INTRODUCTION TO ATTITUDE AND MOTIVATIONAttitude reflects the general attitude toward school and general motivation forsucceeding in school. The clearer the connection between school and future career, the easier itis to maintain a positive attitude for performing the tasks related to success in college.• Write out specific and global goals and make sure they meet the criteria of good goals:(specific, measurable, challenging, realistic, and with a completion date).• Reassess how school fits into your future. Reflect on why you are in college.• Work with the Academic Planning & Support Services Office in Moody Hall 155Motivation to perform SPECIFIC tasks is related to academic achievement. It measures thedegree to which the student accepts responsibility for studying, reading assignments, andcompleting homework and papers, etc.• Practice attributing what happens to you to your own efforts instead of to luck or poorteachers or lack of ability.• Reflect on your past successes and the strategies you used.• Set motivational goals (rewards for timelines and goals accomplished).• Stay up to date on class assignments; (go to class prepared).2GET MOTIVATED!So, getting out of bed in the morning has become a serious challenge. Faced with a blank pagethat is supposed to become your research paper your mind numbs and you get about as far as thetitle page before you give up. You’ve lost all enthusiasm for school work.Pure, divine motivation is rare. Most of the time it requires constant reinforcement.• Take a moment to remind yourself why you’re doing what you’re doing. What are yougoing to get out of it?• Reward your accomplishments--no matter how small.• Get your best friends to give you pep talks when they see you’re down. You might keepa handy list of your best qualities, talents, and abilities.• A healthy diet and regular exercise go a long way towards maintaining energy levels andfeeling good in general.• Be willing to risk failure--remember that you risk success too.Feel overwhelmed by a difficult task?• Start early, and have a plan. Break up your task into small parts; allow time for mistakesand wrong directions. Completing a small part each day helps maintain interest andforestalls discouragement.• Working in a comfortable setting helps (comfortable clothes, a few friends around,familiar surroundings.) Take a break when you get tired.Easily discouraged?• Don’t be a perfectionist. Make approaching your goals the source of your satisfaction,rather than reaching them.

• Don’t worry about or dwell on things that go wrong. Concentrate on your successes.Remember that little successes build up just as quickly as little failures.Are you too hard on yourself?• Who you are is more valuable than what you do. Your worth as a person is not based onyour intelligence, your grades, or how hard you work. It is enough to be you.• Realize and value the opinions of others--but realize that ultimately you must respect andsatisfy yourself.SETTING GOALS: GOOD EXAMPLES/POOR EXAMPLESAdapted from Claire E. Weinstein. Executive Control Process in Learning: Why Knowing AboutHow to Learn Is Not Enough. NADE Newsletter. Volume 12 No. 2, Fall 1988.A useful goal contains five key elements. A useful goal is:d1) Specific – It describes what you want to accomplish with as much detail as possible.Poor example – “I want to read better.”Better example -“I want to increase my reading comprehension score 10% by the end ofthis semester.”32) Measurable – A useful goal is described in terms that can be clearly evaluated.Poor example – “I want to lose weight this year.”Better example – “I want to lose 10 pounds by my cousin’s wedding two moths fromnow.”3) Challenging – It takes energy, effort, and discipline to accomplish.Poor example – “I want to get to all of my classes on Thursday.”Better example – “I want to complete the assignment and be prepared for my classes onThursday.”4) Realistic – A realistic goal is one you are capable of attaining.Poor example – “I want to become the editor of the student newspaper in my firstsemester.”Better example – “I want to become the editor of the student paper by my last year inschool.”5) Timely one with a completion date – For long term goals, it may be important toidentify shorter-term goals that lead to the desired endpoint.Poor example – “I want to do a lot of professional writing in my lifetime.”Better example – “I want to complete a short story by the end of the semester.”4GOAL SETTING AND DECISION MAKINGTHE CASE OF SAMSam, a sophomore from Houston, is a pre-med major. He plans to specialize inneurosurgery.This semester, Sam was placed on academic probation because he made a D in biology,an F in zoology, and a D in calculus. When Sam went to talk to his friendly academic counselor,

