to be shared between them on the basis of theirindividual strengths, with Stanislavski overseeing production and Nemirovich in charge of the repertoire and literarydecisions; each had a veto.[77]

Constantin Stanislavski 43

Given that Stanislavski's family's assets amounted to some 8 million roubles at the time, Nemirovich assumedinitially that Stanislavski would fund the theatre as a privately owned business, but Stanislavski insisted on a limited,joint stock company.[78] Stanislavski would only ever invest an initial 10,000 roubles in the MAT.[79] To raise therest of the theatre's 28,000 roubles launch capital, Nemirovich persuaded some of the directors of the PhilharmonicSociety to contribute, members of the board of the Society of Art and Literature also invested, but the theatre'sprincipal shareholder was to be Savva Timofeievich Morozov, who invested 10,000 roubles.[80] The company had 13shareholders, who signed an agreement on 10 April 1898.[81] With an annual salary of 4,200 roubles each,Stanislavski and Nemirovich were to represent the interests of the acting company in the business, though with theaim of transferring control to the actors eventually.[81] The company consisted of 39 actors, 23 men and 16 women,30% of whom came from Nemirovich's Phiharmonic class and 35% of whom came with Stanislavski from theSociety of Art and Literature, with a total staff numbering 323.[82] Viktor Simov, whom Stanislavski had met in1896, was engaged as the company's principal designer.[83]

At Pushkino in 1898, Vsevolod Meyerhold prepares forhis role as Constantin to Stanislavski's Trigorin in theMoscow Art Theatre production of Anton Chekhov's

The Seagull.

For want of suitable rehearsal space in Moscow, the company metin Pushkino, isolated 50 miles from the city.[84] In his openingspeech on the first day of rehearsals, 14 June 1898, Stanislavskistressed the "social character" of their collective undertaking: "Weare striving to create the first rational, moral, and public-accessibletheatre," he said, "and we dedicate our lives to this high goal."[85]

In an atmosphere more like a university than a theatre, asStanislavski described it, the company was introduced to hisworking method of extensive reading and research and detailedrehearsals in which the action was defined at the table before beingexplored physically.[86] Throughout June and July the companyrehearsed productions of Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice,Sophocles' Antigone, Hauptmann's Hannele, Pisemsky's MenAbove The Law, Lenz's The Tutor and Alexei Tolstoy's TsarFiodor Ioannovich.[87] It was at these rehearsals that Stanislavski'slifelong relationship with Vsevolod Meyerhold began; by the endof June, Meyerhold was so impressed with Stanislavski'sdirectorial skills that he declared him a genius.[86] On hisdeath-bed Stanislavski was to declare Meyerhold "my sole heir inthe theatre—here or anywhere else."[88]

In 1898, Stanislavski co-directed with Nemirovich the first of hisproductions of the work of Anton Chekhov. The MAT productionof The Seagull was a crucial milestone for the fledgling companythat has been described as "one of the greatest events in the history of Russian theatre and one of the greatest newdevelopments in the history of world drama."[89] Despite its 80 hours of rehearsal—a considerable length by thestandards of the conventional practice of the day—Stanislavski felt it was under-rehearsed and threatened to have hisname removed from the posters when Nemirovich refused his demand to postpone its opening by a week.[90]

Stanislavski played Trigorin, Meyerhold played Constantin, and Olga Knipper played Arkadnia. The production'ssuccess was due to the fidelity of its delicate representation of everyday life, its intimate, ensemble playing, and theresonance of its mood of despondent uncertainty with the psychological disposition of the Russian intelligentsia ofthe time.[91] To commemorate this historic production, which gave the MAT its sense of identity, the company tothis day bears the seagull as its emblem.[92] Stanislavski went on to direct the successful premières of Chekhov's

other major plays: Uncle Vanya in 1899, Three Sisters in 1901, and The Cherry Orchard in 1904.[93] Stanislavski's encounter with Chekhov's drama proved crucial to the creative development of both men. His ensemble approach

Constantin Stanislavski 44

and attention to the psychological realities of its characters revived Chekhov's interest in writing for the stage, whileChekhov's unwillingness to explain or expand on the text forced Stanislavski to dig beneath its surface in ways thatwere new in theatre.[94] By 1922, however, Stanislavski had become disenchanted with the MAT's productions ofChekhov's plays—"After all we have lived through," he remarked to Nemirovich, "it is impossible to weep over thefact that an officer is going and leaving his lady behind" (referring to the conclusion of Three Sisters).[95]

Stanislavski's systemStanislavski's 'system' is a systematic approach to training actors. Areas of study include concentration, voice,physical skills, emotion memory, observation, and dramatic analysis. Stanislavski's goal was to find a universallyapplicable approach that could be of service to all actors. Yet he said of his system: "Create your own method. Don'tdepend slavishly on mine. Make up something that will work for you! But keep breaking traditions, I beg you."Many actors routinely identify his system with the American Method, although the latter's exclusively psychologicaltechniques contrast sharply with Stanislavski's multivariant, holistic and psychophysical approach, which explorescharacter and action both from the 'inside out' and the 'outside in'.[96]

Emotion memoryStanislavski's 'system' focused on the development of artistic truth onstage by teaching actors to "experience thepart" during performance. Stanislavski hoped that the 'system' could be applied to all forms of drama, includingmelodrama, vaudeville, and opera. He organised a series of theatre studios in which young actors were trained in his'system.' At the First Studio, actors were instructed to use their own memories in order to express emotion.Stanislavski soon observed that some of the actors using or abusing this technique were given to hysteria. He beganto search for more reliable means to access emotion, eventually emphasizing the actor's use of imagination and beliefin the given circumstances of the text rather than her/his private and often painful memories.

The Method of Physical ActionsIn the beginning, Stanislavski proposed that actors study and experience subjective emotions and feelings andmanifest them to audiences by physical and vocal means. While in its very earliest stages his 'system' focused oncreating truthful emotions and embodying them, he later worked on the Method of Physical Actions. This wasdeveloped at the Opera Dramatic Studio from the early 1930s. Its focus was on physical actions as a means to accesstruthful emotion, and involved improvisation. The focus remained on reaching the subconscious through theconscious.

Constantin Stanislavski 45

Legacy

A portrait of Constantin Stanislavski by ValentinSerov.

Stanislavski had different pupils during each of the phases ofdiscovering and experimenting with his 'system' of acting. Two of hisformer students, Richard Boleslavsky and Maria Ouspenskaya,founded the American Laboratory Theatre in 1925. One of theirstudents, Lee Strasberg, went on to co-found the Group Theatre(1931–1940) with Harold Clurman and Cheryl Crawford, which wasthe first American acting company to put Stanislavski's initialdiscoveries into practice. Clurman and Strasberg had a profoundinfluence on American acting, both on stage and film, as did StellaAdler, who was also part of the Group Theatre and who had studiedbriefly with Stanislavsky and quarreled with Strasberg's approach tothe work.

Lord Laurence Olivier wrote that Stanislavski's My Life in Art was asource of great enlightenment" when he was a young actor.[97]

Sir John Gielgud said, "This director found time to explain a thousandthings that have always troubled actors and fascinated students."Gielgud is also quoted as saying, "Stanislavski's now famous book is acontribution to the Theatre and its students all over the world."

Honours and awardsThis article incorporates information from the equivalent article on the Russian Wikipedia.

• Order of Lenin – 1937• Order of the Red Banner of Labour – 1938• People's Artist of the USSR, 1936

Fictional references

Stanislavski's grave at theNovodevichy Cemetery

Mikhail Bulgakov satirized Stanislavski through the character Ivan Vasilievich inhis novel Black Snow (also called "The Theatrical Novel"). (It is no coincidencethat Ivan Vasilievich was the name and patronymic of the notorious 16th-centuryczar Ivan the Terrible.) In Bulgakov's novel, Ivan Vasilievich is portrayed as agreat actor, but his famous acting "method" is held up as a farce, in fact oftenhindering actors' performances through ridiculous exercises. Bulgakov's cuttingportrait of Ivan Vasilievich likely reflects his frustrating experiences withStanislavski during the latter's eventually aborted production of Bulgakov's playA Cabal of Hypocrites in 1930–1936. While this depiction of Stanislavski is instark contrast to most other descriptions, including those of Westerners who hadmet him, it should be noted that Bulgakov and Stanislavski were otherwise goodfriends.

Constantin Stanislavski 46

Significant students

•• Vsevolod Meyerhold •• Andrius Jilinsky•• Yevgeny Vakhtangov •• Leo Bulgakov•• Michael Chekhov •• Varvara Bulgakov•• Richard Boleslavsky •• Vera Solovyova•• Maria Ouspenskaya •• Tamara Daykarhanova•• Joshua Logan •• Olga Knipper

•• Maria Knebel

Notes

Explanatory notes[1] Old Style date 5 January 1863[2][2] The introduction to this article draws on the introductions and overviews in the following commentaries: Banham (1998), Benedetti (1989),

Carnicke (1998), Counsell (1996), Innes (2000), Milling and Ley (2001).[3][3] Milling and Ley (2001, 2) and Carnicke (1998).[4] "If, in the United States one could be 'rich as Rockefeller, 'in Moscow the corresponding expression was, and is, 'rich as Alexeyev'" (Benedetti

1999, 3). See also Carnicke (2000, 11) and Magarshack (1950, 1). Margarshack indicates that at this time "the life of the rich Moscowmerchant was indistinguishable from the life of the Moscow nobility" (1950, 3).

[5] Benedetti (1999, 24) and Carnicke (2000, 11). Benedetti explains that Stanislavski "inherited" his stage name from another amateur, DrMako: "a friend at Luibimovka, and an admirer, as he had been as a boy, of the ballerina Stanislavskaia. It was a safe name to adopt. Of Polishorigin, it suggested humble status and was unlikely to be associated with one of Moscow's most eminent bourgeois families." Magarshackgives the amateur actor's name as Markov (1950, 19).

[6][6] Benedetti (1999, 21) and Carnicke (2000, 11).[7][7] Magarshack (1950, 1).[8][8] Carnicke (2000, 11).[9][9] "The children were taken to the theatre and concerts almost as soon as they could walk" (Benedetti 1999, 10).[10] Benedetti (1999, 6–11) and Magarshack (1950, 9–11, 27–28).[11][11] Benedetti (1999, 13) and Carnicke (2000, 11).[12] Benedetti (1999, 14) and Magarshack (1950, 21–22).[13][13] Magarshack (1950, 21).[14] Benedetti (1999, 18) and Magarshack (1950, 31–32, 77).[15][15] Benedetti (1999, 18) and Magarshack (1950, 26).[16] Benedetti (1999, 18–19) and Magarshack (1950, 25, 33–34).[17] Benedetti (1999, 19–20) and Magarshack (1950, 49–50).[18][18] Magarshack (1950, 50).[19][19] Benedetti (2008, xxi).[20][20] Benedetti (1999, 21).[21] Benedetti (1999, 14–17).[22][22] Benedetti (2005, 100).[23] Benedetti (1999, 14–15) and (2005, 100).[24] Benedetti (1999, 15). Benedetti offers an alternative translation of Pushkin's aphorism in his The Art of the Actor: "Authenticity of the

passions, sentiments that seem true in the proposed circumstances, that is what our intelligence requires of the writer" (2005, 100).[25] Benedetti (2005, 100–101).[26][26] Benedetti (2005, 101).[27][27] Benedetti (1999, 16) and Banham (1998, 985).[28][28] Benedetti (1999, 16)[29] Banham (1998, 985) and Magarshack (1950, 51–52).[30][30] Banham (1998, 985).[31][31] Benedetti (1999, 17).[32][32] Benedetti (1999, 18).[33][33] Stanislavski (1938, 19).[34][34] Magarshack (1950, 52).[35] Magarshack (1950, 55–56).

Constantin Stanislavski 47

[36] Benedetti (1999, 27). Benedetti writes that as a result of the profitability of the family factory, Stanislavski "suddenly found himself with25,000–30,000 roubles more than he expected"; he continues: "he decided to spend it all on an ambitious scheme". Worrall, however, offers amore modest figure for Stanislavski's initial financial investment in the Society: "With his first year’s dividend of 1,020 roubles he established,together with Komissarzhevsky and Fedotov, the Society of Art and Literature" (1996, 24).

[37][37] Magarshack (1950, 56).[38] Benedetti (1999, 29–30) and Worrall (1996, 25).[39][39] Worrall (1996, 25).[40][40] Benedetti (1999, 30).[41] Benedetti (1999, 30–40) and Worrall (1996, 24).[42][42] Magarshack (1950, 64).[43] Benedetti (1999, 35–37).[44] Benedetti (1999, 35–36).[45] Magarshack (1950, 61–62).[46][46] Benedetti (1999, 37) and Magarshack (1950, 54). Worrall writes, apparently in error, that they married in June (1996, 26).[47][47] Benedetti (1999, 42).[48][48] Benedetti (1999, 43).[49][49] Magarshack (1950, 81).[50][50] Benedetti (1999, 47).[51] Worrall (1996, 27), Benedetti (1999, 39) and Magarshack (1950, 67–68). The title of Pisemsky's play has also been translated as Despots

and A Law unto Themselves.[52] Magarshack (1950, 75–76).[53] Worrall (1996, 27). See also Magarshack (1950, 78–80) and Benedetti (1999, 42–43).[54] Benedetti (1999, 40–43), Magarshack (1950, 70–74) and Worrall (1996, 28–29).[55] Benedetti (1999, 40–41).[56][56] Benedetti (1999, 41).[57][57] Magarshack (1950, 80) and Benedetti (1999, 48).[58] Benedetti (1999, 35–36, 44); the following quotation is from Benedetti (1999, 44 and 50–51).[59][59] Magarshack (1950, 73).[60] Magarshack (1950, 82–85). They first met on 29 October 1893. See Benedetti (1999, 46).[61] Magarshack (1950, 84–85).[62][62] Benedetti (1999, 46).[63][63] Benedetti (1999, 54).[64] Worrall (1996, 28–29), Magarshack (1950, 86–90) and Benedetti (1999, 47).[65][65] Benedetti (1999, 52).[66][66] Benedetti (1999, 55).[67] Benedetti (1999, 56). Nikolai Efimovich Efros (1867–1923), the Moscow Art Theatre's first literary manager.[68] Benedetti (1999, 56), Bradby and McCormick (1978, 11–44), and Worrall (1996, 15).[69][69] Benedetti (1999, 59).[70][70] Benedetti (1999, 59) and Worrall (1996, 35).[71][71] Benedetti (1999, 59) and Worrall (1996, 43).[72][72] Benedetti (1999, 61) and Worrall (1996, 64).[73] Benedetti (1989, 16) and (1999, 59–60).[74] Benedetti (1999, 60–61).[75][75] Benedetti (1989, 16).[76] Benedetti (1989, 18) and (1999, 61–62).[77][77] Benedetti (1989, 17) and (1999, 61).[78] Benedetti (1999, 62–63) and Worrall (1996, 37–38).[79][79] Benedetti (1999, 63).[80] Benedetti (1999, 64) and Worrall (1996, 38–40).[81][81] Worrall (1996, 40).[82] Worrall (1996, 43–44).[83][83] Benedetti (1999, 67) and Braun (1982, 61).[84] Benedetti (1999, 68–69).[85][85] Worrall (1996, 45) and Benedetti (1999, 68).[86][86] Benedetti (1999, 70).[87] Worrall (1996, 46–47).[88][88] Rudnitsky (1981, xv).[89][89] Rudnitsky (1981, 8) and Benedetti (1999a, 85).[90][90] Rehearsals were spread over 24 sessions: 9 with Stanislavski and 15 with Nemirovich; see Benedetti (1999a, 85).

Constantin Stanislavski 48

[91][91] Braun (1981, 64).[92][92] Braun (1981, 62, 64).[93][93] Leach (2004, 14).[94][94] Chekhov and the Art Theatre, in Stanislavski's words, were united in a common desire "to achieve artistic simplicity and truth on the stage";

Allen (2001, 11).[95][95] Quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 272).[96] Not only actors are subject to this confusion; Lee Strasberg's obituary in The New York Times credited Stanislavski with the invention of the

Method: "Mr. Strasberg adapted it to the American theatre, imposing his refinements, but always crediting Stanislavsky as his source" (Quotedby Carnicke 1998, 9). Carnicke argues that this "robs Strasberg of the originality in his thinking, while simultaneously obscuringStanislavsky's ideas" (1997, 9).

[97] Lord Olivier, Confessions of an Actor, 1982 p. 64

Citations

Bibliography• Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN

0-521-43437-8.• Benedetti, Jean. 1989. Stanislavski: An Introduction. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1982. London:

Methuen. ISBN 0-413-50030-6.• Benedetti, Jean. 1998. Stanislavski and the Actor. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-71160-9.• Benedetti, Jean. 1999. Stanislavski: His Life and Art. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988.

London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-52520-1.• Benedetti, Jean. 2005. The Art of the Actor: The Essential History of Acting, From Classical Times to the Present

Day. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-77336-1.• Benedetti, Jean. 2008. Foreword. In Stanislavski (1938, xv–xxii).• Bradby, David, and John McCormick. 1978. People's Theatre. London: Croom Helm and Totowa, NJ: Rowman

and Littlefield. ISBN 0-85664-501-X.• Braun, Edward. 1982. "Stanislavsky and Chekhov". The Director and the Stage: From Naturalism to Grotowski.

London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-46300-1. p. 59–76.• Carnicke, Sharon M. 1998. Stanislavsky in Focus. Russian Theatre Archive Ser. London: Harwood Academic

Publishers. ISBN 90-5755-070-9.• Carnicke, Sharon M. 2000. "Stanislavsky's System: Pathways for the Actor". In Twentieth Century Actor

Training. Ed. Alison Hodge. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-19452-0. p. 11–36.• Counsell, Colin. 1996. Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre. London and New

York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10643-5.• Hagen, Uta. 1973. Respect for Acting. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-547390-5.• Hobgood, Burnet M. 1991. "Stanislavsky's Preface to An Actor Prepares". Theatre Journal 43: 229–232.• Innes, Christopher, ed. 2000. A Sourcebook on Naturalist Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN

0-415-15229-1.• Magarshack, David. 1950. Stanislavsky: A Life. London and Boston: Faber, 1986. ISBN 0-571-13791-1.• Merlin, Bella. 2007. The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit. London: Nick Hern Books. ISBN 978-1-85459-793-9.• Milling, Jane, and Graham Ley. 2001. Modern Theories of Performance: From Stanislavski to Boal. Basingstoke,

Hampshire and New York: Palgrave. ISBN 0-333-77542-2.• Mitter, Shomit. 1992. Systems of Rehearsal: Stanislavsky, Brecht, Grotowski and Brook. London and NY:

Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06784-7.• Moore, Sonia. 1968. Training an Actor: The Stanislavski System in Class. New York: Viking. ISBN

0-670-00249-6.• Roach, Joseph R. 1985. The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting. Theater:Theory/Text/Performance

Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08244-2.

Constantin Stanislavski 49

• Stanislavski, Constantin. 1936. An Actor Prepares. London: Methuen, 1988. ISBN 0-413-46190-4.• Stanislavski, Constantin. 1938. An Actor’s Work: A Student’s Diary. Trans. and ed. Jean Benedetti. London:

Routledge, 2008. ISBN 978-0-415-42223-9.• Stanislavski, Constantin. 1961. Creating a Role. Trans. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. London: Mentor, 1968.

ISBN 0-450-00166-0.• Stanislavski, Constantin. 1963. An Actor's Handbook: An Alphabetical Arrangement of Concise Statements on

Aspects of Acting. Ed. and trans. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. London: Methuen, 1990. ISBN 0-413-63080-3.• Stanislavski, Constantin. 1968. Stanislavski's Legacy: A Collection of Comments on a Variety of Aspects of an

Actor's Art and Life. Ed. and trans. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. Revised and expanded edition. London:Methuen, 1981. ISBN 0-413-47770-3.

• Toporkov, Vasily Osipovich. 2001. Stanislavski in Rehearsal: The Final Years. Trans. Jean Benedetti. London:Methuen. ISBN 0-413-75720-X.

• Whyman, Rose. 2008. The Stanislavsky System of Acting: Legacy and Influence in Modern Performance.Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-88696-3.

• Worrall, Nick. 1996. The Moscow Art Theatre. Theatre Production Studies ser. London and NY: Routledge. ISBN0-415-05598-9.

Method actingMethod acting is any of a family of techniques used by actors to create in themselves the thoughts and feelings oftheir characters, so as to develop lifelike performances. Though not all method actors use the same approach, the"method" in method acting usually refers to the practice, influenced by Constantin Stanislavski and created by LeeStrasberg, in which actors draw upon their own emotions and memories in their portrayals, aided by a set ofexercises and practices including sense memory and affective memory. Method acting shares similarities withStanislavski's system.Method actors are often characterised as immersing themselves in their characters to the extent that they continue toportray them even offstage or off-camera for the duration of a project. However, this is a popular misconception.While some actors have employed this approach, it is generally not taught as part of the Method[citation needed].Method acting has been described as having "revolutionized American theater." While Classical acting instruction"had focused on developing external talents," the Method was "the first systematized training that also developedinternal abilities (sensory, psychological, emotional)."[1]

Method acting continues to evolve, with many contemporary acting teachers, schools, and colleges teaching anintegrated approach that draws from several different schools of thought about acting.

Origins"The Method" was first popularized by the Group Theatre in New York City in the 1930s and subsequently advancedby Lee Strasberg and others at The Actors Studio in the 1940s and 1950s. It was derived from the 'system' created byConstantin Stanislavski, who pioneered similar ideas in his quest for "theatrical truth." This was done through hisfriendships with Russia's leading actors, his collaborations with playwright Anton Chekhov, and his own teaching,writing, and acting at the Moscow Art Theater (founded in 1897).Strasberg's students included many of the best known American actors of the latter half of the 20th century,including, Marlon Brando, Paul Newman, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, James Dean, George Peppard, DustinHoffman, Marilyn Monroe, Jane Fonda, Jack Nicholson, Mickey Rourke, and many others.[2]

Using the Method, the actor also recalls emotions or reactions from his or her own life and uses them to identify withthe character being portrayed. [citation needed]

Method acting 50

Technique"The Method" usually refers to the teachings of Lee Strasberg, but the term "method acting" is also sometimesapplied to the teachings of his Group Theatre colleagues, including Stella Adler, Robert Lewis, and Sanford Meisner,and to other schools of acting derived from Stanislavski's system, each of which takes a slightly different approach.Stanislavski himself has been noted saying that certain techniques that are considered to be "method" are not true tohis original system, with an undue emphasis on the exercises of affective memory. However there is no one correctway of method acting, for each different method technique is simply a different teachers' understanding of theStanislavski System.Generally, Method acting combines the actor's careful consideration of the character's psychological motives andpersonal identification with the character, possibly including a reproduction of the character's emotional state byrecalling emotions or sensations from the actor's own life. It is often contrasted with acting in which thoughts andemotions are indicated, or presented in a clichéd, unrealistic way. Among the concepts and techniques of Methodacting are substitution, "as if," sense memory, affective memory, animal work, and archetype work. Strasberg usesthe question, "What would motivate me, the actor, to behave in the way the character does?" Strasberg asks the actorto replace the play's circumstances with his or her own, the substitution.[3]

Sanford Meisner, another Group Theatre pioneer, championed a closely related version of the Method, which cameto be called the Meisner technique. Meisner broke from Strasberg on the subjects of sense memory and affectivememory, basic techniques espoused by Strasberg through which actors access their own personal experiences inorder to identify with and portray the emotional lives of their characters. Meisner believed that this approach causedactors to focus on themselves and not fully tell the story. He advocated fully immersing oneself "in the moment" andconcentrating on one's partner. Meisner taught actors to achieve spontaneity by understanding the givencircumstances of the scene (as did Strasberg) and through interpersonal exercises he designed to help actors investemotionally in the scene, freeing them to react "honestly" as the character. Meisner described acting as "livingtruthfully under imaginary circumstances."[4]

Robert Lewis also broke with Strasberg. In his books Method—or Madness? and the more autobiographical Slingsand Arrows, Lewis disagreed with the idea that vocal training should be separated from pure emotional training.[5]

Lewis felt that more emphasis should be placed on formal voice and body training, such as teaching actors how tospeak verse and enunciate clearly, rather than on pure raw emotion, which he felt was the focus of Methodtraining.[5]

Stella Adler, an actress and acting teacher whose fame was cemented by the success of her students Marlon Brando,Warren Beatty, and Robert De Niro, also broke with Strasberg after she studied with Stanislavski himself, the onlyGroup Theatre teacher to do so, after he had modified many of his early ideas about acting. Her version of theMethod is based on the idea that actors should conjure up emotion not by using their own personal memories, but byusing the scene's given circumstances. Like Strasberg's, Adler's technique relies on carrying through tasks, wants,needs, and objectives. It also seeks to stimulate the actor's imagination through the use of "as ifs." Adler often taughtthat "drawing on personal experience alone was too limited." Therefore, she urged performers to draw on theirimaginations and utilize "emotional memory" to the fullest.[6]

Method acting 51

Contemporary approachesContemporary Method acting teachers and schools often synthesize the work of their predecessors into an integratedapproach. They reject the notion that any one of the major Method teachers of the 20th century was completelycorrect or incorrect, and they continue to develop new acting tools and techniques.Some modern acting theorists and teachers have noted that Lee Strasberg, Sanford Meisner, Stella Adler, and othersoften misunderstood each other's work, and that their criticisms were based on this misunderstanding. For example,they all taught actors to use their imagination, to connect with each other in performance, to analyze the script forwants, needs, and objectives. Meisner often said that Strasberg actors were too focused on themselves, but Strasbergtrained many of the most respected actors of the 20th century.In addition to taking an integrated approach, contemporary actors sometimes seek help from psychologists[7][8] oruse imaginative tools such as dream work or archetype work to remove emotional blocks. Techniques have also beendeveloped to prevent the world of the performance from spilling over into an actor's personal life in destructiveways.

TeachersStanislavski described his acting system in a trilogy of books set in a fictional acting school: An Actor Prepares,Building a Character, and Creating a Role. He also wrote an autobiography, My Life in Art. Acting teachers whosework was inspired by Stanislavski include:• Richard Boleslavsky, actor, film director, and founder of the American Laboratory Theatre in New York.• Michael Chekhov, an actor, director, and author (and nephew of Anton Chekov) whose technique, largely an

outside-in approach and somewhat more metaphysical, diverged from and returned to Stanislavski's over thecourse of his career.

• Maria Ouspenskaya, an actress who taught at the American Laboratory Theatre. Her students included JohnGarfield, Stella Adler, and Lee Strasberg.

• Lee Strasberg, a director, actor, and producer whose teachings are most closely associated with the term Methodacting.

• Stella Adler, an actress and founder of the Stella Adler Conservatory in New York City.• Herbert Berghof, founder of HB Studio in New York City.• Uta Hagen, an actress and the author of Respect for Acting and A Challenge for the Actor, who emphasized the

techniques of identity and substitution.• Robert Lewis, an actor, director, co-founder of the Actors Studio, and author of Method—or Madness?

In fact, most post-1930 acting philosophies have been strongly influenced by Method acting, and it continues to betaught at schools around the world, including the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute in New York and LosAngeles, the Actors Studio Drama School in New York, the Stella Adler Studio of Acting in New York and LosAngeles, the Edgemar Center for the Arts in Santa Monica, Calif., HB Studio in New York, Le Studio Jack Garfeinin Paris and American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco.

Method acting 52

Practitioners•• Tom Hanks•• Richard Armitage•• Christian Bale• Marlon Brando[9]

•• Adrien Brody•• Kamal Haasan• Michael Caine[10]

•• Jessica Chastain•• Bradley Cooper•• Gary Oldman•• Bryan Cranston•• Mammootty• James Dean[2]

• Robert De Niro[2]

•• Johnny Depp•• Leonardo DiCaprio• Jane Fonda[11]

•• Walton Goggins•• Ryan Gosling•• Tom Hardy•• Ed Harris•• Dustin Hoffman•• Matthew Mcconaughey•• Michael Ironside•• Anne Hathaway•• Val Kilmer•• Heath Ledger•• Mohanlal• Marilyn Monroe[2]

• Jack Nicholson[12]

• Al Pacino[2]

•• Joaquin Phoenix• Suzanne Pleshette[13]

•• Aamir Khan•• Gena Rowlands•• Peter Sellers•• James Stewart•• Meryl Streep•• Forest Whitaker•• Michelle Williams•• Reese Witherspoon• Shelley Winters[14]

• John Lloyd Cruz[15]

•• [Bill Pendergast] (actor and writer)

Method acting 53

ControversyBritish biographer Jean Benedetti, who was a scholar and translator of nearly all of Constantin Stanislavski's works,spent most of his later years trying to correct what he felt were gross misunderstandings of Stanislavski's works,including the "over-limited reliance on psychological approaches that led to the American conception of methodacting."[16]

Further reading

Articles• Mel Gussow: "The Method, Still Disputed But Now Ubiquitous," [17] The New York Times (April 14, 1987)

Major books on Method acting• The Technique of Acting by Stella Adler• Acting—The First Six Lessons by Richard Boleslavsky• To the Actor by Michael Chekhov• A Dream of Passion by Lee Strasberg• Sanford Meisner on Acting by Sanford Meisner• Method—or Madness? by Robert Lewis• Advice to the Players by Robert Lewis• Respect for Acting by Uta Hagen• No Acting Please by Eric Morris and Joan Hotchkis• Strasberg's Method: As Taught by Lorrie Hull by S. Loraine Hull• Life and Acting: Techniques for the Actor by Jack Garfein•• The Power of the Actor by Ivana Chubbuck

Books on contemporary approaches to Method acting• The Intent to Live by Larry Moss• Dreamwork for Actors by Janet Sonenberg• O poetică a artei actorului (Poetics of the actor's art) by Ion Cojar• Rosemary Malague: An Actress Prepares: Women and "the Method", London & New York: Routledge, 2011

References[1] Stella Adler, 91, an Actress and Teacher of the Method (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.

html?res=9E0CE0DD1E31F931A15751C1A964958260) New York Times, December 22, 1992.[2] Lee Strasberg of Actors Studio Dead (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ learning/ general/ onthisday/ bday/ 1117. html) The New York Times,

February 18, 1982[3][3] Carnicke, Sharon. Stanislavsky in Focus: An Acting Master for the Twenty-First Century. Routledge Theatre Classics, 2008, p. 221[4] Meisner, Sanford. Sanford Meisner on Acting, Vintage, 1987[5] Robert Lewis (2003), Slings and Arrows: Theater in My Life, Hal Leonard Corporation, ISBN 1-55783-244-7, p.193.[6] "Stella Adler." Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2011. 27 October 2011.[7] Larina Kase (2011), Clients, Clients, and More Clients!: Create an Endless Stream of New Business with the Power of Psychology,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-177100-X, p.125.[8] S. Loraine Hull (1985), Strasberg's method as taught by Lorrie Hull: A practical guide for actors, teachers, and directors, Oxbow Books,

ISBN 0-918024-38-2, p.10.[9] Marlon Brando redefined acting (http:/ / today. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 5354214/ ns/ today-entertainment/ t/ marlon-brando-redefined-acting/ )

MSNBC[10] Michael Caine 'uses painful secret to cry on set' (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ celebritynews/ 6451936/

Michael-Caine-uses-painful-secret-to-cry-on-set. html) The Telegraph

Method acting 54

[11] Jane Fonda Is Actress with a Character (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=kbolAAAAIBAJ& sjid=2_IFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1054,1011277& dq=& hl=en) AP, Gettysburg Times - Jun 14, 1962

[12] What I've Learned: Jack Nicholson (http:/ / www. esquire. com/ features/ what-ive-learned/ ESQ0104-JAN_JACK) Esquire[13] Suzanne Pleshette, 70, ‘Newhart’ Actress, Dies (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 01/ 21/ arts/ 21cnd-pleshette. html?_r=0) The New York

Times, January 21, 2008[14] Shelley Winters Outspoken Oscar-winning actress who had a string of famous lovers (http:/ / www. heraldscotland. com/ sport/ spl/

aberdeen/ shelley-winters-outspoken-oscar-winning-actress-who-had-a-string-of-famous-lovers-1. 31808) 16 January 2006 Herald Scotland[15] http:/ / www. philstar. com/ supreme/ 2013/ 03/ 23/ 922828/ what-makes-man[17] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1987/ 04/ 14/ arts/ the-method-still-disputed-but-now-ubiquitous. html

Presentational and representational actingPresentational acting and the relatedrepresentational acting are critical terms usedwithin theatre aesthetics and criticism.

Due to the same terms being applied to certainapproaches to acting that contradict the broadertheatrical definitions, however, the terms havecome to acquire often overtly contradictorysenses.[1]

In the most common sense (that which relates thespecific dynamics of theatre to the broaderaesthetic category of ‘representational art’ or‘mimesis’ in drama and literature), the termsdescribe two contrasting functional relationshipsbetween the actor and the audience that aperformance can create.[2]

In the other (more specialized) sense, the terms describe two contrasting methodological relationships between theactor and his or her character in performance.[3]

The collision of these two senses can get quite confusing. The type of theatre that uses ‘presentational acting’ in thefirst sense (of the actor-audience relationship) is often associated with a performer using ‘representational acting’ inthe second sense (of their methodology). Conversely, the type of theatre that uses ‘representational acting’ in the firstsense is often associated with a performer using ‘presentational acting’ in the second sense. While usual, thesechiastic correspondences do not match up in all cases of theatrical performance.

The actor–audience relationshipIn every theatrical performance the manner in which each individual actor treats the audience establishes, sustains orvaries a particular kind of actor-audience relationship between them.In some plays all of the actors may adopt the same attitude towards the audience (for example, the entire cast of aproduction of a Chekhovian drama will usually ignore the audience until the curtain call); in other plays theperformers create a range of different relationships towards the audience (for example, most Shakespearean dramashave certain characters who frequently adopt a downstage ‘platea’ playing position that is in direct contact with theaudience, while other characters behave as if unaware of the audience’s presence).[4]

Presentational and representational acting 55

Presentational acting

Conventionalized presentational devices include the apologetic prologue and epilogue, the induction (much used by Ben Jonson and byShakespeare in The Taming of the Shrew), the play-within-the-play, the aside directed to the audience, and other modes of direct address.These premeditated and ‘composed’ forms of actor-audience persuasion are in effect metadramatic and metatheatrical functions, since theybring attention to bear on the fictional status of the characters, on the very theatrical transaction (in soliciting the audience’s indulgence, forinstance), and so on. They appear to be cases of ‘breaking frame’, since the actor is required to step out of his role and acknowledge thepresence of the public, but in practice they are licensed means of confirming the frame by pointing out the pure facticity of therepresentation.

Keir Elam, The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama, p. 90

‘Presentational acting’, in this sense, refers to a relationship that acknowledges the audience, whether directly byaddressing them or indirectly through a general attitude or specific use of language, looks, gestures or other signsthat indicate that the character or actor is aware of the audience's presence.[2] (Shakespeare's use of punning andwordplay, for example, often has this function of indirect contact.)[4]

Representational acting‘Representational acting’, in this sense, refers to a relationship in which the audience is studiously ignored and treatedas 'peeping tom' voyeurs by an actor who remains in-character and absorbed in the dramatic action. The actorbehaves as if a fourth wall was present, which maintains an absolute autonomy of the dramatic fiction from thereality of the theatre.Robert Weimann argues that:

Each of these theatrical practices draws upon a different register of imaginary appeal and "puissance"and each serves a different purpose of playing. While the former derives its primary strength from theimmediacy of the physical act of histrionic delivery, the latter is vitally connected with the imaginaryproduct and effect of rendering absent meanings, ideas, and images of artificial persons' thoughts andactions. But the distinction is more than epistemological and not simply a matter of poetics; rather itrelates to the issue of function.[5]

The actor–character relationshipThe use of these critical terms (in an almost directly opposed sense from the critical mainstream usage detailedabove) to describe two different forms of the actor–character relationship within an actor's methodology originatesfrom the American Method actor and teacher Uta Hagen. She developed this use from a far more ambiguousformulation offered by the seminal Russian theatre practitioner Constantin Stanislavski in chapter two of his actingmanual An Actor Prepares (1936).

Presentational and representational acting 56

Stanislavski's typology

Stanislavski considered the French actorCoquelin (1841-1909) to be one of the best

examples of "an artist of the school ofrepresentation".[6]

In "When Acting is an Art", having watched his students' first attemptsat a performance, Stanislavski's fictional persona Tortsov offers a seriesof critiques, during the course of which he defines different forms andapproaches to acting.[7] They are: 'forced acting', 'overacting', 'theexploitation of art', 'mechanical acting', 'art of representation', and hisown 'experiencing the role'. One common misrepresentation ofStanislavski is the frequent confusion of the first five of these categorieswith one another; Stanislavski, however, goes to some lengths to insistthat two of them deserve to be evaluated as 'art' (and only two of them):his own approach of ‘experiencing the role’ and that of the ‘art ofrepresentation’.[8]

The distinction between Stanislavski's 'experiencing the role' and'representing the part' (which Stanislavski identifies with the Frenchactor Coquelin) turns on the relationship that the actor establishes withtheir character during the performance. In Stanislavski's approach, bythe time the actor reaches the stage, he or she no longer experiences adistinction between his or her self and the character; the actor hascreated a 'third being', or a combination of the actor's personality and therole (in Russian, Stanislavski calls this creation artisto-rol).[9] In the artof representation approach, whilst on-stage the actor experiences thedistinction between the two (the philosopher and dramatist Diderot calls this psychological duality the actor's'paradox').[10] Both approaches use 'living the role' or identifying with the character during rehearsals; Stanislavski'sapproach undertakes this process at all times onstage, while the 'art of representation' incorporates the results of therehearsal process in a "finished" form.

Confusion of termsStanislavski's choice of the phrase 'art of representation' to describe an artistic approach that diverges from his ownhas led to some confusion, given that the theatre that is often associated with his own 'experiencing the role'approach (realistic, not acknowledging the audience) is 'representational' in the wider critical sense. Uta Hagen'sdecision to use 'presentational' as a synonym for Stanislavski's 'experiencing the role' served to compound theconfusion,[11] part of the reason she preferred to refer to them more clearly as "formalistic acting" and "realisticacting."[12]

Presentational versus representational actingIn their textbooks for actors, both Stanislavski and Hagen adhere to a mode of theatrical performance that starts withthe subjective experience of the actor, who takes action under the circumstances of the character, and trusts that aform will follow. They deem it more useful for the actor to focus exclusively on the fictional, subjective reality ofthe character (via the actor's "emotional memory" or "transferences" from his own life), without concerning himselfwith the external realities of the theatre. Both teachers were fully aware of the 'outside' to the dramatic fiction, butthey believed that from the actor's perspective these considerations do not help the performance, and only lead tofalse, mechanical acting.[12][13]

Many types of drama in the history of theatre do make use of the presentational 'outside' and its many possible interactions with the representational 'inside'—Shakespeare, Restoration comedy, and Brecht, to name a few significant examples. However, both Stanislavski and Hagen applied their processes of acting towards these types of

Presentational and representational acting 57

drama as well, fully aware of their unique requirements to the audience. Hagen stated that style is a label given to the"final product" by critics, scholars, and audience members, and that the "creator" (actor) need only explore thesubjective content of the playwright's world. She saw definitions of "style" as something tagged by others onto theresult, having nothing to do with the actor's process.Shakespearean drama assumed a natural, direct and often renewed contact with the audience on the part of theperformer. 'Fourth wall' performances foreclose the complex layerings of theatrical and dramatic realities that resultfrom this contact and that are built into Shakespeare's dramaturgy. A good example is the line spoken by Cleopatrain act five of Antony and Cleopatra (1607), when she contemplates her humiliation in Rome at the hands of OctaviusCaesar; she imagines mocking theatrical renditions of her own story: "And I shall see some squeaking Cleopatra boymy greatness in the posture of a whore" (5.2.215-217). That this was to be spoken by a boy in a dress in a theatre isan integral part of its dramatic meaning. Opponents of the Stanislavski/Hagen approach have argued that thiscomplexity is unavailable to a purely 'naturalistic' treatment that recognizes no distinction between actor andcharacter nor acknowledges the presence of the actual audience.[14] They may also argue that it is not only a matterof the interpretation of individual moments; the presentational dimension is a structural part of the meaning of thedrama as a whole.[15] This structural dimension is most visible in Restoration comedy through its persistent use ofthe aside, though there are many other meta-theatrical aspects in operation in these plays.In Brecht, the interaction between the two dimensions—representational and presentational—forms a major part ofhis 'epic' dramaturgy and receives sophisticated theoretical elaboration through his conception of the relationbetween mimesis and Gestus. How to play Brecht, in regard to presentational vs. representational has been acontroversial subject of much critical and practical discussion. Hagen's opinion (backed up by conversations withBrecht himself and the actress who was directed by him in the original production of "Mother Courage") was that,for the actor, Brecht always intended it to be about the character's subjective reality—including the direct audienceaddresses. The very structure of the play was enough to accomplish his desired "alienation."[12]

Notes[1] A simple web search can reveal just how contradictory and confusing the use of these terms has become. The confusion of the terms is

explained further down in this article.[2] Elam , Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. Methuen. ISBN 0-416-72060-9 Pbk. p.90-91.[3][3] Stanislavski (1936, 12-32) and Hagen (1973, 11-13).[4] Weimann, Robert. 1978. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Form and

Function. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3506-2 Pbk. See also Counsell, Colin. 1996. Signs of Performance: AnIntroduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10643-5 Pbk. p.16-23.

[5][5] Weimann (2000, 11).[6][6] Stanislavski (1936, 21).[7] "When Acting is an Art" is the second chapter of An Actor Prepares (Stanislavski 1936, 12-30).[8] In addition to Stanislavski's An Actor Prepares, for his conception of 'experiencing the role' see Carnicke (1998), especially chapter five.[9][9] See Benedetti (1998, 9-11) and Carnicke (1998, 170).[10][10] For Diderot's conception, see Roach (1985), especially the chapter on Stanislavski.[11][11] Hagen (1973, 11-13).[12] Hagen, Uta 1991. A Challenge for the Actor. New York: Scribner's. ISBN 0-684-19040-0[13] Stanislavski, Constantin 1936. An Actor Prepares. New York, Theatre Arts, Inc. ISBN 0-87830-983-7[14] It is worth qualifying this non-acknowledgment of the audience as of the actual audience, since Hagen recommends treating moments of

direct audience address as if speaking to an audience within the fictional world of the drama (rather than one that observes that world from theoutside). See Hagen (1991, 203-210).

[15][15] The complexity of these dimensions of Shakespeare's dramaturgical strategies is outlined in Weimann (1965) and (2000); see also Counsell(1996, 16-23).

Presentational and representational acting 58

References

Works cited• Counsell, Colin. 1996. Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre. London and New

York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10643-5.• Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen.

ISBN 0-416-72060-9.• Hagen, Uta. 1973. Respect for Acting. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-547390-5.• Hagen, Uta 1991. A Challenge for the Actor. New York: Scribner's. ISBN 0-684-19040-0• Roach, Joseph R. 1985. The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting. Theater:Theory/Text/Performance

Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08244-2.• Stanislavski, Constantin. 1936. An Actor Prepares. London: Methuen, 1988. ISBN 0-413-46190-4.• Weimann, Robert. 1978. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension

of Dramatic Form and Function. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN0-8018-3506-2.

• ---. 2000. Author's Pen and Actor's Voice: Playing and Writing in Shakespeare's Theatre. Ed. Helen Higbee andWilliam West. Cambridge Studies in Renaissance Literature and Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress. ISBN 0-521-78735-1.

Stanislavski's system

Constantin Stanislavski

Stanislavski's system is a progression of techniques used to trainactors to draw believable emotions to their performances. The methodthat was originally created and used by Constantin Stanislavski from1911 to 1916 was based on the concept of emotional memory forwhich an actor focuses internally to portray a character's emotionsonstage. Later, between 1934–1938, this technique evolved to amethod of physical actions in which emotions are produced throughthe use of actions.The latter technique is referred to as Stanislavski'ssystem.[] This approach was developed by Constantin Stanislavski(1863–1938), a Russian actor, director, and theatre administrator at theMoscow Art Theatre (founded 1897).[1] The system is the result ofStanislavski's many years of efforts to determine how someone cancontrol in performance the most intangible and uncontrollable aspectsof human behavior, such as emotions and art inspiration. The mostinfluential acting teachers, including Richard Boleslavsky, VsevolodMeyerhold, Michael Chekhov, Lee Strasberg, Stella Adler, HaroldClurman, Robert Lewis, Sanford Meisner, Uta Hagen, Ion Cojar andIvana Chubbuck all traced their pedigrees to Stanislavski, his theoriesand/or his disciples.

Stanislavski's system 59

Background

Stanislavski regarded Maria Yermolova's actingas the pinnacle of artistic success. Painting by

Valentin Serov. 1905

Stanislavski's initial choice to call his acting idea his System struckhim as dogmatic, so he preferred to write it without the capital letterand in quotation marks to appear as his ‘system’ in order to indicate theprovisional nature of the results of his investigations.[2]

The system arose as a result of questions that Stanislavski had inregard to great actors that he admired, such as the tragedians MariaYermolova and Tommaso Salvini. To him, these actors seemed tooperate under different rules from other actors of the time, but theirperformances were still susceptible on some nights to flashes ofinspiration, or completely 'being a role,' while on some nights theirperformances were good or merely accurate.

Although Stanislavski was not the first to codify a system of acting, hewas the first to take questions and problems of psychologicalsignificance and directly link them to acting practices. Whenpsychology was formalized, it influenced Stanislavski's system.Stanislavski attempted to create a system before psychology waswidely understood and formalized as a discipline.

As a result, Stanislavski began developing a grammar of acting in1906. In 1909, he began creating his first draft of the system. This draftwas based on his personal experiences onstage as well as hisobservations of other actors in the Moscow Art Theatre. By findingsimilarities among the talented actors and their performances,Stanislavski began to create techniques that could be applied to thetraining of other actors to develop similar stage performances. By1911, he was able to experiment with his new methods. He trainedwilling actors using his new techniques as he continued to work and alter his techniques as he saw fit in order todevelop the most effective technique for actors.[] Though his approach changed throughout his life, he never lostsight of his ideals of truth in performance and love of art.