he said, “I know exactly why I’m on probation. I just don’t like those science classes. They’reso technical and narrow that they don’t seem relevant to anything. I usually make C’s in myscience classes, but last semester I just didn’t feel motivated.”Sam really respects his father, who is a corporate attorney. His dad expects a lot fromSam and is disappointed in his probationary status. Ever since Sam was in junior high, his dadhas told him how important it is to “make something of yourself and to be successful.” Samknows that being a surgeon would bring him respect, status, and a high salary. Sam wants to be asuccess but he sometimes worries that he will not like the stress and long hours involved in themedical profession. Sam volunteered at Brackenridge Hospital last summer in the emergencyroom and really enjoyed it. He like talking to the patients and asking them questions, and heliked the fast-paced atmosphere.Sam’s favorite class at SEU so far has been English (expository writing). He has alwaysbeen a good writer and in high school he was editor of the yearbook, an activity that he reallymisses now that he’s in college. Sam also enjoyed a history class he took on current affairs. Hereads Time magazine every week and watches as many new programs and specials as he can.This semester, Sam is really feeling burned out. He looks forward to the day when he canbe through with school and be out in the work world. He just doesn’t know what to do…1) What decision does Sam need to make?2) What are the possible consequences of his decision?3) What goals should he set for himself?5REACHING OUR GOALSTheme: The ability to live our lives in such a way that we reach our goals.Quotes are from The Road Less Traveled by M. Scott Peck, M.D., New York, Simon and Schuster, 1978.1. Realize the opportunity“The more clearly we see the reality of the world, the better equipped we are to deal with theworld. The less clearly we see the reality of the world—the more our minds are befuddled byfalsehood, misperceptions and illusions—the less able we will be to determine correct courses ofaction and make wise decisions. Our view of reality is like a map with which to negotiate the

terrain of life. If the map is true and accurate, we will generally know where we are, and if wehave decided where we want to go, we will generally know how to get there. If the map is falseand inaccurate, we generally will be lost.”(p. 44)“…if our maps are to be accurate we have to continually revise them.”(p.45)“What does a life of total dedication to the truth mean? It means, first of all, a life of continuousand never ending stringent self examination.”(p. 51)“Problems do not go away. They must be worked through or else they remain, forever a barrierto the growth and development of the spirit.”(p. 30)2. Accept responsibility for the opportunity“…we must accept responsibility for a problem before we can solve it.”(p. 32)“To willingly confront a problem early, before we are forced to confront it by circumstances,means to put aside something pleasant or less painful for something more painful.”(p. 31)“Sooner or later,…they must learn that the entirety of one’s adult life is a series of personalchoices, decisions. If they can accept this totally, then they become free people. To the extentthat they do not accept this they will forever feel themselves victims.”(p. 44)3. Change the behavior“Delaying gratification is a process of scheduling the pain and pleasure of life in such a way as toenhance the pleasure by meeting and experiencing the pain first and getting it over with. It is theonly decent way to live.”(p. 19)“This feeling of being valuable is a cornerstone of self-discipline because when one considersoneself valuable one will take care of oneself in all ways that are necessary. Self-discipline isself-caring…If we feel ourselves valuable, then we will feel our time to be valuable, and if wefeel our time to be valuable, then we will want to use it well.”(p. 24)Shift from external controls over behaviors to internal controls. There are some easygratifications to delay; some difficult.6About YourselfWho you are is more valuable than what you do. Your worth as a person is not based on yourintelligence, your grades, or how hard you work. It is enough to be you.Respect and value the opinions of others—but realize that ultimately you must respect and satisfyyourself.

Practice impulse control by imagining the consequences of your actions. How will you feelafterwards? Then, act so that you will be satisfied with yourself.Write out a plan for yourself. Jot down personal and academic goals and priorities, and reread themwhen you’re in a slump.Don’t worry about or dwell on things that go wrong. Concentrate on your successes. Remember thatlittle successes build up just as quickly as little failures.Give yourself time to change. Forgive yourself for backsliding and making mistakes.Don’t be a perfectionist Make approaching your goals the basis of your self-respect rather thanreaching your goals.Don’t allow feelings of inadequacy get you down. Think about all the things you do have going foryou.If you’re feeling down or hopeless, imagine the worst that could happen—exaggerate yourfantasies—and then laugh at them. Do this to put yourself and your current situation in perspective.When you’re down, go to someone whom you know cares for you and ask him or her to give you a“pep talk,” reminding you of your good qualities, talents and abilities and/or make a list of yourgood qualities and read them when you need to.Be willing to risk failure for something you really care about. Be willing to risk success too!If you’re irrationally afraid of something, do it a lot; the fear will wear off.Learn to recognize, sooner, events which are not turning out as they should—and act to redirect themto your satisfaction.About Your Work:No one else is forcing you to do your work. You’ve decided to take it on. Don’t waste your energy inhostility toward others. Accept and live with your own decisions.Start early. The sooner you start, the sooner you’ll be free to do other activities, the less worry you’llexperience, the more time you’ll have to recover from mistakes and wrong decisions.Expect a certain amount of tension. Use that tension as energy to get yourself moving.7Different people have different styles of working. For example, some people need competition to dotheir best, while others work better at their own pace. Respect your work style and arrangeconditions you need to do well.