At times, Stanislavski's methodological rigor bordered on opacity: see, for instance, the chart of the Stanislavski'system' included as a fold-out in editions of Robert Lewis' book "Method or Madness," a series of lectures. Thechart, made by Adler, lists all aspects of the actor and of performance that Stanislavski thought pertinent at the time.His dedication to completeness and accuracy often conflicted with his goal of creating a workable system that actorswould actually like to use. Most of today's actors on stage, television, and film owe much to Stanislavski's system.

Stanislavski's system 60

Approach to actingThere is a story of an actress who had once been in a play directed by Stanislavski. She came to him years after theperformances and informed him that she had taken very copious notes on him and his technical approach duringrehearsals. She wanted to know what to do with these notes and he replied, 'Burn them all.' The anecdote, whethertrue or not, is illustrative of Stanislavski and his approach.Stanislavski believed throughout his life the dictum that an actor should approach a role as directly as possible andthen see if it "lives." If the actor connects with the role and the role is brought to life, then a technique or a system isnot necessary. In this sense, the actor does not so much become someone else as he becomes himself.[3] Thisachievement in acting may only happen once or twice in one's life, so the remainder of one's performances requiretechnique. Each individual actor, however, must decide whether or not an approach or technique to their acting'works' for them in their performance. In essence, his constant goal in life was to formulate some codified, systematicapproach that might impart to any given actor with some grip on his 'instrument', that is, himself.Stanislavski, a man of institution, his own Moscow Art Theatre and its associated studios, was a great believer informal (and rigorous) training for the actor. His interest in deeply analyzing the qualities of human behavior weremeant to give the actor an awareness of such human behavior and how easily falsehoods, or aspects of behaviour thatan audience can detect, are assumed by an untrained or inexperienced actor in performance. Stanislavski onceinsisted that all actions that a person must enact, such as walking, talking, even sitting on stage, must be brokendown and re-learned. For example, his book, translated into English as "Building a Character," gives a description ofthe correct way of walking on stage. Such rigors of re-learning were probably constant throughout his life. Hewanted actors to concentrate more.

Progression of the systemStanislavski's system is a method for actors to produce realistic characters on stage. His original studies oftechniques led to the use of 'Emotional Memory' that required actors to trigger the emotions of their charactersinternally. This technique was based from a French psychologist Theodule Ribot's concept of 'Affective Memory'.Later in his life, Stanislavski realized that a shift in technique was needed for actors to produce more realisticemotions before audiences but he never discredited the use of emotional memory if used cautiously. This wasunderscored when his talented protégé Michael Chekhov experimented with emotional memory and had a nervousbreakdown. A few months before his death he told his assistants that the path to glory can be found by working fromthe internal (the inside out) as well as the external (the outside in).[4] This led to the 'Method of Physical Action'. Theshift between concepts was a result of various observations made by Stanislavski. He observed that actors' mentalpreparations for their roles did not coincide with their physical performances on stage. They had spent most of theirtime reviewing their scripts and rehearsing their characters through internal and mental stationaries, but theircharacter performances were lacking physical and emotional believability.[]

The method of physical actionStanislavski developed the "method of physical actions," to solve the dilemma of spontaneous emotion in a createdenvironment. In this technique, the actor would perform a physical motion or a series of physical activities to createthe desired emotional response for the character. Emotions were considered to be formed from the subconscious, sothis technique allowed the actors to consciously target and control their subconscious emotions through movement.[]

For instance, if an actor needed to weep, he could sigh and hold his head in his hands, a physical action that manywho are crying instinctively do.On stage, if an actor experiences only internal feelings or only physical actions, then the performance is dead. Thereasoning behind this goes back to the union of the psychological and physical. The two go hand-in-hand. If an actorattempts to portray a character by employing one aspect of the union without the other, then they are performing

Stanislavski's system 61

incompletely. Internal experiences and their physical expression are unbreakably united. Whether it is through afacial expression or the tapping of a foot, everything a human experiences psychologically is displayed throughphysical means. This is termed a psycho-physical union.The correct physical action does not come automatically for every psychological response nor do they stimulateidentical responses for every individual. Many times, actors need to experiment until they determine what best worksfor them and for the character they are trying to portray. The best way to experiment with this is throughimprovisation. The best improvisers are those who can intuitively act and behave onstage as though they are in a realsituation.Through his work, Stanislavski reversed the human reaction system in which an emotion allocates an action. Methodactors use actions to control their emotions. This allows actors to "live" in silences or pauses in the dialogue of thescript and not only in the words. They are able to remain in character. Reacting is essentially emoting and includesallowing the body to outwardly express what the mind is inwardly experiencing.

Sections of the systemStanislavski believed that if an actor completes the system, the desired emotion should be created and experienced.One earlier technique used for the system involved a "round the table analysis," a process in which the actors anddirector literally sit around a table and put forward their thoughts on the script and the characters until a clearunderstanding is formed. This technique involved breaking the script into sections. For the system to work, thestructure of the script should be analyzed and sectioned based on the different characters of the play. Later, thistechnique was changed to instead immediately begin rehearsals after the main idea of the play had been discussed,but the sections are still evolved even through this practice.

Magic ifStanislavski believed that the truth that occurred onstage was different than that of real life, but that a 'scenic truth'could be achieved onstage. A performance should be believable for an audience so that they may appear to theaudience as truth. One of Stanislavski's methods for achieving the truthful pursuit of a character's emotion was his'magic if.' Actors were required to ask many questions of their characters and themselves. Through the 'magic if,'actors were able to satisfy themselves and their characters' positions of the plot. One of the first questions they had toask was, "What if I were in the same situation as my character?" Another variation on this is "What would I do if Ifound myself in this (the character's) circumstance?"[5] The "magic if" allowed actors to transcend the confinementsof realism by asking them what would occur "if" circumstances were different, or "if" the circumstances were tohappen to them. By answering these questions as the character, the theatrical actions of the actors would bebelievable and therefore 'truthful.'[]

MotivationThrough the use of system, an actor is required to analyze his or her character's motivations. Stanislavski believedthat an actor was influenced by either their mind or their emotion to stimulate their actions and the actor's motivationwas their subconscious will to perform those actions. Therefore, motivation has been described as looking to the pastactions of the character to determine why they completed physical actions in a script.[]

ObjectivesThe objective is a goal that a character wants to achieve. This is often worded in a question form as "What do Iwant?" An objective should be action-oriented, as opposed to an internal goal, in order to encourage characterinteraction onstage. The objective does not necessarily have to be achieved by the character and can be as simple asthe script permits. For example, an objective for a particular character may simply be 'to pour a mug of tea.' For eachscene, the actor must discover the character's objective. Every objective is different for each actor involved because

Stanislavski's system 62

they are based on the characters of the script.Units and bits are the division of the script into smaller objectives. For example, the entire section of a scene duringwhich the character searches for a tea bag would be a unit. When he decides to call on a neighbour is called a bit.The purpose of units is that they are used as reference points for the actor because every individual unit shouldcontain a specific motive for the character.A super-objective, in contrast, focuses on the entire play as a whole. A super-objective can direct and connect anactor's choice of objectives from scene to scene. The super-objective serves as the final goal that a character wishesto achieve within the script.Obstacles are the aspects that will stop or hinder a character from achieving his or her individual objective. Forexample, while the character searches for tea bags to make the mug of tea, they find that there are no teabags in thetin.Tools or methods are the different techniques that a character uses to surpass obstacles and achieve their objective.For example, the character searches around the kitchen, they walk to the shops, or they call on the neighbour to beable to make the tea to pour.Actions are referred to as how the character is going to say or do something. More specifically, it as an objective foreach line. Actions are how a character is going to achieve their objective. For example, a line in the script may read,'(whilst on the phone) "Hello, Sally. It's Bill from next door. You wouldn't happen to have any spare tea bags, wouldyou? I know how well-organized you are." The objective for this line may be 'to flatter' in order to collect the teabags. Actions will be different for every single actor based on their character choices.[]

The system versus the MethodOften Stanislavski's system is associated with Method acting. The latter is an outgrowth of the American theatrescene, particularly in New York, in the 1930s and 40s. Method acting appeared when actors and directors like EliaKazan, Robert Lewis, Lee Strasberg, first in the Group Theatre and later in the Actors Studio, applied the EmotionalMemory technique from Stanislavski's system. This technique made its way in American theatres because it wastaught to Strasberg at the American Laboratory Theatre in the 1920s to the particular psychological needs of theAmerican actor of their time. It has been suggested that Strasberg had access at that time only to An Actor Preparesand that if he had perhaps waited until he had also read Building A Character, which was published much later, thenhe might not have developed such an extreme 'method'. Other American actors, however, did not follow Strasberg'sMethod, like Stella Adler who visited and was taught by Stanislavski himself.The 'system' and the Method are often confused because the Method is similar to and uses Stanislavski's 1911concept of Emotional Memory in acting. The Method teaches to draw emotions for a character from past experiencesand remembrances of the actor. Strasberg renamed Stanislavski's earlier technique to 'Affective Memory' andcontinued to teach it as a proper acting method long after Stanislavki discredited it as a useful acting method.Possibly the main difference between the Method and the system was that ideas behind the Method did not change asflaws were discovered. To illustrate the difference between the two methods, Stanislavski has the actor ask himself,"What would I do if I were in this circumstance" while Strasberg adopted a modification, "What would motivate me,the actor, to behave in the way the character does?" Strasberg asks the actor to replace the play's circumstances withhis/her own, called a "substitution."[5] Stanislavski had, throughout his life, no single focused project. Instead, hethought of his system as a table of contents from which the working actor could constantly draw, depending on whatproblems might occur from play to play.[]

Stanislavski's emphasis on life within moments, on psychological realism, and on emotional authenticity, seemed to attract these actors and thinkers. While much work was done with the works of playwrights like Clifford Odets, Arthur Miller, and Tennessee Williams, the Method was eventually applied to older works like those of William Shakespeare. Indeed, controversy remains contesting the appropriateness of a Method approach to pre-Modernist

Stanislavski's system 63

plays, for while the system and Method share many characteristics, they differ immensely.

Bibliography• Stanislavski, Constantin. 1936. An Actor Prepares. London: Methuen, 1988. ISBN 0413• ---. 1999. Stanislavski: His Life and Art. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen.

ISBN 0-413-52520-1.• Carnicke, Sharon M. 1998. Stanislavsky in Focus. Russian Theatre Archive Ser. London: Harwood Academic

Publishers. ISBN 90-5755-070-9.• Meisner, Sanford. 1987. On Acting. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-394-75059-4.• Hagen, Uta. 1973. Respect for Acting. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-547390-5.• Innes, Christopher, ed. 2000. A Sourcebook on Naturalist Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN

0-415-15229-1.• Merlin, Bella. 2007. The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit. London: Nick Hern. ISBN 978-1-85459-793-9.• Roach, Joseph R. 1985. The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting. Theater:Theory/Text/Performance

Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08244-2.• Benedetti, Jean. 1998. Stanislavski and the Actor. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-71160-9.

References[1] Brockett, Oscar. History of the Theatre. [S.l.]: Allyn & Bacon, 2002. Print.[2][2] See Benedetti (1999, 169).[4] Carnicke, Sharon. Stanislavsky in Focus: An Acting Master for the Twenty-First Century. Routledge Theatre Classics, 2008, p. 153[5][5] Carnicke, Sharon. Stanislavsky in Focus: An Acting Master for the Twenty-First Century. Routle Theatre Classics, 2008, p. 221

Heath Ledger 64

Heath Ledger

Heath Ledger

Ledger at the 2006 Berlin International Film Festival

Born Heath Andrew Ledger4 April 1979Perth, Western Australia

Died 22 January 2008 (aged 28)New York City, New York, U.S.

Cause of death Prescription drug intoxication

Occupation Actor, music video director

Years active 1992–2008

Partner(s) Michelle Williams (2004–2007)

Children Matilda Rose Ledger (b. 2005)

Heath Andrew Ledger (4 April 1979 – 22 January 2008) was an Australian actor and director. After performingroles in Australian television and film during the 1990s, Ledger left for the United States in 1998 to develop his filmcareer. His work comprised nineteen films, including 10 Things I Hate About You (1999), The Patriot (2000), AKnight's Tale (2001), Monster's Ball (2001), Lords of Dogtown (2005), Brokeback Mountain (2005), Candy (2006),I'm Not There (2007), The Dark Knight (2008), and The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus (2009).[1] In addition toacting, he produced and directed music videos and aspired to be a film director.[]

For his portrayal of Ennis Del Mar in Brokeback Mountain, Ledger won the New York Film Critics Circle Award forBest Actor and Best International Actor from the Australian Film Institute, and was nominated for the BAFTAAward[] and for the Academy Award for Best Actor.[] Posthumously he shared the 2007 Independent Spirit RobertAltman Award with the rest of the ensemble cast, the director, and the casting director for the film I'm Not There,which was inspired by the life and songs of American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan. In the film, Ledger portrayed afictional actor named Robbie Clark, one of six characters embodying aspects of Dylan's life and persona.[]

Ledger died on 22 January 2008[][] from an accidental "intoxication from prescription drugs".[][][] A few months before his death, Ledger had finished filming his performance as the Joker in The Dark Knight. His death occurred during editing of The Dark Knight and in the midst of filming his last role as Tony in The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus. His untimely death cast a truly sombre shadow over the subsequent promotion of the $180 million

Heath Ledger 65

Batman production.[] Ledger received numerous accolades for his critically acclaimed performance in the film,including the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, a Best Actor International Award at the 2008 AustralianFilm Institute Awards, for which he became the first actor to win an award posthumously,[] the 2008 Los AngelesFilm Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor, the 2009 Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor– Motion Picture[] and the 2009 BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor.[]

Early lifeHeath Ledger was born in Perth, Western Australia, the son of Sally Ledger (née Ramshaw), a French teacher, andKim Ledger, a race-car driver and mining engineer, whose family established and owned the Ledger EngineeringFoundry.[] The Sir Frank Ledger Charitable Trust is named after his great-grandfather.[] He had English and Scottishancestry.[2] Ledger attended Mary's Mount Primary School, in Gooseberry Hill,[] and later Guildford GrammarSchool, where he had his first acting experiences, starring in a school production as Peter Pan at age 10.[][] Hisparents separated when he was 10 and divorced when he was 11.[] Ledger's older sister Kate, an actress and later apublicist, to whom he was very close, inspired his acting on stage, and his love of Gene Kelly inspired his successfulchoreography, leading to Guildford Grammar's 60-member team's "first all-boy victory" at the Rock EisteddfodChallenge.[][3] Heath's and Kate's other siblings include two half-sisters, Ashleigh Bell (b. 1990), his mother'sdaughter with her second husband and his stepfather Roger Bell, and Olivia Ledger (b. 1996), his father's daughterwith second wife and his stepmother Emma Brown.[4]

Career

1990sAfter sitting for early graduation exams at 16, Ledger left school to pursue an acting career.[] With Trevor DiCarlo,his best friend since he was three years old, Ledger drove across Australia from Perth to Sydney, returning to Perthto take a small role in Clowning Around (1992), the first part of a two-part television series, and to work on the TVseries Sweat (1996), in which he played a gay cyclist.[] From 1993 to 1997, Ledger also had parts in the Perthtelevision series Ship to Shore (1993); in the short-lived Fox Broadcasting Company fantasy-drama Roar (1997); inHome and Away (1997), one of Australia's most successful television shows; and in the Australian film Blackrock(1997), his feature film debut.[] In 1999, he starred in the teen comedy 10 Things I Hate About You and in theacclaimed Australian crime film Two Hands, directed by Gregor Jordan.[]

2000sFrom 2000 to 2005, he starred in supporting roles as Gabriel Martin, the eldest son of Benjamin Martin (MelGibson), in The Patriot (2000), and as Sonny Grotowski, the son of Hank Grotowski (Billy Bob Thornton), inMonster's Ball (2000); and in leading or title roles in A Knight's Tale (2001), The Four Feathers (2002), The Order(2003), Ned Kelly (2003), Casanova (2005), The Brothers Grimm (2005), and Lords of Dogtown (2005).[1] In 2001,he won a ShoWest Award as "Male Star of Tomorrow".[]

Ledger received "Best Actor of 2005" awards from both the New York Film Critics Circle and the San Francisco Film Critics Circle for his performance in Brokeback Mountain,[5][6] in which he plays Wyoming ranch hand Ennis Del Mar, who has a love affair with aspiring rodeo rider Jack Twist, played by Jake Gyllenhaal.[7] He also received a nomination for Golden Globe Best Actor in a Drama and a nomination for Academy Award for Best Actor for this performance,[8][9] making him, at age 26, the ninth-youngest nominee for a Best Actor Oscar. In The New York Times review of the film, critic Stephen Holden writes: "Both Mr. Ledger and Mr. Gyllenhaal make this anguished love story physically palpable. Mr. Ledger magically and mysteriously disappears beneath the skin of his lean, sinewy character. It is a great screen performance, as good as the best of Marlon Brando and Sean Penn."[10] In a review in Rolling Stone, Peter Travers states: "Ledger's magnificent performance is an acting miracle. He seems to

Heath Ledger 66

tear it from his insides. Ledger doesn't just know how Ennis moves, speaks and listens; he knows how he breathes.To see him inhale the scent of a shirt hanging in Jack's closet is to take measure of the pain of love lost."[11]

After Brokeback Mountain, Ledger costarred with fellow Australian Abbie Cornish in the 2006 Australian filmCandy, an adaptation of the 1998 novel Candy: A Novel of Love and Addiction, as young heroin addicts in loveattempting to break free of their addiction, whose mentor is played by Geoffrey Rush; for his performance assometime poet Dan, Ledger was nominated for three "Best Actor" awards, including one of the Film Critics Circle ofAustralia Awards, which both Cornish and Rush won in their categories. Shortly after the release of Candy, Ledgerwas invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.[12]

Heath Ledger posing with CharlotteGainsbourg at the 64th Venice Film

Festival in 2007.

As one of six actors embodying different aspects of the life of Bob Dylan in the2007 film I'm Not There, directed by Todd Haynes, Ledger "won praise for hisportrayal of 'Robbie [Clark],' a moody, counter-culture actor who represents theromanticist side of Dylan, but says accolades are never his motivation."[]

Posthumously, on 23 February 2008, he shared the 2007 Independent SpiritRobert Altman Award with the rest of the film's ensemble cast, its director, andits casting director.[]

In his penultimate film performance, Ledger played the Joker in The DarkKnight, directed by Christopher Nolan, first released, in Australia, on 16 July2008, nearly six months after his death. While working on the film in London,Ledger told Sarah Lyall, in their New York Times interview, that he viewed TheDark Knight's Joker as a "psychopathic, mass murdering, schizophrenic clownwith zero empathy."[]

For his work in The Dark Knight, Ledger won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, his family acceptingit on his behalf, as well as numerous other posthumous awards including the Golden Globe Award for BestSupporting Actor, which Christopher Nolan accepted for him.[][]

At the time of his death, on 22 January 2008, Ledger had completed about half of the work for his final filmperformance as Tony in Terry Gilliam's The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus.[][] Gilliam chose to adapt the filmafter his death by having fellow actors Johnny Depp, Jude Law, and Colin Farrell play "fantasy transformations" ofhis character, so that Ledger's final performance could be seen in theatres.

Directorial workLedger had aspirations to become a film director and had made some music videos, which director Todd Haynespraised highly in his tribute to Ledger upon accepting the ISP Robert Altman Award, which Ledger posthumouslyshared, on 23 February 2008.[] In 2006 Ledger directed music videos for the title track on Australian hip hop artistN'fa's CD debut solo album Cause An Effect[] and for the single "Seduction Is Evil (She's Hot)".[][] Later that year,Ledger inaugurated a new record label, Masses Music, with singer Ben Harper and also directed a music video forHarper's song "Morning Yearning".[][]

At a news conference at the 2007 Venice Film Festival, Ledger spoke of his desire to make a documentary film about the British singer-songwriter Nick Drake, who died in 1974, at the age of 26, from an overdose of an antidepressant.[] Ledger created and acted in a music video set to Drake's recording of the singer's 1974 song about depression "Black Eyed Dog" – a title "inspired by Winston Churchill’s descriptive term for depression" (black dog);[] it was shown publicly only twice, first at the Bumbershoot Festival, in Seattle, held from 1 to 3 September 2007; and secondly as part of "A Place To Be: A Celebration of Nick Drake", with its screening of Their Place: Reflections On Nick Drake, "a series of short filmed homages to Nick Drake" (including Ledger's), sponsored by American Cinematheque, at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre, in Hollywood, on 5 October 2007.[] After Ledger's death, his music video for "Black Eyed Dog" was shown on the Internet and excerpted in news clips distributed via

Heath Ledger 67

YouTube.[][][13][14]

He was working with Scottish screenwriter and producer Allan Scott on an adaptation of the 1983 novel The Queen'sGambit by Walter Tevis, which would have been his first feature film as a director. He also intended to act in thefilm, with Ellen Page proposed in the lead role. [][][] Ledger's final directorial work, in which he shot two musicvideos before his death, premiered in 2009.[15] The music videos, completed for Modest Mouse and GraceWoodroofe,[] include an animated feature for Modest Mouse's song, "King Rat", and the Woodroofe video for hercover of David Bowie's "Quicksand".[16] The "King Rat" video premiered on 4 August 2009.[17]

Personal life

Ledger at the 56th BerlinInternational Film Festival, 2006

Ledger was an avid chess player, winning Western Australia's junior chesschampionship at the age of 10.[18] As an adult, he often played with other chessenthusiasts at Washington Square Park.[19] Allan Scott's film adaptation of thechess-related 1983 novel The Queen's Gambit, by Walter Tevis, which at thetime of his death he was planning to both perform in and direct, would have beenLedger's first feature film as a director.[][]

Relationships

Ledger had a number of high-profile relationships with actresses, including LisaZane, Heather Graham and Naomi Watts. In the summer of 2004, he met andbegan dating actress Michelle Williams on the set of Brokeback Mountain, andtheir daughter, Matilda Rose, was born on 28 October 2005 in New YorkCity.[20] Matilda's godparents are Ledger and Williams' Brokeback co-star JakeGyllenhaal and Williams' Dawson's Creek castmate Busy Philipps.[21] In January2006, Ledger put his residence in Bronte, New South Wales up for sale,[22] and returned to the United States, wherehe shared a house with Williams, in Boerum Hill, Brooklyn, from 2005 to 2007.[] In September 2007, Williams'father confirmed to Sydney's Daily Telegraph that Ledger and Williams had ended their relationship.[23]

After his break-up with Williams, in late 2007 and early 2008, the tabloid press and other public media linkedLedger romantically with supermodels Helena Christensen and Gemma Ward. On 30 January 2011, Gemma Wardstated that the pair began dating in November 2007 and their families spent Christmas together in their home town ofPerth.[24][][][][][25]

Press controversiesLedger's relationship with the press in Australia was sometimes turbulent, and it led to his abandonment of plans forhis family to reside part-time in Sydney.[][] In 2004, he strongly denied press reports alleging that "he spat atjournalists on the Sydney set of the film Candy," or that one of his relatives had done so later, outside Ledger'sSydney home.[][] On 13 January 2006, "Several members of the paparazzi retaliated ... squirting Ledger andWilliams with water pistols on the red carpet at the Sydney premiere of Brokeback Mountain."[][]

After his performance on stage at the 2005 Screen Actors Guild Awards, when he had giggled in presentingBrokeback Mountain as a nominee for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture, the Los AngelesTimes referred to his presentation as an "apparent gay spoof."[] Ledger called the Times later and explained that hislevity resulted from stage fright, saying that he had been told that he would be presenting the award only minutesearlier; he stated: "I am so sorry and I apologise for my nervousness. I would be absolutely horrified if my stagefright was misinterpreted as a lack of respect for the film, the topic and for the amazing filmmakers."[][]

Heath Ledger 68

Ledger was quoted in January 2006 in Melbourne's Herald Sun as saying that he heard that West Virginia hadbanned Brokeback Mountain, which it had not; actually, a cinema in Utah had banned the film.[26] He had alsoreferred mistakenly to West Virginia's having had lynchings as recently as the 1980s, but state scholars disputed hisstatement, observing that, whereas lynchings did occur in Alabama as recently as 1981, according to "the director ofstate archives and history" quoted in The Charleston Gazette, "The last documented lynching in West Virginia tookplace in Lewisburg in 1931."[]

Health issuesIn their New York Times interview, published on 4 November 2007, Ledger told Sarah Lyall that his recentlycompleted roles in I'm Not There (2007) and The Dark Knight (2008) had taken a toll on his ability to sleep: "Lastweek I probably slept an average of two hours a night. ... I couldn't stop thinking. My body was exhausted, and mymind was still going."[] At that time, he told Lyall that he had taken two Ambien pills, after taking just one had notsufficed, and those left him in "a stupor, only to wake up an hour later, his mind still racing."[]

Prior to his return to New York from his last film assignment, in London, in January 2008, while he was apparentlysuffering from some kind of respiratory illness, he reportedly complained to his co-star from The Imaginarium ofDoctor Parnassus, Christopher Plummer, that he was continuing to have difficulty sleeping and taking pills to helpwith that problem: "Confirming earlier reports that Ledger hadn't been feeling well on set, Plummer says, 'we allcaught colds because we were shooting outside on horrible, damp nights. But Heath's went on and I don't think hedealt with it immediately with the antibiotics.... I think what he did have was the walking pneumonia.' [...] On top ofthat, 'He was saying all the time, 'dammit, I can't sleep'... and he was taking all these pills to help him.' "[]

In talking with Interview magazine, after his death Ledger's former fiancée Michelle Williams also confirmed reportsthe actor had experienced trouble sleeping. "For as long as I'd known him, he had bouts with insomnia. He had toomuch energy. His mind was turning, turning turning – always turning."[]

DeathAt about 2:45 p.m. (EST), on 22 January 2008, Ledger was found unconscious in his bed by his housekeeper, TeresaSolomon, and his masseuse, Diana Wolozin, in his fourth-floor loft apartment at 421 Broome Street in the SoHoneighborhood of Manhattan.[][]

According to the police, Wolozin, who had arrived early for a 3:00 pm appointment with Ledger, called Ledger'sfriend, actress Mary-Kate Olsen, for help. Olsen, who was in California, directed a New York City private securityguard to go to the scene. At 3:26 pm, "[fewer] than 15 minutes after Wolozin first saw him in bed and only a fewmoments" after first calling Olsen and then calling her a second time to express her fears that Ledger was dead,Wolozin telephoned 9-1-1 "to say that Mr. Ledger was not breathing." At the urging of the 9-1-1 operator, Wolozinadministered CPR, which was unsuccessful in reviving him.[]

Paramedics and Emergency Medical Technicians (EMT) arrived seven minutes later, at 3:33 pm ("at almost exactlythe same moment as a private security guard summoned by Ms. Olsen"), but were also unable to revive him.[][][27] At3:36 pm, Ledger was pronounced dead and his body was removed from the apartment.[][]

Autopsy and toxicology reportTwo weeks later on 6 February 2008, the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner of New York released its conclusions, based on an initial autopsy of 23 January 2008, and a subsequent complete toxicological analysis.[][][]

The report concludes, in part, "Mr. Heath Ledger died as the result of acute intoxication by the combined effects of oxycodone, hydrocodone, diazepam, temazepam, alprazolam and doxylamine."[][] It states definitively: "We have concluded that the manner of death is accident, resulting from the abuse of prescription medications."[][] While the medications found in the toxicological analysis may be prescribed in the United States for insomnia, anxiety, pain, or

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common cold (doxylamine) symptoms, the vast majority of physicians in U.S. are extremely reluctant to prescribemultiple benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam, alprazolam, and temazepam) to a single patient, let alone prescribe thesame to a patient already taking a mix of OxyContin and Vicodin. Although the Associated Press and other mediareported that "police estimate Ledger's time of death between 1 pm and 2:45 pm" (on 22 January 2008),[] the MedicalExaminer's Office announced that it would not be publicly disclosing the official estimated time of death.[][28] Theofficial announcement of the cause and manner of Ledger's death heightened concerns about the growing problemsof prescription drug abuse or misuse and combined drug intoxication (CDI).[][][]

Federal investigationLate in February 2008, a DEA investigation of medical professionals relating to Ledger's death exonerated twoAmerican physicians, who practise in Los Angeles and Houston, of any wrongdoing, determining that "the doctors inquestion had prescribed Ledger other medications – not the pills that killed him."[][]

On 4 August 2008, citing unnamed sources, Murray Weiss, of the New York Post, first reported that Mary-KateOlsen had "refused [through her attorney, Michael C. Miller] to be interviewed by federal investigators probing theaccidental drug death of her close friend Heath Ledger ... [without] ... immunity from prosecution," and that, whenasked about the matter, Miller at first declined further comment.[][] Later that day, after the police confirmed the gistof Weiss's account to the Associated Press, Miller issued a statement denying that Olsen supplied Ledger with thedrugs causing his death and asserting that she did not know their source.[][] In his statement, Miller said specifically:"Despite tabloid speculation, Mary-Kate Olsen had nothing whatsoever to do with the drugs found in Heath Ledger'shome or his body, and she does not know where he obtained them," emphasizing that media "descriptions [attributedto an unidentified source] are incomplete and inaccurate."[]

After a flurry of further media speculation, on 6 August 2008, the U.S. Attorney's Office in Manhattan closed itsinvestigation into Ledger's death without filing any charges and rendering moot its subpoena of Olsen.[][] With theclearing of the two doctors and Olsen, and the closing of the investigation because the prosecutors in the ManhattanU.S. Attorney's Office "don't believe there's a viable target," it is still not known how Ledger obtained the oxycodoneand hydrocodone in the lethal drug combination that killed him.[][]

Eleven months after Ledger's death, on 23 December 2008, Jake Coyle, writing for the Associated Press, announcedthat "Heath Ledger's death was voted 2008's top entertainment story by U.S. newspaper and broadcast editorssurveyed by The Associated Press," as it resulted in: "shock and confusion" about "the circumstances", the ruling ofthe death as an accident caused by "a toxic combination of prescription drugs", and the continuation of "his legacy...[i]n a roundly acclaimed performance as the Joker in the year's biggest box office hit The Dark Knight."[]

Controversy over willAfter Ledger's death, in response to some press reports about his will, filed in New York City on 28 February2008,[][] and his daughter's access to his financial legacy, his father, Kim Ledger, said that he considered thefinancial well-being of his granddaughter Matilda Rose the Ledger family's "absolute priority" and her mother,Michelle Williams, "an integral part of our family", adding "They will be taken care of and that's how Heath wouldwant it to be".[] Some of Ledger's relatives may be challenging the legal status of his will signed in 2003, prior to hisinvolvement with Williams and the birth of their daughter and not updated to include them, which divides half of hisestate between his parents and half among his siblings; they claim that there is a second, unsigned will, which leavesmost of that estate to Matilda Rose.[][] Williams' father, Larry Williams, has also joined the controversy aboutLedger's will as it was filed in New York City soon after his death.[]

On 31 March 2008, stimulating another controversy pertaining to Ledger's estate, Gemma Jones and Janet Fife-Yeomans published an "Exclusive" report, in The Daily Telegraph, citing Ledger's uncle Haydn Ledger and other family members, who "believe the late actor may have fathered a secret love child" when he was 17, and stating that "If it is confirmed that Ledger is the girl's biological father, it could split his multi-million dollar estate

Heath Ledger 70

between ... Matilda Rose ... and his secret love child."[][][] A few days later, reports citing telephone interviews withLedger's uncles Haydn and Mike Ledger and the family of the other little girl, published in OK! and Us Weekly,"denied" those "claims", with Ledger's uncles and the little girl's mother and stepfather describing them as unfounded"rumors" distorted and exaggerated by the media.[][]

On 15 July 2008, Fife-Yeomans reported further, via Australian News Limited, that "While Ledger left everything tohis parents and three sisters, it is understood they have legal advice that under WA law, Matilda Rose is entitled tothe lion's share" of his estate; its executors, Kim Ledger's former business colleague Robert John Collins andGeraldton accountant William Mark Dyson, "have applied for probate in the West Australian Supreme Court inPerth, advertising for 'creditors and other persons' having claims on the estate to lodge them by 11 August 2008 ... toensure all debts are paid before the estate is distributed...."[] According to this report by Fife-Yeomans, earlier reportsciting Ledger's uncles,[] and subsequent reports citing Ledger's father, which do not include his actual posthumousearnings, "his entire fortune, mostly held in Australian trusts, is likely to be worth up to $20 million."[][][]

On 27 September 2008, Ledger's father Kim stated that "the family has agreed to leave the US$16.3 million fortuneto Matilda," adding: "There is no claim. Our family has gifted everything to Matilda."[][][] In October 2008,Forbes.com estimated Ledger's annual earnings from October 2007 through October 2008 – including hisposthumous share of The Dark Knight's gross income of "US$991 million in box office revenue worldwide" –– as"US$20 million."[29]

Response• In a 2008 edition of his (American) radio show, John Gibson commented on Ledger's death the day before. He

opened the segment with funeral music and played a clip of Jake Gyllenhaal's famous line "I wish I knew how toquit you" from Ledger's film Brokeback Mountain; he then said "Well, I guess he found out how to quit you."Among other remarks, Gibson called Ledger a "weirdo" with "a serious drug problem".[30] The next day, headdressed outcry over his remarks by saying that they were in the context of jokes he had been making for monthsabout Brokeback Mountain, and that "There's no point in passing up a good joke."[31] Gibson later apologized onhis television and radio shows.[32][33]

Heath Ledger 71

Legacy

Memorial tributes and services

Memorial for Ledger, outside 421 Broome Street,SoHo, Manhattan, 23 January 2008

As the news of Ledger's death became public, throughout the night of22 January 2008, and the next day, media crews, mourners, fans, andother onlookers began gathering outside his apartment building, withsome leaving flowers or other memorial tributes.[34][35]

The next day, at 10:50 a.m., Australian time, Ledger's parents andsister appeared outside his mother's house in Applecross, a riversidesuburb of Perth, and read a short statement to the media expressingtheir grief and desire for privacy.[] Within the next few days, memorialtributes were communicated by family members, Prime Minister ofAustralia Kevin Rudd, Deputy Premier of Western Australia EricRipper, Warner Bros. (distributor of The Dark Knight), and thousandsof Ledger's fans around the world.[][][][]

Several actors made statements expressing their sorrow at Ledger'sdeath, including Daniel Day-Lewis, who dedicated his Screen ActorsGuild Award to Ledger, saying that he was inspired by Ledger's acting;Day-Lewis praised Ledger's performances in Monster's Ball andBrokeback Mountain, describing the latter as "unique, perfect."[36][37]

Verne Troyer, who was working with Ledger on The Imaginarium ofDoctor Parnassus at the time of his death, had a heart shape, an exactduplicate of a symbol that Ledger scrawled on a piece of paper with his email address, tattooed on his hand inremembrance of Ledger because Ledger "had made such an impression on [him]."[38]

On 1 February, in her first public statement after Ledger's death, Michelle Williams expressed her heartbreak anddescribed Ledger's spirit as surviving in their daughter.[39][]

After attending private memorial ceremonies in Los Angeles, Ledger's family members returned with his body toPerth.[][]

On 9 February, a memorial service attended by several hundred invited guests was held at Penrhos College,garnering considerable press attention; afterward Ledger's body was cremated at Fremantle Cemetery, followed by aprivate service attended by only 10 closest family members,[][][] with his ashes to be interred later in a family plot atKarrakatta Cemetery, next to two of his grandparents.[][][] Later that night, his family and friends gathered for a wakeon Cottesloe Beach.[][][]

In January 2011, The State Theatre Centre of Western Australia in Ledger's hometown of Perth named a 575-seattheatre the Heath Ledger Theatre after him. For the opening of the theatre, Ledger's Academy Award for BestSupporting Actor was on display in the theatre's foyer along with his Joker costume.[40]

Posthumous films and awardsLedger's death affected the marketing campaign for Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight (2008)[][] and also both the production and marketing of Terry Gilliam's film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, with both directors intending to celebrate and pay tribute to his work in these films.[][][][] Although Gilliam temporarily suspended production on the latter film,[] he expressed determination to "salvage" it, perhaps using computer-generated imagery (CGI), and dedicated it to Ledger.[][][] In February 2008, as a "memorial tribute to the man many have called one of the best actors of his generation," Johnny Depp, Jude Law, and Colin Farrell signed on to take over Ledger's role, becoming multiple incarnations of his character, Tony, transformed in this "magical re-telling of the Faust story,"[][][]

Heath Ledger 72

and the three actors have donated their fees for the film to Ledger's and Williams's daughter.[]

Speaking of editing The Dark Knight, on which Ledger had completed his work in October 2007, Nolan recalled, "Itwas tremendously emotional, right when he passed, having to go back in and look at him every day. ... But the truthis, I feel very lucky to have something productive to do, to have a performance that he was very, very proud of, andthat he had entrusted to me to finish."[] All of Ledger's scenes appear as he completed them in the filming; in editingthe film, Nolan added no "digital effects" to alter Ledger's actual performance posthumously.[] Nolan dedicated thefilm in part to Ledger's memory, as well as to the memory of technician Conway Wickliffe, who was killed during acar accident while preparing one of the film's stunts.[]

Released in July 2008, The Dark Knight broke several box office records and received both popular and criticalaccolades, especially with regard to Ledger's performance as the Joker.[] Even film critic David Denby, who does notpraise the film overall in his pre-release review in The New Yorker, evaluates Ledger's work highly, describing hisperformance as both "sinister and frightening" and Ledger as "mesmerising in every scene", concluding: "Hisperformance is a heroic, unsettling final act: this young actor looked into the abyss."[41] Attempting to dispelwidespread speculations that Ledger's performance as the Joker had in any way led to his death (as Denby and otherssuggest), Ledger's co-star and friend Christian Bale, who played opposite him as Batman, has stressed that, as anactor, Ledger greatly enjoyed meeting the challenges of creating that role, an experience that Ledger himselfdescribed as "the most fun I’ve ever had, or probably ever will have, playing a character."[][42]

Ledger received numerous awards for his Joker role in The Dark Knight. On 10 November 2008, he was nominatedfor two People's Choice Awards related to his work on the film, "Best Ensemble Cast" and "Best OnscreenMatch-Up" (shared with Christian Bale), and Ledger won an award for "Match-Up" in the ceremony aired live onCBS in January 2009.[]

On 11 December 2008, it was announced that Ledger had been nominated for a Golden Globe Award for BestSupporting Actor – Motion Picture for his performance as the Joker in The Dark Knight; he subsequently won theaward at the 66th Golden Globe Awards ceremony telecast on NBC on 11 January 2009 with Dark Knight directorChristopher Nolan accepting on his behalf.[][]

Film critics, co-stars Maggie Gyllenhaal and Michael Caine and many of Ledger's colleagues in the film communityjoined Bale in calling for and predicting a nomination for the 2008 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor inrecognition of Ledger's achievement in The Dark Knight.[] Ledger's subsequent nomination was announced on 22January 2009, the anniversary of his death;[43] Ledger went on to win the award, becoming the second person to wina posthumous Academy Award for acting, after fellow Australian actor Peter Finch, who won for 1976's Network.The award was accepted by Ledger's family.[]

Filmography

Television

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Year Title Role Notes

1993 Ship to Shore Cyclist (3 episodes)

1996 Sweat Snowy Bowles (26 episodes)

1997 Home and Away Scott Irwin (9 episodes)

Roar Conor (13 episodes)

Film

Year Title Role Notes

1992 Clowning Around Orphan clown (Uncredited)

1997 Blackrock Toby Ackland

Paws Oberon

1999 Two Hands Jimmy Nominated—Australian Film Institute Award for Best Actor in a LeadingRoleNominated—Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor

10 Things I Hate About You Patrick Verona Nominated—MTV Movie Award for Best Musical Sequence

2000 The Patriot Gabriel Martin Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Male – Newcomer

2001 Monster's Ball Sonny Grotowski

A Knight's Tale Sir William Thatcher/Sir Ulrich von Lichtenstein ofGelderland

Nominated—MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss (shared with ShannynSossamon)Nominated—MTV Movie Award for Best Musical Sequence

2002 The Four Feathers Harry Faversham

2003 The Order Alex Bernier

Ned Kelly Ned Kelly Nominated—Australian Film Institute Award for Best Actor in a LeadingRoleNominated—Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor

Heath Ledger 74

2005 Casanova Giacomo Casanova

The Brothers Grimm Jacob Grimm

Lords of Dogtown Skip Engblom

Brokeback Mountain Ennis Del Mar Australian Film Institute International Award for Best ActorAustralian Film Institute Awards – Reader's Choice Best ActorCentral Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Best Lead PerformanceCentral Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Actor of the YearLas Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best ActorMTV Movie Award for Best Kiss (shared with Jake Gyllenhaal)New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorPhoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best ActorSan Francisco Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorSanta Barbara International Film Festival Performance of the Year AwardSt. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorNominated—Academy Award for Best ActorNominated—BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleNominated—Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorNominated—Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorNominated—Chlotrudis Award for Best ActorNominated—Independent Spirit Award for Best Male LeadNominated—Inside Film Award for Best ActorNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture DramaNominated—London Film Critics' Circle Award for Best ActorNominated—Online Film Critics Society Award for Best ActorNominated—Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by aMale Actor in a Leading RoleNominated—Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by aCast in a Motion PictureNominated—Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture DramaNominated—Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award forBest Actor

2006 Candy Dan Carter Nominated—Australian Film Institute Award for Best Actor in a LeadingRoleNominated—Inside Film Award for Best ActorNominated—Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor

2007 I'm Not There Robbie Clark Independent Spirit Robert Altman Award (shared with cast and crew)

Heath Ledger 75

2008 The Dark Knight The Joker Posthumously Awarded:Academy Award for Best Supporting ActorAustralian Film Institute International Award for Best ActorBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting RoleBoston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting ActorBroadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorChicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorDallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best SupportingActorFlorida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActorGolden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion PictureIGN Movie Award for Best PerformanceIGN Movie Award for Favorite VillainIowa Film Critics Award for Best Supporting ActorKansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActorLas Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorLos Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorOnline Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorMTV Movie Award for Best VillainNew York Film Critics Online Award for Best Supporting ActorNorth Texas Film Critics Award for Best Supporting ActorOklahoma Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActorPeople's Choice Award for Best Ensemble CastPeople's Choice Award for Best On-Screen Match-Up (shared with ChristianBale)

Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorRembrandt Award for Best Foreign ActorSan Francisco Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActorSaturn Award for Best Supporting ActorScream Award for Best Fantasy ActorScream Award for Best VillainScream Award for Best LineScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actorin a Supporting RoleSoutheastern Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorSt. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best SupportingActorToronto Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorUtah Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorWashington DC Area Film Critics Association Award for Best SupportingActorNominated—Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best CastNominated—Gransito Movie Award for Best Actor in a Supporting RoleNominated—London Film Critics' Circle Award for Best ActorNominated—Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion PictureNominated—MTV Movie Award for Best Fight (shared with ChristianBale)

2009 The Imaginarium of DoctorParnassus

Tony Shepard

Heath Ledger 76

Music videos• (2006) "Cause an Effect" and "Seduction is Evil (She's Hot)", songs by N'fa, videos directed by Ledger.• (2006) "Morning Yearning," song by Ben Harper, video directed by Ledger.• (2007) "Black Eyed Dog," song written by Nick Drake (1948–1974), video directed by and featuring Ledger.[]

• (2009) "King Rat", song by Modest Mouse and conceived by Ledger.[][]

References[2][2] 'Heath: A Family's Tale' by Janet Fife-Yeomans (2009), p.32: "Ledger was a descendant of the Ledger family of Leeds, Yorkshire who

arrived in Western Australia from England in 1880."[13] ("Introductory film" includes excerpts of the music video, Black Eyed Dog, by Heath Ledger, among others.)[14] Drake's song "Black Eyed Dog" is featured as track number five on the soundtrack album for the 1974 film Practical Magic, directed by

Griffin Dunne and starring Sandra Bullock and Nicole Kidman.[24] Gemma Ward breaks her silence on Heath Ledger - Telegraph (http:/ / fashion. telegraph. co. uk/ news-features/ TMG8293826/

Gemma-Ward-breaks-her-silence-on-Heath-Ledger. html)[27][27] (As updated 25 January 2008.)[29] Based on its estimates, Nichols reports, Forbes.com ranks Ledger as third among the world's highest-earning deceased celebrities for that

year, following Elvis Presley (1) and Charles M. Schulz (2).[30] "Fox Host John Gibson Mocks Heath Ledger's Death" (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ 2008/ 01/ 23/

fox-host-john-gibson-mock_n_82962. html) The Huffington Post. 23 January 2008.[31] The John Gibson Show, Fox News Radio, 25 January 2008.[32] The Big Story, Fox News, 24 January 2008[33] The John Gibson Show, Fox News Radio, 24 January 2008[40] Cookies must be enabled | Herald Sun (http:/ / www. heraldsun. com. au/ entertainment/ arts-books/

state-theatre-centre-opens-in-perth-honouring-heath-ledger/ story-fn7euh6j-1225996093685)[41][41] (Postdated)

Further reading• Adler, Shawn. "Heath Ledger Said He Hoped to Evolve as an Actor and Person in 2005 Interview: (http:/ / www.

mtv. com/ movies/ news/ articles/ 1580086/ 20080122/ story. jhtml) Late Actor Was Intelligent, Self-Awareduring 'Brokeback Mountain' Chat." MTV.com, 22 January 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2008. (Excerpts fromtranscript of interview with Heath Ledger conducted by John Norris in 2005.)

• Arango, Tim. "Esquire Publishes a Diary That Isn't" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 03/ 06/ books/ 06esqu.html). The New York Times, nytimes.com, 6 March 2008, Books. Retrieved 25 July 2008. (Rev. of Taddeo.)

• "Death of a Star: Unsolved Mysteries" (http:/ / www. newsweek. com/ id/ 105569?tid=relatedcl). Newsweek, 4February 2008: 62, Newsmakers. Both Web and print versions. Retrieved 5 August 2008.

• The Joker vs. The Real Heath: (http:/ / www. etonline. com/ news/ 2008/ 07/ 63600/ index. html)Wikipedia:Linkrot Entertainment Tonight Looks Back at the Career of Heath Ledger, etonline.com (CBS Studios Inc.), July2008. Retrieved 8 August 2008. ("ET takes a look back at Heath Ledger's career amid the hugely successfullaunch of 'The Dark Knight,' which features the late actor portraying the Joker"; includes photo album.)

• McShane John. Heath Ledger: His Beautiful Life and Mysterious Death. London: John Blake, 2008. ISBN1-84454-633-0 (10). ISBN 978-1-84454-633-6 (13). (Excerpt listed below.)

• "Loves of Heath Ledger's Life" (http:/ / www. news. com. au/ couriermail/ story/ 0,23739,23564492-5007191,00.html). The Courier-Mail, news.com.au, 20 April 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008. (Book excerpt.)

• Nolan, Christopher. "Transition: Charisma as Natural as Gravity (http:/ / www. newsweek. com/ id/ 105580):Heath Ledger, 28, Actor". Newsweek, 4 February 2008: 9, Periscope. Both Web (updated 26 January 2008) andprint versions. Retrieved 5 August 2008. (Eulogy.)

• Norris, Chris. "(Untitled Heath Ledger Project) (http:/ / nymag. com/ news/ features/ 44217/ ): In Which theProtagonist Dies Mysteriously, and the Audience Analyzes His Final Days for Clues to His Real Character". NewYork, nymag.com, 18 February 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008.

Heath Ledger 77

• Park, Michael Y. "Christian Bale on 'Kindred Spirit' Heath Ledger" (http:/ / www. people. com/ people/ article/0,,20208769,00. html?xid=rss-fullcontentcnn). Web. People, 25 June 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2008. (See Wolfbelow.)

• Robb, Brian J. Heath Ledger: Hollywood's Dark Star. London: Plexus Publishing Ltd, 2008. ISBN0-85965-427-3 (10). ISBN 978-0-85965-427-2 (13).

• Scott, A. O. "An Appraisal: Prince of Intensity with a Lightness of Touch" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 01/24/ movies/ 24appr. html?hp). The New York Times, nytimes.com, 24 January 2008, Movies. Retrieved 27 April2008.

• Sessums, Kevin, with photographs by Bruce Weber. "We're Having a Heath Wave" (http:/ / www. vanityfair.com/ culture/ features/ 2000/ 08/ heath200008). Vanity Fair, August 2000, vanityfair.com, August 2008. Web. (4pages.) Accessed 21 April 2008. (Interview with Heath Ledger; illustrations in "Perth Album", by Bruce Weber.)

• Taddeo, Lisa. "The Last Days of Heath Ledger" (http:/ / www. esquire. com/ features/ heath-ledger-last-days).Esquire (April 2008), esquire.com, 5 March 2008. (Updated 21 July 2008.) Accessed 25 July 2008. (Fictionalaccount; cf. rev. by Arango.)

• Travers, Peter. "Sundance: Shock" (http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ blogs/ traverstake/ 2008/ 01/sundance-shock. php). The Travers Take: News and Reviews from Rolling Stone's Movie Critic, Rolling Stone(Blog), rollingstone.com, 22 January 2008. Includes hyperlinked feature: Video Review: A Look at Heath Ledger'sBest Performances (http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ blogs/ traverstake/ 2008/ 02/video-review-pass-on-hannah-mo. php) (video by Jennifer Hsu, with audio commentary provided by Travers), 1February 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008.

• Wolf, Jeanne. "Christian Bale: 'Life Should Never Be Boring' " (http:/ / www. parade. com/ articles/ editions/2008/ edition_06-29-2008/ 1BATMAN). Parade, 29 June 2008: 8–9. Both Web and print formats. Retrieved 3August 2008. (See Park above.)

External links• Heath Ledger (http:/ / www. discogs. com/ artist/ Heath+ Ledger) discography at Discogs• Heath Ledger (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ in_pictures/ 7203860. stm) at BBC In Pictures• Heath Ledger (http:/ / topics. cnn. com/ topics/ heath_ledger) at CNN Topics• Heath Ledger (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=24102296) at Find a Grave• Heath Ledger (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ news/ heath-ledger) at The Huffington Post• Heath Ledger (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm5132/ ) at the Internet Movie Database• Heath Ledger (http:/ / www. music. msn. com/ celebrities/ celebrity/ heath-ledger/ ) at MSN Movies• Heath Ledger (http:/ / www. mtv. com/ movies/ person/ 233661/ personmain. jhtml) at MTV Movies• Heath Ledger (http:/ / topics. nytimes. com/ top/ reference/ timestopics/ people/ l/ heath_ledger/ index. html) at

New York Times Topics• Heath Ledger (http:/ / www. people. com/ people/ heath_ledger) at People.com• Heath Ledger (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ 1576375/

Heath-Ledger-obituary-An-actor-of-promise. html) at The Daily Telegraph obituary• Ledger, Heath (1979–2008) (http:/ / nla. gov. au/ nla. party-452097) National Library of Australia, Trove, People

and Organisation record for Heath Ledger

Makarand Deshpande 78

Makarand Deshpande

Makarand Deshpande

Makarand Deshpande at Zee Marathi TV serial 'Kesari' launch

Born 6 March 1966India

Residence Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Occupation Film actorDirectorWriterFilm producer

Makarand Deshpande (born 1966) is an Indian actor, writer, and director in Hindi and Marathi films and theatre.He is often seen in supporting and pivotal roles in various films like Jungle, Sarfarosh, Swades, Makdee, and DarnaZaroori Hai where he often plays drunkard, wayfarer roles. He has directed over 5 films. The bulk of his work,however is in theatre. He has written 35 full-length plays and at least 12 short plays and has his own theatrecompany, Ansh.[1]

Deshpande has an unconventional personality and is noted for his unusual outfits and hairstyles.[2] He lives in VileParle in Mumbai. He studied in Shri BPM school.

Makarand Deshpande 79

Filmography

Director• Hanan (2004)• Danav (2003)• Shahrukh Bola Khoobsurat Hai Tu (2010)

Actor

Marathi

• Marathi Paul Padte Pudhe (2011)... Judge

Malayalam

• No. 66 Madhura Bus (2012)•• Amen (2013 film)

Telugu

• Ek Niranjan (2009) as Chidambaram• Jalsa (2008)

Kannada

• Dandupalya (film) (2012) as Dandupalya Krishnas

Hindi

• Kalpvriksh (Film) (2012)• Tatta (2012)• My Friend Pinto (2011) ... Don• Bbuddah... Hoga Terra Baap (2011)• Khatta Meeta (2010)• Guzaarish (2010)• Rita (2009)• Yun Hota Toh Kya Hota (2006)• Darna Zaroori Hai (2006) ... Rahul• Ek Khiladi Ek Haseena (2005) ... Poker Player• Khamosh... Khauff Ki Raat (2005) ... Manas Dutta• Swades (2004) ... Fakir• Ek Se Badhkar Ek (2004) ... Krishnamurthy• Paisa Vasool (2004)• Hanan (2004) ... Surya• Chameli (2003) ... Taxi driver• Market (2003) ... Anthony Kaalia• Makdee (2002) ... Kallu, the village butcher• Road (2002) ... Inderpal, Truck driver , sona spa• Lal Salam (2002) ... Rajayya• Pyaar Diwana Hota Hai (2002) (as Makrandh Deshpandey) ... Bhiku• Company (2002) ... Narrator• Ek Aur Visphot (2002) ... Mun. Comm. Omkar Manav

Makarand Deshpande 80

• Ghaath (2000) ... Happy Singh• Jungle (2000) ... Dorai Swamy• Snip! (2000)• Sarfarosh (1999) ... Shiva• Satya (1998) (as Makarand Deshpande) ... Advocate Chandrakant Mule• Udaan (1997) (as Makarand Deshpande) ... Masoombhai Dayachan• Ghatak: Lethal (1996) ... Punk (repeatedly slapped by Kashi)• Fareb (1996)• Naajayaz (1995) ... Street Singer• Pehla Nasha (1993)• Sir (1993) ... Mak• Anth (1994) ... Kali• Prahaar: The Final Attack (1991) ... Shirley's brother• Salim Langde Pe Mat Ro (1989) ... Peera• Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988) (as Mac Deshpanday) ... Baba

References

External links• Interview (http:/ / www. 3to6. com/ final_theatre/ Makrand Deshpande. htm)• Makrand Deshpande (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0221218/ ) at the Internet Movie Database

Irrfan Khan 81

Irrfan Khan

Irrfan Khan

Khan at the press conference of director Ang Lee's Life of Pi (2012) at New Delhi

Born Sahabzade Irrfan Ali Khan[1]

7 January 1967[]

Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

Other names Irfan

Occupation Actor

Years active 1988–present

Spouse(s) Sutapa Sikdar (1995–present)

Website

www.irrfan.com [2]

Sahabzade Irrfan Ali Khan, previously known as Irrfan Khan and later as just Irrfan in Bollywoodmovies[3][4][5] (born 07 January 1967)[] is an Indian National Awards winning actor who appears in film, television,and theatre. He has also acted in many international projects. Khan is perhaps India's best known international actordue to the critical acclaim he has received for his roles in Hollywood films.In India, Khan gained the reputation of a skilled actor from his roles in Bollywood movies such as The Warrior,Maqbool, Haasil, Paan Singh Tomar and Rog. He also hosted the TV show Mano Ya Na Mano and appeared inpopular Vodafone commercials. In 2012 he appeared in the lead titular role in Paan Singh Tomar, a biopic about anathlete. Both the movie and Khan's performance received critical acclaim. He has appeared in more than 30 films inBollywood.Khan's English-language mainstream work includes character roles in movies like The Namesake, New York, I LoveYou, A Mighty Heart, Slumdog Millionaire, The Amazing Spider-Man, and Life of Pi, as well as in the HBO series InTreatment.Khan has won three Filmfare Awards, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and an Independent Spirit Award nomination.He is also the recipient of 2011 Padma Shri award, the fourth highest civilian award in India. He has garnered theNational Film Award for Best Actor in the 60th National Film Awards 2012, for his performance in Paan SinghTomar.[]

Irrfan Khan 82

Early life and backgroundIrrfan Khan was born in Jaipur, to a Muslim family. Khan's mother, Begum, was from the Tonk Hakim family, andhis father, the late Jagirdar, was from the Khajuriya village near the Tonk district, and ran a tyre business.[6][7][]

Khan was studying for his MA degree, when he earned a scholarship to study at National School of Drama (NSD) inNew Delhi in 1984.

CareerIrrfan Khan moved to Mumbai, where he acted in numerous television serials like Chanakya, Bharat Ek Khoj, SaraJahan Hamara, Banegi Apni Baat, Chandrakanta (Doordarshan), "AnooGoonj" on Doordarshan" Star Bestsellers(Star Plus), and Sparsh. Much before these, he had acted in a teleplay on Doordarshan named Laal Ghaas Par NeeleGhode where he played Lenin. It was based on a translation by Uday Prakash of a Russian play by Mikhail Shatrov.He was the main villain in a series called Darr (which aired on Star Plus), where he played the role of a psycho serialkiller, opposite Kay Kay Menon. He also played the role of famous revolutionary Urdu poet and Marxist politicalactivist of India Makhdoom Mohiuddin in Kahkashan produced by Ali Sardar Jafri.He acted in some of the episodes of Star Bestsellers (aired on Star-Plus). In one of the episodes (Ek Sham KiMulakat), his role was of a parchoon shopkeeper who has a misconception that his landlord's wife is trying to seducehim and it turns out that his own wife (Tisca Chopra) is cheating on him. In the other one, he played the role of anoffice-accountant who, after being insulted by his female boss, took revenge. He also appeared in a serial calledBhanvar (aired on SET India) for two episodes. In one episode, he performed the role of a thug who somehow landsin court. Theatre and television kept him afloat until Mira Nair offered him a cameo in Salaam Bombay (1988)though his role was edited out in the final film.In the 1990s he appeared in the critically acclaimed film Ek Doctor Ki Maut and Such a Long Journey (1998) andvarious other films which went unnoticed.After many unsuccessful films, things changed when London-based director Asif Kapadia gave him the lead in TheWarrior, a historical film completed in 11 weeks on location in Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan. In 2001 TheWarrior opened in international film festivals, making Irrfan Khan a known face.[8]

In 2003–04 he acted in Indian born writer-director, Ashvin Kumar's short film, "Road to Ladakh". After the filmreceived rave reviews[9] at international festivals, the film is now being made into a full length feature, again starringIrrfan Khan.[10] That same year he played the title role in the critically acclaimed Maqbool, an adaptation ofShakespeare's Macbeth.

His first Bollywood main lead role came in 2005 with film Rog in which his performance was praised by critics,especially a critic wrote "Irfaan's eyes speak louder than his words and every time he is in frame, be it talking to hisbuddy Munish or arguing with Suhel, he shows his capability as an actor".[11] Thereafter he appeared in several filmseither playing the leading role or a supporting role as a villain. In 2004 he won the Filmfare Best Villain Award forhis role in film Haasil. Critics praised his performance in Haasil saying that "as the ambitious, brash, fearless goonwho is mind-blowing. He is outright scary and makes you sit up, wondering what he'll do next".[12]

In 2007, he appeared in the box office hits Metro, for which he received a Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award,and The Namesake. His chemistry with Konkana Sen in Metro was one of the highlights of the Multi-star movie.They were closely followed by his appearance in the international films A Mighty Heart and The Darjeeling Limited.Even after becoming a successful actor in Bollywood, he has not severed his ties with television. He anchored ashow Mano Ya Na Mano (airing on Star One). He hosted another programme named Kyaa Kahein which was similarto Mano Ya Na Mano.In 2008, he was featured as a narrator in an Arts Alliance production, id – Identity of the Soul. The performance toured worldwide, with tens of thousands turning out to see the event as it toured the West Bank. He also plays the police inspector in the 2008 film Slumdog Millionaire, for which he and the cast of the movie won a Screen Actors

Irrfan Khan 83

Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture. About him, Danny Boyle said, "he has aninstinctive way of finding the "moral center" of any character, so that in Slumdog, we believe the policeman mightactually conclude that Jamal is innocent. Boyle compares him to an athlete who can execute the same move perfectlyover and over. "It's beautiful to watch."[13]

In 2009, he featured in the film Acid Factory. Khan has stated that he wants to do more and more action films in thefuture.[14] He also appeared as an FBI agent in New York and as a Gujarati diamond merchant in New York, I LoveYou. His latest film Paan Singh Tomar in which essays the role of real-life Rajput runner Paan Singh Tomar hasreceived extremely favourable reviews by critics. Irrfan has been highly praised.He recently worked on the third season of the HBO series In Treatment, enacting the part of Sunil, who is finding itdifficult to come to terms with his wife's death and loneliness after moving to New York, USA. In addition, Irrfansigned a contract to be in the new Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham remake in December 2011.Khan played Dr. Rajit Ratha in The Amazing Spider-Man in 2012.[15]

Personal lifeOn 23 February 1995, Khan married writer Sutapa Sikdar, who is also an NSD graduate. They have two childrennamed Babil and Aryan.[1]

He has two brothers, Imran Khan and Salman Khan and one sister Rukhsana Begum.Sutapa said about him, "He was always focused. I remember when he would come home, he would head straight forthe bedroom, sit on the floor, and read books. The rest of us would be hanging around gossiping." Even now, asreads through at least one new Hollywood script a week, he believes in doing his homework, staying up till 3 in themorning, taking notes, trying to understand ways to play his character. Sikdar recalls how he would demand as manyas 11 rewrites from her when he directed episodes of Banegi Apni Baat. "Once he dragged me to a police station inMumbai to understand procedure," she recalls.[16] Recently, he has changed his name to Irrfan. He also said he likesthe sound of the extra "r" in his name.[17]

Awards

Wins• 2003: Filmfare Best Villain Award – Haasil• 2007: Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award – Life in a Metro• 2008: Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture – Slumdog

Millionaire• 2011: Padma Shri[18]

• 2012: Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor – Paan Singh Tomar• 2012: IRDS Film Award for social concern – Best male character — Paan Singh Tomar[19]

• 2012: National Film Award for Best Actor – Paan Singh Tomar

Irrfan Khan 84

Nominations• 2007: Independent Spirit Award: Best Supporting Male – The Namesake• 2008: Stardust Best Supporting Actor Award – The Namesake• 2008: IIFA Award: IIFA Best Supporting Actor – Life in a Metro

Filmography

Year Film Role Notes

1988 Salaam Bombay Letter writer

1989 Kamla Ki Maut Ajit

1989 Jazeere Alfred

1990 Drishti Rahul

1991 Ek Doctor Ki Maut Amulya

1993 Karamati Coat

1998 Bada Din Police Inspector

1999 The Goal The Coach

2001 The Warrior Lafcadia – Warrior

2001 Kasoor Public Prosecutor

2002 Pratha Priest Ninni Pandey

Kali Salwaar Shankar

2002 Gunaah Police Inspector Digvijay Pandey

2003 Haasil Ranvijay Singh Filmfare Award for Best Performance in aNegative Role

Footpath Sheikh

Maqbool Maqbool

2004 Shadows of Time Yani Mishra Bengali/German film

Aan: Men at Work Yusuf Pathan

Charas: A Joint Operation Ranbhir Singh Rathore

2005 Chocolate: Deep Dark Secrets Pipi

Rog Inspector Uday Rathore

Chehraa Chandranath Diwan

7½ Phere Manoj

2006 Yun Hota To Kya Hota Salim Rajabali

The Killer Vikram/Roopchand Swaroopchand Solanki

Deadline: Sirf 24 Ghante Krish Vaidya

Sainikudu Pappu Yadav Telugu film

Irrfan Khan 85

2007 A Mighty Heart Mir Zubair Mahmood, East Karachi Deputy InspectorGeneral

Screened at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival

Life in a Metro Monty Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor

The Namesake Ashoke Ganguli

The Darjeeling Limited The Father

Apna Asmaan Ravi Kumar

Aaja Nachle Farooque, Najma's husband

Partition Avtar

2008 Road to Ladakh Short film

Tulsi Suraj

Sunday Kumar

Krazzy 4 Dr. Mukherjee

Mumbai Meri Jaan Thomas

Slumdog Millionaire Police Inspector

Chamku Vishal Kapoor

Dil Kabaddi Samit

2009 Acid Factory Kaizar

Billu Billu/Vilas Pardesi

New York Roshan (FBI Official)

New York, I Love You Mansuhkhbai

2010 Right Yaaa Wrong Vinay Patnaik

Hisss Vikram Gupta

Knock Out Bacchoo/ Tony Khosla

2011 Yeh Saali Zindagi Arun

7 Khoon Maaf Wasiullah Khan a.k.a. Musafir

Thank You Vikram

2012 Paan Singh Tomar Paan Singh Tomar National Film Award for Best ActorFilmfare Critics Award for Best ActorNominated–Filmfare Award for Best Actor

The Amazing Spider-Man Dr. Rajit Ratha

Banker to the Poor filming

Life of Pi Adult Piscine Molitor Patel ("Pi")

2013 Saheb, Biwi Aur GangsterReturns

Indrajeet Singh aka Raja Bhaiyya

Jai Ramji pre-production

Hungame Pe Hangama pre-production

Irrfan Khan 86

Television

Year Film Role Other notes

Chanakya "Senapati" Bhadrashal

1994 Chandrakanta "Badrinath/Somnath"

1995 Banegi Apni Baat

1997 Just Mohabbat "Mr. Singh" a.k.a "Psycho Singh" a.k.a "PsychoUncle"

He plays ateacher.[20]

1997 Jai Hanuman Maharishi Valmiki

1994 The GreatMaratha

Najib-ud-daula and Gulam Kadir Khan

1999 Star Bestsellers Ek Shaam Ke Mulaqaat

2010 In Treatment "Sunil" 2013 ' 'Paan Singhtomar

"Paan singhtomar"

References[1] Irrfan Khan's Profile (http:/ / www. irrfan. com/ profile. htm)[2] http:/ / www. irrfan. com[5] He is credited as Irrfan Khan in the 2012 U.S. film The Amazing Spider-Man.[9] Road of Ladakh Short Film (http:/ / www. the-south-asian. com/ March2003/ Film-Road to Ladakh. htm)[10] Irrfan Khan goes to Hollywood,Rediff movies (http:/ / in. rediff. com/ movies/ 2003/ nov/ 07irfan. htm)[15] http:/ / www. hollywoodreporter. com/ news/ amazing-spider-man-widest-india-release-342712[19] http:/ / www. indiantelevision. com/ aac/ y2k13/ aac44. php

External links• Irrfan Khan (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm451234/ ) at the Internet Movie Database• Irrfan Khan Official Website (http:/ / www. irrfan. com)• TIME Magazine coverage of Irrfan Khan (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,1959014,00.

html)• TIME Magazine photo feature (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ photogallery/ 0,29307,1959033_2033954,00. html)• Irrfan Khan takes the comic turn (http:/ / www. hindustantimes. com/ Entertainment/ Bollywood/

Irrfan-Khan-takes-the-comic-turn/ Article1-878645. aspx)

Naseeruddin Shah 87

Naseeruddin Shah

Naseeruddin Shah

Naseeruddin Shah

Born 20 July 1950Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh, India

Occupation Actor

Years active 1972–present

Spouse(s) Manara Sikri (deceased)Ratna Pathak Shah (1982–present)

Children Heeba ShahImaad ShahVivaan Shah

Awards Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri, National Film Award

Signature

Naseeruddin Shah (born 20 July 1950) is an Indian/Bollywood film actor and director. He is widely considered tobe one of the finest Indian stage and film actors. He is an influential actor of the Indian Parallel (New Wave)Cinema. Shah has won numerous awards in his career, including three National Film Awards, three Filmfare Awardsfor Best Actor, and a Best Actor Award (The Volpi Cup) at the Venice Film Festival. The Government of India hashonoured him with both the Padma Shri and the Padma Bhushan civilian awards for his contributions to Indiancinema.

Early lifeShah was born on 20 July 1950 in Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh, India where his father was an Army officer. Shah's family hails from Sardhana in District Meerut (Uttar Pradesh). He is a descendant of the 19th-century Afghan warlord Jan Fishan Khan. Naseeruddin Shah did his schooling at St. Anselm's Ajmer and St Joseph's College, Nainital. He graduated in arts from Aligarh Muslim University in 1971 and attended National School of Drama in Delhi. He has been successful in mainstream Bollywood cinema as well as in Parallel Cinema. He has appeared in

Naseeruddin Shah 88

international films, notably playing Captain Nemo in the Hollywood comic book adaptation The League ofExtraordinary Gentlemen.His elder brother is Lt. General Zameerud-din Shah PVSM, SM, VSM, recently appointed as the Vice-Chancellor ofAligarh Muslim University.His nephew (cousin's son) Salim Shah is also a TV and film actor.[1]

CareerShah has acted in movies such as Nishant, Aakrosh, Sparsh, Mirch Masala, Albert Pinto Ko Gussa Kyon Ata Hai,Trikal, Bhavni Bhavai, Junoon, Mandi, Mohan Joshi Hazir Ho!, Ardh Satya, Katha, Jaane Bhi Do Yaaro, etc.[2] Inthe very early stages of his career he acted in the film Dil Aakhir Dil Hai directed by noted director Ismail Shroff,with Rakhi where she played the character of Naseer's elder girlfriend Kusumji whom he was forced to marryunwillingly because he is quite younger than her (in the film). One of his most important films, Masoom (1983) wasshot at St Joseph's College, Nainital.He became active in mainstream Bollywood cinema with the 1980 film Hum Paanch. His next major success inmainstream films was the 1986 multi-starrer film Karma where he acted alongside veteran Dilip Kumar. Starringroles for films such as Ijaazat (1987), Jalwa (1988) and Hero Hiralal (1988) followed. In 1988 he played oppositehis wife Ratna Pathak as Inspector Ghote, the fictional detective of H. R. F. Keating's novels in the Merchant-IvoryEnglish language film The Perfect Murder.He has acted in several multi-starrer Bollywood films as well, such as Ghulami (1985), Tridev (1989) andVishwatma (1992). In 1994, he acted as the villain in Mohra, his 100th film as an actor. He forayed into Malayalamcinema the same year, through T. V. Chandran's critically well acclaimed drama Ponthan Mada. The film portrayedthe irrational bonding of a feudal serf (played by Mammootty) and a colonial landlord (played by Shah). He stronglybelieved that the distinction between art and commercial films had largely reduced, especially with the directors ofthe former also making commercial films. In 2000 his dream of playing Mahatma Gandhi was realised when heplayed Gandhi in Kamal Hassan's critically acclaimed Hey Ram which focused on the assassination of Gandhi fromthe assailant's point of view. He won a lot of critical acclaim by playing the role of Mohit, the drunken coach to adeaf and mute boy in Iqbal, which was written by Vipul K Rawal with Shah specially in mind.[citation needed] He alsoworked in Neeraj Pandey's critically acclaimed A Wednesday (2008).Later, he starred in international projects such as Monsoon Wedding in 2001 and a Hollywood comic book adaptationThe League of Extraordinary Gentlemen in 2003 (co-starring Sean Connery) where he played the role of CaptainNemo. His portrayal of Nemo was very close to the design of the graphic novel, although his Nemo was far lessmanic. He worked in an Indian adaptation of Shakespeare's Macbeth, titled Maqbool and Rajiv Rai's Asambhavopposite Arjun Rampal and Priyanka Chopra in 2004. He then went on to work in The Great New Wonderful (2005).He was most recently seen in The Dirty Picture (2011). Shah's upcoming films include The Hunt where he plays arecluse growing marijuana in his forest retreat.He made his Pakistani film debut in Khuda Ke Liye by Shoaib Mansoor where he played a short cameo.

Naseeruddin Shah 89

Other media and art forms

Naseeruddin Shah playing Pozzo in Motley'sproduction of Waiting for Godot at The Doon

School, 2009.

In 1977, he, Tom Alter and Benjamin Gilani formed a theatre groupcalled Motley Productions. Their first play was Samuel Beckett'sWaiting for Godot, which was staged at the Prithvi Theatre on 29 July1979.[3]

In 1988, he acted in the eponymous television series based on the lifeand times of Mirza Ghalib, directed by Gulzar and telecast on DDNational.[citation needed]

In 1989, he acted as the Maratha King Shivaji in another eponymoustelevision series Bharat Ek Khoj based on Jawaharlal Nehru's book TheDiscovery of India.[citation needed]

In 1999, he acted as a special agent in the TV series Tarkash on ZeeTV. He played the role of a retired agent haunted by nightmares who isre-inducted as he apparently knows something about a dreaded terrorist somehow connected with his past.[citation

needed]

In 1998, he played the role of Mahatma Gandhi in the play Mahatma Vs. Gandhi, (which looked at the Mahatma'srelation with Harilal Gandhi, his first son).[4] With this, he achieved his objective of portraying Mahatma Gandhi, arole he had auditioned for in Richard Attenborough's Gandhi.[5] In 2000, he again portrayed the Mahatma, this timeon film, in Hey Ram.[citation needed]

He played the villain with the dual identity of a ghazal singer and a Pakistani spy who supports terrorism in India inSarfarosh (1999).[citation needed]

He played the role of Mohit, a drunken coach, in the critically acclaimed Iqbal. The role was specially writtenkeeping him in mind by Vipul K Rawal, the writer of the film. It was recentlyWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates andnumbers#Chronological items voted as one of ten Hindi films that is considered ideal training and motivationalmaterial.Wikipedia:Avoid weasel wordsHe was the first of several celebrity actors, who played the role of narrator in the popular audiobook series for kidsKaradi Tales.[citation needed] He was the narrator in the film Paheli — the Indian entry to the 2006 AcademyAwards.[citation needed]

He has been awarded the life membership of International Film And Television Club of Asian Academy of Film &Television.[citation needed]

As a directorNaseeruddin Shah has been giving performances with his theatre troupe at places such as New Delhi, Mumbai,Bangalore and Lahore. He has directed plays written by Lavender Kumar, Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto.His directorial debut in movies, Yun Hota To Kya Hota, was released in 2006. It stars several established actors suchas Konkona Sen Sharma, Paresh Rawal, Irfan Khan, newcomer Ayesha Takia, his son Imaad Shah and his old friendRavi Baswani.[citation needed]

Naseeruddin Shah 90

Personal lifeHe first got married to Manara Sikri, Surekha Sikri’s step-sister. He has a daughter named Heeba Shah from his firstmarriage. He married Bollywood actress Ratna Pathak Shah in 1982 after the death of his first wife.[citation needed] Hehas two sons from his second marriage Imaad and Vivaan. He co-starred with Ratna in films like Jaane Tu... YaJaane Na, Mirch Masala and The Perfect Murder.[6][7]

Awards

Award Film Year Status

Civilian Awards

Padma Shri India's fourth highest civilian award 1987 Awarded

Padma Bhushan India's Third highest civilian award 2003 Awarded

National Film Award

National Film Award for Best Actor Sparsh 1979 Won

National Film Award for Best Actor Paar 1984 Won

National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor Iqbal 2006 Won

Filmfare Award

Filmfare Best Actor Award Aakrosh 1981 Won

Filmfare Best Actor Award Chakra 1982 Won

Filmfare Best Actor Award Masoom 1984 Won

Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award Sir 1993 Nominated

Filmfare Best Villain Award Mohra 1995 Nominated

Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award Naajayaz 1996 Nominated

Filmfare Best Villain Award Chaahat 1998 Nominated

Filmfare Best Villain Award Sarfarosh 2000 Nominated

Filmfare Best Villain Award Krrish 2007 Nominated

Filmfare Best Actor Award A Wednesday 2008 Nominated

Venice Film Festival

The Volpi Cup (Award for Best Actor) Paar 1984 Won

Naseeruddin Shah 91

Other Awards• 2000: Won: Sangeet Natak Akademi Award• 2000: Won: IIFA (International Indian Film Academy) Award — Artistic Excellence for Performance in a

Negative Role for Sarfarosh

Filmography

Actor

Year Film Role Notes

1975 Nishant Vishwam

1976 Manthan Bhola

1977 Bhumika Sunil Verma

1977 Tabbaliyu Neenade Magane Shastri Kannada film

1977 Godhuli Priest

1978 Junoon Sarfaraz Khan

1979 Sparsh Aniruddh Parmar

1980 Aakrosh Bhaskar Kulkarni

1980 Albert Pinto Ko Gussa Kyon AataHai

Albert Pinto

1980 Bhavni Bhavai Gujarati film

1980 Hum Paanch Nasiruddin Shah

1981 Chakra Lukka

1981 Umrao Jaan Gohar Mirza

1982 Bazaar Salim

1982 Situm Subhash

1983 Jaane Bhi Do Yaaron Vinod Chopra

1983 Katha Rajaram Purshotam Joshi

1983 Masoom DK

1983 Woh Saat Din Dr. Anand

1984 Paar Naurangia

1984 Mohan Joshi Hazir Ho Lawyer Malkani

1984 Holi Professor Singh

1985 Ghulami SP Sultan Singh

1985 Trikaal Ruiz Pereira

1985 Mirch Masala subedar

1985 Khamosh Captain Bakshi

1986 Karma Khairuddin Chishti

1987 Jalwa Kapil

1987 Tamas

1987 Ijaazat Mahender

Naseeruddin Shah 92

1988 Hero Hiralal Hero Hiralal

1988 Maalamaal Raj

1988 Pestonjee Phirojshah

1988 The Perfect Murder Inspector Ghote

1989 Tridev Jay Singh

1989 Mane (The House) Rajshekar

1991 Ek Ghar

1991 Lakshmanrekha Amar Kapoor

1992 Vishwatma Suryapratap Singh

1992 Electric Moon Rambuhj Goswami

1992 Chamatkar Amar Kumar

1992 Panaah Devaa

1993 Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa Father Breganza

1993 Sir Professor Amar Verma

1994 Ponthan Mada Sheema Thampuran (Malayalam film)

1994 Mohra Mr. Zindal

1994 Drohkaal DCP Abbas Lodhi

1995 Naajayaz Raj Solanki

1995 Takkar Inspector De Costa

1996 Chaahat Ajay Narang

1997 Bombay Boys Mastana

1998 Chinagate Major Sarfaraz Khan

1998 Such a Long Journey Jimmy Bilimoria

1999 Sarfarosh Gulfaam Hasan

1999 Bhopal Express Bashir

2000 Hey Ram Mahatma Gandhi Simultaneously made into TamilTamil Debut

2001 Monsoon Wedding Lalit Verma

2002 The League of ExtraordinaryGentlemen

Captain Nemo Releasing in (2003) (US film)

2002 Encounter: The Killing Inspector Bharucha

2003 Maqbool Inspector Purohit

2004 3 Deewarein Ishaan

2004 Main Hoon Na Brig. Shekhar Sharma

2005 Paheli Him Self Voice of Narrator

2005 Iqbal Mohit Cricket Coach

2005 The Great New Wonderful Avi

2006 Being Cyrus Dinshaw Sethna

2006 Krrish Dr. Siddhant Arya

2006 Omkara Bhaisaab

Naseeruddin Shah 93

2006 Banaras Babaji

2006 Valley of Flowers Yeti French-German-Indian Film

2007 Parzania Cyrus

2007 Amal G.K. Jayaram

2007 Khuda Ke Liye Maulana Wali (A Pakistani film)

2007 Dus Kahaniyaan

2008 Mithya

2008 Shoot on Sight Tariq Ali

2008 Jaane Tu Ya Jaane Na Amar Singh Rathore Jai's father

2008 A Wednesday . Anonymous antagonist

2008 Mere Baap Pehle Aap Sheekha's father

2008 Mithya

2009 Barah Aana Shukla

2009 Firaaq Khan Sahab

2009 Today's Special Akbar

2009 Bolo Raam N.S. Negi

2010 Peepli Live Salim Kidwai Agricultural Minister

2010 Ishqiya Iftikhar Khalu Jaan/Khalu/Iftikhar

2010 Raajneeti Bhaskar Sanyal People Leader

2010 Allah Ke Banday Warden

2011 7 Khoon Maaf Dr. Modhusudhon Tarafdar

2011 That Girl in Yellow Boots Diwakar

2011 The Blueberry Hunt Colonel Post-Production

2011 Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara Salman Habib

2011 The Dirty Picture Suryakanth

2011 Deool Dacoit Marathi Film

2011 Chaalis Chauraasi Pankaj Purushottam Suri (Sir) Hindi Film

2011 Michael Michael

2012 Maximum Police Officer

2013 Sona Spa Baba Dayanand

2013 Mad Dad Announced

2013 Khasi Katha– A Goat Saga Butcher Bengali film

2013 Mastaan Announced

2013 Amma 3D Pre-ProductionSimultaneously made into Telugu, Hindi, Tamil,and EnglishTelugu DebutEnglish Debut

Naseeruddin Shah 94

Director• Yun Hota To Kya Hota (2006)

References[4] A review of the play Mahatma Vs. Gandhi (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 1998/ feb/ 23nandy. htm)[5] http:/ / cinema. sholay. com/ stories/ dec2001/ 24122001-1. htm

External links• Naseeruddin Shah (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0787462/ ) at the Internet Movie Database• Article about Shah's direction of plays (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ thehindu/ mp/ 2003/ 03/ 24/ stories/

2003032400650100. htm)• An interview about state of Bollywood movies (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ entertai/ 2001/ dec/ 01shah. htm)• An article about Naseerudddin Shah's directorial debut in Cinema (http:/ / www. deccanherald. com/

deccanherald/ aug142005/ enter1043402005812. asp)

Atul Kulkarni 95

Atul Kulkarni

Atul Kulkarni

Born September 10, 1965Belgaum, Karnataka, India

Occupation Actor

Spouse(s) Geetanjali Kulkarni

Website

www.atulkulkarni.com [1]

Atul Kulkarni (मराठी- अतुल कुलकर्णी) (born 10 September 1965) is an Indian actor who has won two National Awardsand has attained the superstar status in Marathi film industry after successful movies like Valu (film) and Natarang.Kulkarni won a National Award for his portrayal of Shriram Abhyankar in the film Hey Ram. Although he startedhis career in theatre, he has won critical acclaim for his performances in films like Page 3 and the Aamir Khanstarrer Rang De Basanti. He has acted in several Marathi movies including Maati Maay (A Gravekeeper's Tale) thatpremiered at the Toronto Film Festival. He has achieved superstar status in Marathi Films with the success ofblockbuster movie of year 2009–10 Natarang.

Early lifeKulkarni was born on 10 September 1965 in Belgaum, Karnataka, India. Atul completed his secondary education(10th Standard) from Haribhai Deokaran High School, Solapur, Maharashtra. His father, a businessman, and hismother, a housewife, were settled in Solapur. He completed his Junior College (12th Standard) from Belgaum andwas able to secure a seat for electrical engineering at College of Engineering Pune (COEP) . Due to his disinterest inengineering, he quit the college and came back to Solapur to join D. A. V. College, Solapur which was affiliated toShivaji University. He completed his graduation in English literature. He is married to theatre actress GeetanjaliKulkarni, whom he met at National School of Drama.

Atul Kulkarni 96

ActingKulkarni's first stint with stage was during his high school days and later during his college days he was activelyparticipating in cultural gatherings. While studying, Atul joined Natya Aradhana, an amateur theatre group fromSolapur. Working with this group helped him groom better. After working backstage for two years, finally he got achance to act. He decided to pursue a career in professional acting.Atul joined the National School of Drama, New Delhi (1992–1995 batch). His acting skills were given final touchesat this institutions which has produced legendary actors of international fame. Atul Kulkarni holds a postgraduatediploma in dramatic arts from National School of Drama, New Delhi.His most successful performance, both commercially and critically was as Gunawant Kagalkar in the Marathiblockbuster Natarang.[citation needed]

He made his debut in Kannada film Bhoomi Geetha in 1997 and has acted in several Tamil films.[citation needed]

Atul Kulkarni is acting in a romantic film.In which he is in love with Chak De girl Sagarika Ghatge.His mature lovestory will be seen in Director Satish Rajwade's Marathi Movie Premachi Gosht.[2]

AwardsNational Film Awards• 2000: Won: Best Supporting Actor in Hey Ram

Citation: For his serious performance as a cold blooded fundamentalist stalking the cities during theturbulent years of partition that led to the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi.[]

• 2002: Won: Best Supporting Actor in Chandni Bar

Citation: For depicting a ruthless character, trapped in a world without social values.[]

Filmfare Awards• 2001: Nominated: Best Supporting Actor in Hey Ram

Asia Pacific Screen Awards• 2010: Nominated: Best Performance by an Actor in Natarang

Filmography

Year Film Language Role

1997 Bhoomi Geetha Kannada

2000 Kairee Marathi Jadhav teacher

2000 Jayam Manade Raa Telugu

2000 Hey Ram Hindi / Tamil Shriram Abhyankar

2001 Chandni Bar Hindi Potya Sawant

2002 Run Tamil Bhaskar

2002 Bhet Marathi Satish

2003 Mango Soufflé English Edwin 'Ed' Prakash

2003 Dahavi Fa Marathi Ganesh Deshmukh (teacher)

2003 88 Antop Hill Hindi Pratyush Shelar

2003 Satta Hindi Yashwant Varde

2003 Dum Hindi 'Encounter' Shankar

Atul Kulkarni 97

2003 Vaastu Purush Marathi Data

2004 Chanti Telugu

2004 Gowri Telugu Sarkar

2004 Mansarovar

2004 Vajram Malayalam

2004 Khakee Hindi Dr. Iqbal Ansari

2004 Devrai Marathi Shesh

2004 Manmadhan Tamil ACP Deva

2005 Page 3 Hindi Vinayak Mane

2005 Chakwa Marathi Tushar Khot

2006 Kedi Tamil Pughazhenthy

2006 Raam Telugu

2006 Rang De Basanti Hindi Laxman Pandey

2007 Aa Dinagalu Kannada Agni Shridhar

2007 Maati Maay Marathi Narsu

2007 Gauri: The Unborn Hindi Sandeep

2008 Valu Marathi Swanand Gaddamwar

2008 Talappavu Malayalam Krishnadeva Saivar

2008 Kurukshetra Malayalam

2009 Yeh Mera India Hindi Raj

2009 Delhi 6 Hindi Gobar

2009 Padikathavan Tamil Kasi Anandan

2009 Vandae Maatharam Malayalam / Tamil

2010 Yaksha Kannada

2010 Sukhaant Marathi

2010 Natarang Marathi Guna Kagalkar

2010 Bumm Bumm Bole Hindi

2011 Panjaa Telugu Kulkarni

2011 Chaalis Chauraasi Hindi Bobby

2012 Suzhal Tamil

2012 Surangani Tamil

2012 Edegarike Kannada

2012 Vallinam Tamil

2013 Premachi Goshta Marathi Ram

2013 Zanjeer[3] Hindi

2013 Toofan[4] Telugu

Upcoming Singularity English Raoji

Atul Kulkarni 98

Theatre•• Samudra•• Gandhi Virudhha Gandhi•• Manoos Navacha Bet•• Aapan Sarech Ghodegaonkar•• Chapha•• Natak•• Zale Mokale Aabhal•• Kharashe

References[1] http:/ / www. atulkulkarni. com/[2] Premachi Goshta Marathi Movie (http:/ / marathistars. com/ movies/ premachi-goshta-marathi-movie-cast-crew-photos/ )

External links• Atul Kulkarni – The official site (http:/ / www. atulkulkarni. com/ )• Atul Kulkarni (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0474609/ ) at the Internet Movie Database• Atul Kulkarni's interview on Rediff (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ entertai/ 2002/ nov/ 09atul. htm)• Interview on Gmagazine.com (http:/ / www. gmagazine. com/ magazine/ april2003/ Interviews10. asp)• Another Rediff Interview (http:/ / us. rediff. com/ movies/ 2003/ jun/ 27atul. htm)QUEST http:/ / quest. org. in/ node/ 158

Academy Award 99

Academy Award

The Oscars

85th Academy Awards

An Academy Award statuette.

Awarded for Excellence in cinematic achievements

Country United States

Presented by Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences

First awarded 1929

Official website www.oscars.org [1]

The Academy Awards, now officially known as The Oscars,[2] are a set of awards given annually for excellence ofcinematic achievements. The Oscar statuette is officially named the Academy Award of Merit and is one of ninetypes of Academy Awards. Organized and overseen by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences(AMPAS),[3] the awards are given each year at a formal ceremony. The AMPAS was originally conceived byMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer studio executive Louis B. Mayer as a professional honorary organization to help improve thefilm industry’s image and help mediate labor disputes. The awards themselves were later initiated by the Academy asawards "of merit for distinctive achievement" in the industry.[4]

The awards were first given in 1929 at a ceremony created for the awards, at the Hotel Roosevelt in Hollywood.Over the years that the award has been given, the categories presented have changed; currently Oscars are given inmore than a dozen categories, and include films of various types. As one of the most prominent award ceremonies inthe world, the Academy Awards ceremony is televised live in more than 100 countries annually. It is also the oldestaward ceremony in the media; its equivalents, the Grammy Awards for music, the Emmy Awards for television, andthe Tony Awards for theater, are all modeled after the Academy Awards.The 85th Academy Awards were held on Sunday, February 24, 2013, at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles,California. The 86th Academy Awards will be held on Sunday, March 2, 2014, at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles.This will be a week later than normal as not to interfere with the 2014 Winter Olympics.[5]

Academy Award 100

History

Gary Cooper and Joan Fontaine holding theirOscars at the Academy Awards, 1942

The first awards were presented on May 16, 1929, at a private brunchat the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270people. The post Academy Awards party was held at the MayfairHotel.[] The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5.Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and otherpersonalities of the filmmaking industry of the time for their worksduring the 1927–1928 period.

Winners had been announced three months earlier; however, that waschanged in the second ceremony of the Academy Awards in 1930.Since then and during the first decade, the results were given tonewspapers for publication at 11 pm on the night of the awards.[] Thismethod was used until the Los Angeles Times announced the winnersbefore the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has since 1941used a sealed envelope to reveal the name of the winners.[]

For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendaryears. For example, the 2nd Academy Awards presented on April 3,1930, recognized films that were released between August 1, 1928 andJuly 31, 1929. Starting with the 7th Academy Awards, held in 1935,the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year fromJanuary 1 to December 31.The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in The Last Command and The Way of AllFlesh. He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; thismade him the first Academy Award winner in history. The honored professionals were awarded for all the workdone in a certain category for the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies inwhich he starred during that period. Since the fourth ceremony, the system changed, and professionals were honoredfor a specific performance in a single film. As of the 83rd Academy Awards ceremony held in 2011[6], a total of2,809 Oscars have been given for 1,853 awards.[7] A total of 302 actors have won Oscars in competitive actingcategories or have been awarded Honorary or Juvenile Awards.

The 1939 film Beau Geste is the only movie that features as many as four Academy Award winners for Best Actor ina Leading Role (Gary Cooper, Ray Milland, Susan Hayward, Broderick Crawford) prior to any of the actorsreceiving the Best Actor Award.At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27, 1957, the Best Foreign Language Film category was introduced. Untilthen, foreign-language films were honored with the Special Achievement Award.

Oscar statuette

DesignAlthough there are eight other types of annual awards presented by the Academy (the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award, the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, the Gordon E. Sawyer Award, the Academy Scientific and Technical Award, the Academy Award for Technical Achievement, the John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation, and the Student Academy Award) plus two awards that are not presented annually (the Special Achievement Award in the form of an Oscar statuette and the Honorary Award that may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette), the best known one is the Academy Award of Merit more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated britannium on a black metal base, it is 13.5 in (34 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lb (3.85 kg) and depicts a knight

Academy Award 101

rendered in Art Deco style holding a crusader's sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokeseach represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians.[8]

In 1928, MGM's art director Cedric Gibbons, one of the original Academy members, supervised the design of theaward trophy by printing the design on a scroll.[9] In need of a model for his statuette, Gibbons was introduced by hisfuture wife Dolores del Río to Mexican film director and actor Emilio "El Indio" Fernández. Reluctant at first,Fernández was finally convinced to pose nude to create what today is known as the "Oscar". Then, sculptor GeorgeStanley (who also did the Muse Fountain[10] at the Hollywood Bowl) sculpted Gibbons's design in clay and SachinSmith cast the statuette in 92.5 percent tin and 7.5 percent copper and then gold-plated it. The only addition to theOscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W.Shumway & Sons Foundry in Batavia, Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the Vince LombardiTrophy and Emmy Awards statuettes. Since 1983,[11] approximately 50 Oscars are made each year in Chicago byIllinois manufacturer R.S. Owens & Company.[12]

In support of the American effort in World War II, the statuettes were made of plaster and were traded in for goldones after the war had ended.[13]

NamingThe origin of the name Oscar is disputed. One biography of Bette Davis claims that she named the Oscar after herfirst husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson;[14] one of the earliest mentions in print of the term Oscar datesback to a Time magazine article about the 1934 6th Academy Awards.[15] Walt Disney is also quoted as thanking theAcademy for his Oscar as early as 1932.[16] Another claimed origin is that the Academy's Executive Secretary,Margaret Herrick, first saw the award in 1931 and made reference to the statuette's reminding her of her "UncleOscar" (a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce).[17] Columnist Sidney Skolsky was present during Herrick's namingand seized the name in his byline, "Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar'".[18] Thetrophy was officially dubbed the "Oscar" in 1939 by the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences. It may alsohave been named after the famous Irish playwright Oscar Wilde. In 1882, when disembarking in New York to beginhis "Grand Tour" of America, Wilde was asked by a customs officer whether he had anything to declare andreputedly replied "I have nothing to declare but my genius."[19]

Ownership of Oscar statuettesSince 1950, the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that neither winners nor their heirs maysell the statuettes without first offering to sell them back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree tothis stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards not protected by this agreement have beensold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums.[20] In December 2011, Orson Welles' sole 1941 Oscarfor Citizen Kane (Best Original Screenplay) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision thatWelles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy.[21] On December 20, 2011 it sold in an onlineauction for US$861,542.[]

While the Oscar is owned by the recipient, it is essentially not on the open market.[22] Michael Todd's grandson triedto sell Todd's Oscar statuette to a movie prop collector in 1989, but the Academy won the legal battle by getting apermanent injunction. Although some Oscar sales transactions have been successful, some buyers have subsequentlyreturned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.[23]

Academy Award 102

NominationSince 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in late January. Prior to that, theresults were announced in early February.

VotersThe Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains avoting membership of 5,783 as of 2012[6].[24]

Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in filmproduction. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy'scomposition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers (and its predecessor PriceWaterhouse) for the past 73 annual awards ceremonies.[25]

All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch ExecutiveCommittees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a namebased on other significant contribution to the field of motion pictures.New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership,although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing,stricter policies have kept its size steady since then.[26]

In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscarvoting will be implemented in 2013.[27]

RulesAccording to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year,from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in Los Angeles County, California, toqualify (except for the Best Foreign Language Film).[28] For example, the 2009 Best Picture winner, The HurtLocker, was actually first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the 2008 awards as it did not play itsOscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the 2009 awards.Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40 minutes, except for short subjectawards, and it must exist either on a 35 mm or 70 mm film print or in 24 frame/s or 48 frame/s progressive scandigital cinema format with native resolution not less than 1280x720.Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by thedefined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the productioncredits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases.In late December ballots and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6000 activemembers. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in theirrespective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). There are someexceptions in the case of certain categories, like Foreign Film, Documentary and Animated Feature Film, in whichmovies are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches. In the special case ofBest Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees for that category. Foreign films must includeEnglish subtitles, and each country can submit only one film per year.[29]

The members of the various branches nominate those in their respective fields, while all members may submitnominees for Best Picture. The winners are then determined by a second round of voting in which all members arethen allowed to vote in most categories, including Best Picture.[30]

Academy Award 103

Ceremony

Telecast

31st Academy Awards Presentations, Pantages Theater, Hollywood, 1959

81st Academy Awards Presentations, Kodak Theater, Hollywood, 2009

The major awards are presented at a livetelevised ceremony, most commonly in lateFebruary or early March following therelevant calendar year, and six weeks afterthe announcement of the nominees. It is theculmination of the film awards season,which usually begins during November orDecember of the previous year. This is anelaborate extravaganza, with the invitedguests walking up the red carpet in thecreations of the most prominent fashiondesigners of the day. Black tie dress is themost common outfit for men, althoughfashion may dictate not wearing a bow-tie,and musical performers sometimes do notadhere to this. (The artists who recorded thenominees for Best Original Song quite oftenperform those songs live at the awardsceremony, and the fact that they areperforming is often used to promote thetelevision broadcast).

The Academy Awards is televised liveacross the United States (excluding Hawaii;they aired live in Alaska starting in 2011 forthe first time since 1996), Canada, theUnited Kingdom, and gathers millions ofviewers elsewhere throughout the world.[31]

The 2007 ceremony was watched by morethan 40 million Americans.[32] Other awardsceremonies (such as the Emmys, GoldenGlobes, and Grammys) are broadcast live in the East Coast but are on tape delay in the West Coast and might not airon the same day outside North America (if the awards are even televised). The Academy has for several yearsclaimed that the award show has up to a billion viewers internationally, but this has so far not been confirmed by anyindependent sources. The Awards show was first televised on NBC in 1953. NBC continued to broadcast the eventuntil 1960 when the ABC Network took over, televising the festivities through 1970, after which NBC resumed thebroadcasts. ABC once again took over broadcast duties in 1976; it is under contract to do so through the year2020.[33]

After more than 60 years of being held in late March or early April, the ceremonies were moved up to late February or early March starting in 2004 to help disrupt and shorten the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with Oscar season in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success of the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship, which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February sweeps

Academy Award 104

period. (Some years, the ceremony is moved into early March in deference to the Winter Olympics.) Advertising issomewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsorsmay advertise during the telecast. The Awards show holds the distinction of having won the most Emmys in history,with 47 wins and 195 nominations.[34]

After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00 pm Eastern/6:00 p.m Pacific, in 1999 the ceremonies weremoved to Sundays at 8:30 pm Eastern/5:30 pm Pacific.[35] The reasons given for the move were that more viewerswould tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and that an earlier start timewould allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier.[36] For many years the film industry had opposed aSunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office.[37]

On March 30, 1981, the awards ceremony was postponed for one day after the shooting of President Ronald Reaganand others in Washington, D.C.In 1993, an In Memoriam segment was introduced,[] honoring those who had made a significant contribution tocinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academymembers.[38] This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names.In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced that winners' acceptance speeches must not run past45 seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the singlemost hated thing on the show" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion.[39]

The Academy has also had recent discussions about moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TVviewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. But such an accelerated schedule would dramaticallydecrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view thecontending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in themail). Also, a January ceremony may have to compete with National Football League playoff games.[40]

Awards ceremoniesThe following is a listing of all Academy Awards ceremonies.[41][42][43]

Ceremony Date Best Picturewinner

Length ofceremony

Number ofviewers

Rating Host(s) Venue

1st AcademyAwards

May 16,1929

Wings 15 minutes 270 — Douglas Fairbanks, William C.deMille

HollywoodRoosevelt Hotel

2nd AcademyAwards

April 3,1930

The BroadwayMelody

1 hour, 50minutes

— — William C. deMille Ambassador Hotel

3rd AcademyAwards

November 5,1930

All Quiet on theWestern Front

2 hours, 13minutes

— — Conrad Nagel

4th AcademyAwards

November10, 1931

Cimarron 2 hours, 3minutes

— — Lawrence Grant Biltmore Hotel

5th AcademyAwards

November18, 1932

Grand Hotel 1 hour, 52minutes

— — Lionel Barrymore, Conrad Nagel Ambassador Hotel

6th AcademyAwards

March 16,1934

Cavalcade 1 hour, 50minutes

— — Will Rogers

Academy Award 105

7th AcademyAwards

February 27,1935

It Happened OneNight

1 hour, 45minutes

— — Irvin S. Cobb Biltmore Hotel

8th AcademyAwards

March 5,1936

Mutiny on theBounty

2 hours, 12minutes

— — Frank Capra

9th AcademyAwards

March 4,1937

The Great Ziegfeld 2 hours, 56minutes

— — George Jessel

10th AcademyAwards

March 10,1938

The Life of EmileZola

1 hour, 56minutes

— — Bob Burns

11th AcademyAwards

February 23,1939

You Can't Take ItWith You

2 hours, 6minutes

— — None

12th AcademyAwards

February 29,1940

Gone with theWind

3 hours, 52minutes

— — Bob Hope Ambassador Hotel(Cocoanut Grove)

13th AcademyAwards

February 27,1941

Rebecca 2 hours, 10minutes

— — Biltmore Hotel(Biltmore Bowl)

14th AcademyAwards

February 26,1942

How Green WasMy Valley

1 hour, 48minutes

— —

15th AcademyAwards

March 4,1943

Mrs. Miniver 2 hours, 14minutes

— — Ambassador Hotel(Cocoanut Grove)

16th AcademyAwards

March 2,1944

Casablanca 1 hour, 42minutes

— — Jack Benny Grauman's ChineseTheater

17th AcademyAwards

March 15,1945

Going My Way 2 hours, 10minutes

— — Bob Hope, John Cromwell

18th AcademyAwards

March 7,1946

The Lost Weekend 1 hour, 41minutes

— — Bob Hope, James Stewart

19th AcademyAwards

March 13,1947

The Best Years ofOur Lives

2 hours, 52minutes

— — Jack Benny Shrine Auditorium

20th AcademyAwards

March 20,1948

Gentleman'sAgreement

1 hour, 58minutes

— — Agnes Moorehead, Dick Powell

21st AcademyAwards

March 24,1949

Hamlet 1 hour, 35minutes

— — Robert Montgomery The AcademyTheater

22ndAcademyAwards

March 23,1950

All the King's Men 1 hour, 50minutes

— — Paul Douglas Pantages Theatre

23rd AcademyAwards

March 29,1951

All About Eve 2 hours, 18minutes

— — Fred Astaire

24th AcademyAwards

March 20,1952

An American inParis

1 hour, 53minutes

— — Danny Kaye

25th AcademyAwards

March 19,1953

The Greatest Showon Earth

1 hour, 32minutes

40 million — Bob Hope, Conrad Nagel Pantages Theatre /NBC International

Theatre

26th AcademyAwards

March 25,1954

From Here toEternity

1 hour, 58minutes

43 million — Donald O'Connor, Fredric March Pantages Theatre /NBC Century

Theatre27th Academy

AwardsMarch 30,

1955On the Waterfront 1 hour, 48

minutes— — Bob Hope, Thelma Ritter

28th AcademyAwards

March 21,1956

Marty 1 hour, 30minutes

— — Jerry Lewis, Claudette Colbert,Joseph L. Mankiewicz

29th AcademyAwards

March 27,1957

Around the Worldin 80 Days

3 hours, 8minutes

— — Jerry Lewis, Celeste Holm

Academy Award 106

30th AcademyAwards

March 26,1958

The Bridge on theRiver Kwai

2 hours, 41minutes

— — Bob Hope, David Niven, JamesStewart, Jack Lemmon, Rosalind

Russell

Pantages Theatre

31st AcademyAwards

April 6,1959

Gigi 1 hour, 55minutes

— — Bob Hope, David Niven, TonyRandall, Mort Sahl, Sir Laurence

Olivier, Jerry Lewis

32ndAcademyAwards

April 4,1960

Ben-Hur 1 hour, 40minutes

— — Bob Hope

33rd AcademyAwards

April 17,1961

The Apartment 2 hours, 5minutes

— — Santa Monica CivicAuditorium

34th AcademyAwards

April 9,1962

West Side Story 2 hours, 10minutes

— —

35th AcademyAwards

April 8,1963

Lawrence ofArabia

2 hours, 30minutes

— — Frank Sinatra

36th AcademyAwards

April 13,1964

Tom Jones 2 hours, 8minutes

— — Jack Lemmon

37th AcademyAwards

April 5,1965

My Fair Lady 2 hours, 50minutes

— — Bob Hope

38th AcademyAwards

April 18,1966

The Sound ofMusic

2 hours, 54minutes

— —

39th AcademyAwards

April 10,1967

A Man for AllSeasons

2 hours, 31minutes

— —

40th AcademyAwards

April 10,1968

In the Heat of theNight

1 hour, 50minutes

— —

41st AcademyAwards

April 14,1969

Oliver! 2 hours, 33minutes

— — None Dorothy ChandlerPavilion

42ndAcademyAwards

April 7,1970

Midnight Cowboy 2 hours, 25minutes

— 43.40

43rd AcademyAwards

April 15,1971

Patton 2 hours, 52minutes

— —

44th AcademyAwards

April 10,1972

The FrenchConnection

1 hour, 44minutes

— — Helen Hayes, Alan King, SammyDavis, Jr., Jack Lemmon

45th AcademyAwards

March 27,1973

The Godfather 2 hours, 38minutes

— — Carol Burnett, Michael Caine,Charlton Heston, Rock Hudson

46th AcademyAwards

April 2,1974

The Sting 3 hours, 23minutes

— — John Huston, Burt Reynolds,David Niven, Diana Ross

47th AcademyAwards

April 8,1975

The GodfatherPart II

3 hours, 20minutes

— — Sammy Davis, Jr., Bob Hope,Shirley MacLaine, Frank Sinatra

48th AcademyAwards

March 29,1976

One Flew Overthe Cuckoo's Nest

3 hours, 12minutes

— — Goldie Hawn, Gene Kelly, WalterMatthau, George Segal, Robert

Shaw

Academy Award 107

49th AcademyAwards

March 28,1977

Rocky 3 hours, 38minutes

— — Warren Beatty, Ellen Burstyn,Jane Fonda, Richard Pryor

50th AcademyAwards

April 3,1978

Annie Hall 3 hours, 30minutes

39.73million

31.10 Bob Hope

51st AcademyAwards

April 9,1979

The Deer Hunter 3 hours, 25minutes

— — Johnny Carson

52ndAcademyAwards

April 14,1980

Kramer vs.Kramer

3 hours, 12minutes

— —

53rd AcademyAwards

March 31,1981

Ordinary People 3 hours, 13minutes

— —

54th AcademyAwards

March 29,1982

Chariots of Fire 3 hours, 24minutes

— —

55th AcademyAwards

April 11,1983

Gandhi 3 hours, 15minutes

— — Liza Minnelli, Dudley Moore,Richard Pryor, Walter Matthau

56th AcademyAwards

April 9,1984

Terms ofEndearment

3 hours, 42minutes

— 38.00 Johnny Carson

57th AcademyAwards

March 25,1985

Amadeus 3 hours, 10minutes

— — Jack Lemmon

58th AcademyAwards

March 24,1986

Out of Africa 3 hours, 2minutes

38.65million

25.71 Alan Alda, Jane Fonda, RobinWilliams

59th AcademyAwards

March 30,1987

Platoon 3 hours, 19minutes

39.72million

25.94 Chevy Chase, Goldie Hawn, PaulHogan

60th AcademyAwards

April 11,1988

The Last Emperor 3 hours, 33minutes

42.04million

27.80 Chevy Chase Shrine Auditorium

61st AcademyAwards

March 29,1989

Rain Man 3 hours, 19minutes

42.77million

28.41 None

62ndAcademyAwards

March 26,1990

Driving MissDaisy

3 hours, 37minutes

40.22million

26.42 Billy Crystal Dorothy ChandlerPavilion

63rd AcademyAwards

March 25,1991

Dances withWolves

3 hours, 35minutes

42.79million

28.06 Shrine Auditorium

64th AcademyAwards

March 30,1992

The Silence of theLambs

3 hours, 33minutes

44.44million

29.84 Dorothy ChandlerPavilion

65th AcademyAwards

March 29,1993

Unforgiven 3 hours, 30minutes

45.84million

32.85

66th AcademyAwards

March 21,1994

Schindler's List 3 hours, 18minutes

46.26million

31.86 Whoopi Goldberg

67th AcademyAwards

March 27,1995

Forrest Gump 3 hours, 35minutes

48.87million

33.47 David Letterman Shrine Auditorium

68th AcademyAwards

March 25,1996

Braveheart 3 hours, 38minutes

44.81million

30.48 Whoopi Goldberg Dorothy ChandlerPavilion

69th AcademyAwards

March 24,1997

The EnglishPatient

3 hours, 34minutes

40.83million

25.83 Billy Crystal Shrine Auditorium

70th AcademyAwards

March 23,1998

Titanic 3 hours, 47minutes

57.25million

35.32

71st AcademyAwards

March 21,1999

Shakespeare inLove

4 hours, 2minutes

45.63million

28.51 Whoopi Goldberg Dorothy ChandlerPavilion

Academy Award 108

72ndAcademyAwards

March 26,2000

American Beauty 4 hours, 4minutes

46.53million

29.64 Billy Crystal Shrine Auditorium

73rd AcademyAwards

March 25,2001

Gladiator 3 hours, 23minutes

42.93million

25.86 Steve Martin

74th AcademyAwards

March 24,2002

A Beautiful Mind 4 hours, 23minutes

40.54million

25.13 Whoopi Goldberg Dolby Theatre

75th AcademyAwards

March 23,2003

Chicago 3 hours, 30minutes

33.04million

20.58 Steve Martin

76th AcademyAwards

February 29,2004

The Lord of theRings:

The Return of theKing

3 hours, 44minutes

43.56million

26.68 Billy Crystal

77th AcademyAwards

February 27,2005

Million DollarBaby

3 hours, 14minutes

42.16million

25.29 Chris Rock

78th AcademyAwards

March 5,2006

Crash 3 hours, 33minutes

38.64million

22.91 Jon Stewart

79th AcademyAwards

February 25,2007

The Departed 3 hours, 51minutes

39.92million

23.65 Ellen DeGeneres

80th AcademyAwards

February 24,2008

No Country forOld Men

3 hours, 21minutes

31.76million

18.66 Jon Stewart

81st AcademyAwards

February 22,2009

SlumdogMillionaire

3 hours, 30minutes

36.94million

21.68 Hugh Jackman

82ndAcademyAwards

March 7,2010

The Hurt Locker 3 hours, 37minutes

41.62million

24.75 Steve Martin, Alec Baldwin

83rd AcademyAwards

February 27,2011

The King's Speech 3 hours, 15minutes

37.63million

21.97 James Franco, Anne Hathaway

84th AcademyAwards

February 26,2012

The Artist 3 hours, 14minutes

39.30million

25.50 Billy Crystal

85th AcademyAwards

February 24,2013

Argo 3 hours, 35minutes

40.30million

26.60 Seth MacFarlane

86th AcademyAwards

March 2,2014 [44]

TBA TBA TBA TBA TBA

87th AcademyAwards

February 22,2015

TBA TBA TBA TBA TBA

Ceremony Date Best Picturewinner

Length ofceremony

Number ofviewers

Rating Host(s) Venue

Historically, the "Oscarcast" has pulled in a bigger haul when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picturetrophy. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the 70th Academy Awards in 1998, the year ofTitanic, which generated close to US$600 million at the North American box office pre-Oscars.[45] The 76thAcademy Awards ceremony in which The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (pre-telecast box office earningsof US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture drew 43.56 million viewers.[] The most watchedceremony based on Nielsen ratings to date, however, was the 42nd Academy Awards (Best Picture MidnightCowboy) which drew a 43.4% household rating on April 7, 1970.[46]

By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings. The 78th Academy Awards which awarded low-budgeted, independent film Crash (with a pre-Oscar gross of

Academy Award 109

US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%.[47] In 2008, the 80thAcademy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, thelowest rated and least watched ceremony to date, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards.[48] TheBest Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independently financed film (No Country for Old Men).

Venues

Pantages Theatre, 2008

In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at theHollywood Roosevelt Hotel. From 1930–1943, the ceremony alternated betweentwo venues: the Ambassador Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard and the BiltmoreHotel in downtown Los Angeles.

Grauman's Chinese Theater in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to1946, followed by the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The21st Academy Awards in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theater at whatwas the Academy's headquarters on Melrose Avenue in Hollywood.[49]

From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's Pantages Theatre.With the advent of television, the 1953–1957 awards took place simultaneouslyin Hollywood and New York first at the NBC International Theatre (1953) andthen at the NBC Century Theatre (1954–1957), after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. TheOscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica, California in 1961. By 1969, the Academydecided to move the ceremonies back to Los Angeles, this time to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion at the Los AngelesCounty Music Center.

In 2002, the Kodak Theatre became the permanent home of the award ceremonies. However, due to EastmanKodak's bankruptcy issues, this theatre was renamed the Hollywood and Highland Center in the days preceding theFebruary 26, 2012, awards ceremony. As of May 2012, the theatre was once again renamed – to the Dolby Theatre –after Dolby Laboratories acquired the naming rights.[50]

Merit categories

Current categories• Best Actor in a Leading Role: since 1928• Best Actor in a Supporting Role: since 1936• Best Actress in a Leading Role: since 1928• Best Actress in a Supporting Role: since 1936• Best Animated Feature: since 2001• Best Animated Short Film: since 1931• Best Cinematography: since 1928• Best Costume Design: since 1948• Best Director: since 1928• Best Documentary Feature: since 1943• Best Documentary Short: since 1941• Best Film Editing: since 1935• Best Foreign Language Film: since 1947• Best Live Action Short Film: since 1931• Best Makeup and Hairstyling: since 1981• Best Original Score: since 1934

Academy Award 110

• Best Original Song: since 1934• Best Picture: since 1928• Best Production Design: since 1928• Best Sound Editing: since 1963• Best Sound Mixing: since 1930• Best Visual Effects: since 1939• Best Adapted Screenplay: since 1928• Best Original Screenplay: since 1940In the first year of the awards, the Best Director award was split into two separate categories (Drama and Comedy).At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical).From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and CostumeDesign awards were likewise split into two separate categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was calledMakeup.Another award, entitled the Academy Award for Best Original Musical, is still in the Academy rulebooks and has yetto be discontinued. However, due to continuous insufficient eligibility each year, it has not been awarded since 1984(when Purple Rain won).[51]

Discontinued categories• Best Assistant Director: 1933 to 1937• Best Director, Comedy Picture: 1928 only• Best Dance Direction: 1935 to 1937• Best Engineering Effects: 1928 only• Best Original Musical or Comedy Score: 1995 to 1999• Best Original Story: 1928 to 1956• Best Score – Adaptation or Treatment: 1962 to 1969; 1973• Best Short Film – Color: 1936 and 1937• Best Short Film – Live Action – 2 Reels: 1936 to 1956• Best Short Film – Novelty: 1932 to 1935• Best Title Writing: 1928 only• Best Unique and Artistic Quality of Production: 1928 only

Proposed categoriesThe Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following proposedcategories have been rejected:•• Best Casting: rejected in 1999• Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991-2012[52][53][54][55]

•• Best Title Design: rejected in 1999

Academy Award 111

Special categoriesThe Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as awhole. They are not always presented on a consistent annual basis.

Current special categories• Academy Honorary Award: since 1929• Academy Scientific and Technical Award: since 1931• Gordon E. Sawyer Award: since 1981• Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award: since 1956• Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award: since 1938

Discontinued special categories• Academy Juvenile Award: 1934 to 1960• Academy Special Achievement Award: 1972 to 1995

CriticismDue to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, studios spend millions of dollars and hirepublicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "Oscar season". This has generatedaccusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than quality. William Friedkin, anAcademy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at aconference in New York in 2009, describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised foritself".[56]

In addition, some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept theirOscars. The first to do so was Dudley Nichols (Best Writing in 1935 for The Informer). Nichols boycotted the 8thAcademy Awards ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild.[] George C. Scottbecame the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for Patton) at the 43rd Academy Awardsceremony. Scott described it as a 'meat parade', saying 'I don't want any part of it."[57][58][59] The third winner,Marlon Brando, refused his award (Best Actor in 1972 for The Godfather), citing the film industry's discriminationand mistreatment of Native Americans. At the 45th Academy Awards ceremony, Brando sent Sacheen Littlefeatherto read a 15-page speech detailing his criticisms.[]

Tim Dirks, editor of AMC's filmsite.org, has written of the Academy Awards,Unfortunately, the critical worth, artistic vision, cultural influence, and innovative qualities of many films arenot given the same voting weight. Especially since the 1980s, moneymaking "formula-made" blockbusterswith glossy production values have often been crowd-pleasing titans (and Best Picture winners), but theyhaven't necessarily been great films with depth or critical acclaim by any measure.[60]

Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as beingawarded for sentimental reasons,[61] personal popularity,[62] atonement for past mistakes,[63] or presented as a"career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.[64]

Academy Award 112

Associated eventsThe following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards ceremony:•• Nominees luncheon•• Governors Awards• The 25th Independent Spirit Awards (in 2010), usually held in Santa Monica the Saturday before the Oscars,

marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to L.A. Live.• Golden Raspberry Awards• The annual "Night Before", traditionally held at the Beverly Hills Hotel, begun in 2002 and generally known as

THE party of the season, benefits the Motion Picture and Television Fund, which operates a retirement home forSAG actors in the San Fernando Valley.

• Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party airs the awards live at the nearby Pacific Design Center.•• The Governors' Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is held adjacent to the

awards-presentation venue. In 2012, the three course meal was replaced by appetizers.• The Vanity Fair after-party, historically held at the former Morton's restaurant, since 2009 has been held at the

Sunset Tower.

Notes[1] http:/ / www. oscars. org/[6] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Academy_Award& action=edit[17] "Oscar" in The Oxford English Dictionary, June 2008 Draft Revision.[18] Levy, Emanuel (2003) All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards Continuum, New York. ISBN 0-8264-1452-4[20][20] (Levy 2003, pg 28)[23][23] (Levy 2003, pg 29)[32] Nielsen – Press Release: The Nielsen Company's 2008 Guide to the Academy Awards (http:/ / www. nielsen. com/ media/ 2008/

pr_080221a. html)[36] Academy Awards will move to Sunday night (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?nid=1955& dat=19980701& id=-CsiAAAAIBAJ&

sjid=eqYFAAAAIBAJ& pg=6637,43314) Reading Eagle – July 1, 1998; From Google News Archive[37] Never Say Never: Academy Awards move to Sunday (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?nid=1980& dat=19990319&

id=sKEiAAAAIBAJ& sjid=laoFAAAAIBAJ& pg=1224,4570799) The Item – March 19, 1999; From Google News Archive[44] http:/ / www. oscars. org/ press/ pressreleases/ 2013/ 20130325. html[46] Charts and Data: Top 100 TV Shows of All Time by Variety (http:/ / www. variety. com/ index. asp?layout=chart_pass&

charttype=chart_topshowsalltime)[51] Music Awards | Rules for the 84th Academy Awards | Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences (http:/ / www. oscars. org/ awards/

academyawards/ rules/ rule16. html)

References• Brokaw, Lauren (2010). "Wanna see an Academy Awards invite? We got it along with all the major annual events

surrounding the Oscars" (http:/ / thedailytruffle. com/ 2010/ 03/oscar-week-parties-the-weekly-juice-oscar-edition/ ). Los Angeles: The Daily Truffle.

• Cotte, Oliver (2007). Secrets of Oscar-winning animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations.Focal Press. ISBN 978-0-240-52070-4.

• Gail, K., and Piazza, J. (2002). The Academy Awards: The Complete History of Oscar. Black Dog & LeventhalPublishers, Inc. ISBN 1-57912-240-X.

• Levy, Emanuel (2003). All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards. New York:Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-1452-4.

• Wright, Jon (2007). The Lunacy of Oscar: The Problems with Hollywood's Biggest Night. Thomas Publishing,Inc.

Academy Award 113

External links• Official website (http:/ / www. oscars. org/ )• Oscar.com (http:/ / www. oscar. com/ )—official Academy Award ceremony site.• Academy Awards (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Arts/ Movies/ Awards/ Academy_Awards/ ) at the Open Directory

Project.• "Oscar Greats" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ archive/ collections/ 0,21428,c_oscars,00. shtml) at Time

magazine.

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Cate, Catgut, Ccacsmss, Chamal N, CharlotteWebb, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, ChildofMidnight,Chips Critic, Chris 42, Chris war, Chzz, Ciell, CineZombie, Ckatz, Cobi, Conor McManus, Conscious, Contributor777, Conversion script, Coolbeans39, Coolville, CreepshowCreep, Crohnie,DCI2026, DVdm, DaffyDuck619, Dainomite, Dalek518, Dan aka jack, DanielCD, DarkArcher, DarkAudit, David Shankbone, Davidsetagaya, Davinhutchins, Dc2011, Ddama, DeWaine,Deamon138, Dearcinema, Debbarak, Delicious carbuncle, Dendodge, Desertsky85451, Dhartung, DirectEdge, Discospinster, Diyar se, Dobrevano, Docu, Dogah, Dontmesswittx18, DoriSmith,Dpbsmith, Dream out loud, Dream199, Drogue, Drpickem, EHelmuth, EagleOne, Ecki, Eclecticology, Ecoleetage, Edwardssammy, Eelamstylez77, EmerySean, Enchanter, Eog1916, Epbr123,Eras-mus, Erikmh, Escape Orbit, Espoo, European film directors, Everyking, Excirial, ExpressingYourself, F111ECM, Fallenfromthesky, Favonian, Fedayee, Fern 24, FilmMaster 13,Filmdoctor1, Fizan, 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Keegan, Kelmar, Kidlittle, Klemen Kocjancic, Klilidiplomus,Kmweber, Knolls, Koavf, Koyaanis Qatsi, Kubigula, Kyle1278, Lacrimosus, Landon1600, LaraCroft NYC, Leevclarke, Leki, Leolaursen, Leroyinc, Les boys, Liashko, Liftarn, Lights, Lilac Soul,LindbergMTL, LindsayH, Lined23, Listsrapid1990, Llywelyn2000, Lugia2453, MCTales, MER-C, MJ94, MSGJ, Magicbullet5, Magioladitis, Manuel Anastácio, Manxwoman, Marcus Brute,Mark waugh, Mark91, MarkSweep, Martarius, MartinDK, MaryLou, Marylandwizard, Mathias-S, Maurice Carbonaro, Mav, Mayumashu, Mentifisto, Mercurywoodrose, Michael Hardy, MikeChristie, Mike Halterman, Milton Stanley, Minority2005, Miquonranger03, Moe Epsilon, Momo san, Mondaig, Moogle001, Moontaurus, Moverton, Mr. Blonde 139, Mrceleb2007, N5iln, NSR,NXL1997, Nabla, Nakon, Napoleon Dynamite42, NarSakSasLee, NawlinWiki, Netoholic, Neutrality, NickBush24, Niteowlneils, Nmatpt, Nnimrodd, Noommos, NordhornerII, Ntmbeast,ONEder Boy, Ohnoitsjamie, OldCommentator, Oldsanfrancisco, Olivier, 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Constantin Stanislavski  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541246630  Contributors: 7, Aarktica, Abbadonnergal, Aciram, ActorScholar, AgentFade2Black,AgnosticPreachersKid, Ahasuerus, Ahoerstemeier, Aldis90, Alex Bakharev, Altenmann, Andre Engels, Arachrah, Arthur Howard Moss, Asterno, Attica42, Audryn, Auntof6, Avono,Bardsandwarriors, Bearcat, Bkwillwm, Bobblehead, Bushcarrot, Bwmcmaste, CWii, Calabraxthis, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Captain eastwood, ChadyWady, Chasingsol,Chasnor15, Chris the speller, ChrisGriswold, Citicat, Closedmouth, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, D6, Davidiad, Deagle AP, DerHexer, Diannaa, Didaktron,DionysosProteus, Discospinster, Diverman, Don4of4, Doug Bell, Drgorman, Dungodung, Eclecticology, Ekabhishek, El C, Enochlau, Enteriör, Enver62, Enviroboy, Erfil, Evalou, FattieLuv2,Fieldday-sunday, Fl, Folks at 137, FrancoGG, FredR, Frglz, Galway16, Ganymead, Garik 11, Ghirlandajo, Gilliam, Halvar, HarDNox, Henry Merrivale, Hmains, Hob, Homologeo, Husond, Idream of horses, ILovePlankton, Illyukhina, Imaginationac, Iohannes Animosus, Irpen, JackofOz, JamesBWatson, Japanese Searobin, Jaredroberts, Jeff G., Jeggy11, Jennavecia, JillandJack, Johnof Reading, JohnOwens, Johnpacklambert, Jonathan.s.kt, Joyous!, Julia Rossi, KNewman, Kentes, King Pickle, Klemen Kocjancic, Kukini, Kupojsin, KuroiShiroi, Lachy, LarRan, LeaveSleaves,Lhynard, LilHelpa, Luk, Lukobe, MER-C, Ma3da3, Madadem, Mahahahaneapneap, Makerowner, Marcuse, MarkusRTK, Martin Lyngbo, Matt Chase, MaxSem, Maxisthebest, Memorywhole,Mennonot, Midgrid, Minna Sora no Shita, Miyokan, Monedula, Mr Pickwick, MrVibrating, NSR77, NawlinWiki, Neo-Jay, Nivix, Nk, Nosyszodiac, Notreallydavid, Nuttah, October1990, OdaMari, Odie5533, Ohconfucius, Okmores, OldSongsNewStereo, Oliver202, Onorem, Ottre, Ours18, Papa Lima Whiskey, Patriarch, Petrukhina, Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo,Pkrueger, Pocket Rockets, Pstinchcombe, Purple Passion, Putney Bridge, Qp10qp, Quentin X, RIPKrt, Rich Farmbrough, Rikedyp, Rjwilmsi, Rocket000, Rosenzweig, Rror, RussianSpy, S,Salasks, Scootey, Seth Ilys, Sgactorny, Shaeadele, Shaka, SidP, Singingdaisies, Sirrontail, Slaperre, Smithywestface, Snigbrook, Snowolf, Snoyes, Soliloquial, Some jerk on the Internet, Sp,Stephensuleeman, Steven Zhang, Stilfehler, StuHarris, Superm401, Superperfex, Tarquin, Techman224, Teneriff, The Thing That Should Not Be, Theaterfreak64, Thingg, Tide rolls,Timeineurope, Timotab, Tobias Hoevekamp, Tombomp, Tomcat7, Tommygun01, Tony Corsini, Transity, Tree Trimer, TrishGow, Truelight234, Trust Is All You Need, Tsemii, Tsukikosagi,Twest1991, Ugoran, Ursópolis89, UserDoe, Valip, Vervin, Vildricianus, Viruban, Voceditenore, Voiceimitator, Vsevolod4, Waacstats, Wasted Time R, Weenieroast, Whoosit, WikHead,WildWildBil, Will Beback, Wimt, Wknight94, Woggly, Woohookitty, Woutgaze, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yllosubmarine, Yosephus, Zapvet, Zelmerszoetrop, Zfr, Zimin.V.G., Zloyvolsheb,Æthelwold, 652 ,ماني anonymous edits

Method acting  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=549086505  Contributors: -Snyder-, 2A01:E35:8A27:E690:B0E9:3C90:6626:90A8, Acererak II, ActorScholar, Adam We,Adoniscik, Adrian Tofei, Aeternus, Afterglew, Alanbly, AlbertSM, AlexRochon, Alexius08, Altenmann, Amandashelton, Americaland, Amoore5000, Andy5421, Angel caboodle, AntaeusFeldspar, Apoivre, Arakunem, Arjayay, Arteitle, Aschmitz, Askahrc, AuthorAuthor, Bardsandwarriors, Baseball Bugs, Beyond My Ken, Big Smooth, Bill52270, Bilwil, Brad813, BrennanMilligan, Brian Olsen, Bulto95, Carnyfoke, Cassivs, Cate108, Cburnett, Cecile0112358, Chacufc, Chantessy, CheScorpion, Chinhwa, Chris 42, Chuunen Baka, Chzz, Closedmouth, Cmlau,Complexsuperman, Cswiftmontgomery, D'Anconia'sChosen, DBigXray, DMCer, Dale Arnett, Damicatz, Danielklein888, Dattner, Daveriny, David Merrill, DavidESpeed, Dbobr, Dcoetzee,Dep1353, Derek Ross, DionysosProteus, Discospinster, Django7, DocWatson42, Donner60, Dotfortune, Downwards, Dyefade, EEng, Ekabhishek, Elsapucai, Emmanuel Adebayor 25,Endothermic, Farshadbakhshi, Fdssdf, Flyguy649, Freakmighty, Fugitoid, Gogo Dodo, Grahamec, Granny Margaret, Hm562, Hmains, Ijon, Ikf5, Inafunk, Ingolfson, Irishguy, Isnow, Ixfd64,Izno, J.delanoy, JB50000, JCarlos, JDX, JasonActorSinger, Jasper124c41, Jen8, Jeremy Butler, Jeversol, Jezhotwells, JimmB, Jindowjoseph, Jkta97, JoelDick, Jonabbey, Jonathan.s.kt,Kaisershatner, Karada, Karthikbalaji, Khubok, King of Hearts, Kingpin13, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kstarnes, Lapa12, LiniShu, LiteraryMaven, LittleWink, Logolego, Lollipop456987, Louis Kyu WonRyu, Lquilter, M1921, Maccess, Mandel, Manderino, Marcuse, Matt3, Maximus Rex, Mayur, McMarcoP, Michael Hardy, Minority2005, Moe Epsilon, Molepatrol, Molly-in-md, Moncrief,Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mrholybrain, Naddy, Natalietrenlay, NewzealanderA, Nightocean, Nightscream, Nikola Smolenski, OCEditor, Obi-WanKenobi-2005, Obtund, Ok!,Okmores, Onceler, Onopearls, Orlady, Palm Beach Playhouse, Pangeatc, Papermooner, Pascal.Tesson, Paulinho28, Pedant17, Pedrobnavea, Persistus, Petri Krohn, Phantastic, Philwelch, Pianonon troppo, Polanskine, Postcard Cathy, Postdlf, Praapful, ProfPolySci45, R. fiend, RJaguar3, Renee2234, Rich Farmbrough, Rilstix, Rma212, Robinmoor, Rslavelle, S0uj1r0, SMcCandlish,ST47, Sabibadakkan, Sam Weinberg, Santaduck, Schroeder74, Scieberking, Seeleschneider, Sgactorny, Shadowjams, ShardPhoenix, Siawase, Snookerman, Sophia, Spamguy, Staffel,Steinway101, SteveCrook, Steven Zhang, Stewy5714, Stomv, SudoGhost, TUF-KAT, Tainted Drifter, Tarquin, Tassedethe, Tata1711, Tegsirat, Tesi1700, The Duke of Waltham, The Thing ThatShould Not Be, The bellman, TheMadBaron, Theaterfreak64, Theninth, Timmydogman, TopherSheffield, Tree Trimer, Tyler McHenry, Tzartzam, Ucprof, Uncle Dick, Venky2007, VeryVerily,Vocaro, WDavis1911, WacoJacko, Wallstreet1986, Wasted Time R, West.andrew.g, Whatcape, Wiki321123, Wikievil666, Wikitanvir, Will Beback, Woohookitty, Xanchester, Y2kcrazyjoker4,Yayfrogs, Yoram Inger, Zarquan42, 654 ,ماني anonymous edits

Presentational and representational acting  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=532375214  Contributors: Bardsandwarriors, Brian Olsen, CapitalR, Cyrusc, D6,DionysosProteus, GenkiNeko, Jonathan.s.kt, Koavf, LiniShu, Lquilter, Mike hayes, Muhandes, Regensturm23, Teethmonkey, Thumper08, Tony1, 13 anonymous edits

Stanislavski's system  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=546870001  Contributors: A930913, Adoniscik, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alex Bakharev, Alex299006, Algae, Alphachimp,Angela, Armedtrade11, Babij, Bardsandwarriors, Barkeep49, Baulzack, Bebinoz, Brian Olsen, Centrx, Cflm001, Charles Matthews, Cit helper, Colonies Chris, Concealed Cactus, Dan D. Ric,DanMS, Dancncheer01, Darth Panda, Daverocks, David Shay, Defender of torch, Deltabeignet, DerHexer, DionysosProteus, Discospinster, Fredrik, Gary King, Ghirlandajo, Greyhawthorn,HexaChord, Ilprofessore10012, JHunterJ, JackofOz, JamesBWatson, Jammy Morr, Jeremy Butler, Jkta97, Jonathan.s.kt, Junyhk, Jyngyr, Kdau, Killiondude, Kmg90, Kredsner, Kubigula,Leandrod, LeaveSleaves, LiniShu, Lola Voss, Lquilter, Lugia2453, M4gnum0n, Magioladitis, Mandarax, Marony, Mdukas, Metricopolus, Michael Hardy, Moe Epsilon, Monty845, NCurse,Natalietrenlay, Navhus, Nn123645, Okmores, Oxymoron83, P. S. Burton, Patrick Neylan, Peter S., Pstinchcombe, Q Valda, Quiddity, R. fiend, RadioFan, Repelhistory, Rjwilmsi, Rsrikanth05,SMcCandlish, SakfjSEJF, Salasks, Sbromwich, Scientific29, Serge Lachinov, Sgactorny, SimonP, Skarebo, Skysmith, Ssilvers, Stephus, Sueverner, Superm401, Tassedethe, Tempodivalse,Terron, Thatguykalem, The Fwanksta, TheMadBaron, Tobias Bergemann, Transity, Tree Trimer, Ucprof, Ukexpat, Unmet, VolatileChemical, Wasted Time R, Widr, Wikievil666, Will Beback,285 anonymous edits

Heath Ledger  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=549247380  Contributors: *drew, 10millercr, 123jokingman, 17Drew, 1exec1, 23mike95, 293.xx.xxx.xx, 360aerial, 3Tigers, 3finger, 6afraidof7, 8squishy fishy8, 97198, A Nobody, ACBest, AKR619, AMK1211, Aaaxlp, Aaron Bowen, Abdowiki, Academic Challenger, Accipio Mitis Frux, Ace Class Shadow, Achowat, Adreamtonight, Adrian.benko, Aec is away, Aesopos, Afrobilly, Agentperson, Agentreagent, Ahockey92, Aircorn, Akurnids, Al3xil, Alan smithee, Alaniaris, Aldy, Ale jrb, Alex

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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:LondonSmog.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LondonSmog.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic  Contributors: Ardfern,Bhoeble, BrokenSphere, D-Kuru, Diwas, Jborme, Lobo, Look2See1, Saperaud, SolipsistFile:Eubank-Love-2011-Figur-William-Eubank-Genesis.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eubank-Love-2011-Figur-William-Eubank-Genesis.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: LekiFile:Jean-Luc Godard at Berkeley, 1968 (1).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean-Luc_Godard_at_Berkeley,_1968_(1).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution2.0  Contributors: Gary StevensFile:Jean Luc Godard Signature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean_Luc_Godard_Signature.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jean-Luc GodardFile:Stanislavski Constantin-1.jpg  Source: 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byMarilunaImage:Meyerhold reads Chekhov's The Seagull in 1898.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meyerhold_reads_Chekhov's_The_Seagull_in_1898.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: DionysosProteusImage:Stanislavsky.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stanislavsky.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Valentin Alexandrovich Serov (1865-1911)File:02 stanislavsky.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:02_stanislavsky.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: uploaderFile:TragicComicMasksHadriansVillamosaic.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TragicComicMasksHadriansVillamosaic.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution2.0  Contributors: Agamemnus, Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, Fagairolles 34, FlickreviewR, G.dallorto, Jastrow, MECU, Mac9, Saperaud, 1 anonymous editsFile:Benoit Constant Coquelin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benoit_Constant_Coquelin.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DionysosProteus, Ecummenic,Grendelkhan, Hsarrazin, Larry YumaFile:Yermolova.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yermolova.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Butko, Common Good, Fanghong, Geagea, ShakkoFile:Heath Ledger.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heath_Ledger.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: User:MirandaFile:Charlotte Gainsbourg and Heath Ledger (Venice Film Festival 2007).jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charlotte_Gainsbourg_and_Heath_Ledger_(Venice_Film_Festival_2007).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Director_and_actors_of_I'm_not_there_at_the_64th_Venice_Film_Festival-01.jpg: Mireille Ampilhac derivative work: César (talk)File:Heath Ledger (Berlin Film Festival 2006) revised.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heath_Ledger_(Berlin_Film_Festival_2006)_revised.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Heath_Ledger_(Berlin_Film_Festival_2007).jpg: Siebbi derivative work: César (talk)File:LedgerMemorial.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LedgerMemorial.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MgCupcakeFile:Makarand Deshpande.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Makarand_Deshpande.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Sreejithk2000File:Irrfan Khan 2012.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Irrfan_Khan_2012.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Bollywood Hungama Uploaded by MyCanonFile:Naseeruddin Shah02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Naseeruddin_Shah02.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Techman224File:Naseeruddin Shah Signature.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Naseeruddin_Shah_Signature.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Naseeruddin ShahFile:Naseeruddin Shah at The Doon School.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Naseeruddin_Shah_at_The_Doon_School.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:MotleyCruisserFile:Atul Kulkarni.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atul_Kulkarni.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Ralgis, SpacemanSpiff, Sreejithk2000, VivvtFile:Gnome globe current event.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gnome_globe_current_event.svg  License: GNU Lesser General Public License  Contributors:David Vignoni (globe, clock face/ring), Anomie (clock hands), David Göthberg (making the clock red, shadows). Anomie and David G (putting all the parts together).File:FONTAINE-COOPER.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FONTAINE-COOPER.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Darekm135, Magog the Ogre,Snorri95File:31st Acad Awards.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:31st_Acad_Awards.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: See aboveFile:81st Academy Awards Ceremony.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:81st_Academy_Awards_Ceremony.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0  Contributors: BDS2006 (talk)File:Hollywood Pantages Theatre 5.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hollywood_Pantages_Theatre_5.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Photo: Andreas Praefcke

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