If you have a long, hard task, make it as comfortable for yourself as possible. Do it in short bits (butstay with it), do it wearing comfortable clothes, among friends, in familiar surroundings, withwhatever you need to keep your spirits up while you work at it.Pure, unadulterated motivation is rare (most of the time); you just have to keep plugging away.If necessary, pause every now and then to remind yourself of why you have chosen to take on certainwork, and what you expect to get out of it. Give yourself a pep talk.When you’ve done something you feel good about, reward yourself with a treat: You deserve it!Completed tasks keep interest and motivation at a higher level. Try to complete a task, or accomplisha sub-goal before you quit for the day.8PERSONAL GOAL SHEETInstructions: Help motivate yourself to study by setting goals that can be measured: these goals should be realistic,measurable, of value to your plans, and have built-in rewards for attainment.GOAL MOTIVATIONACHIEVABLEMEASUREABLE REWARD AFFIRMATIONYes No Yes No9OVERCOMING PROCRASTINATIONOvercoming procrastination is the procrastinator’s greatest challenge because the behavior you aretrying to change is the very thing that can get in the way of changing your behavior. Sounds like a no winsituation, but take heart. Summon all your determination and will-power and follow these guidelines to aprocrastination-free life.CLARIFY YOUR PERSONAL GOALS• Make a list of your personal goals and post it where you’ll see it frequently—your mirror, notebook,door, etc.• Outline (on paper) the tasks that will lead to your goal, and be sure a task you think you “should” do isone that is really important to meeting your goal. If you aren’t sure what tasks will lead to your goal, talkwith your parents, professors, or an APSS counselor.• Prioritize! Put the most unpleasant tasks at the top of your list, and work your way down to the easierones.MANAGE YOUR TIME EFFECTIVELY

• Time management is a learned skill, and it takes practice to master. If your idea of time management isremembering to flip the calendar at the end of each month, it’s a good idea to consult an APSS counselorfor help or attend a time management workshop.• Plan out a schedule for working on the tasks that will lead to your goal. Set deadlines for completingeach step. Blank calendars and weekly schedules are available at Academic Planning & SupportServices in Moody Hall 155.• Start early. Allow for “blow off” time, and give yourself time to clarify assignments or get help ifnecessary.• Get into a routine. Set aside a particular block of time each day to work on your tasks; if possible, workduring the same time each day.CHANGE YOUR ATTITUDE• Do you think you’re unable to meet life’s challenges?• Do you expect perfection from yourself and others?• Are you convinced that disaster hinges on your actions?Lighten up! These are the kinds of irrational, self defeating attitudes and beliefs that hold you back. Replacethese ideas with more rational, self-enhancing attitudes and beliefs. (Your APSS counselor can help withthis, too.)• Whenever you feel the whispering temptation to procrastinate, remember the emotional and physicalconsequences it will have. Also remember the rewards of not procrastinating.• Don’t approach projects with an “all or nothing” attitude. Concentrate on little bits and pieces at a time.10• Visualize yourself as a well-organized non-procrastinator. Imagine how you might think and behave.Then behave and think that way, even if only for a few minutes at a time.• Value your mistakes; don’t judge them. Find something funny, curious, or interesting about them. Learnfrom them.• Be aware of those tricks you use to avoid or escape tasks—socializing, day-dreaming, running away,television—Catch yourself indulging in those tactics and get back on track.CHANGE YOUR BEHAVIOR• Use your friends. Make appointments to study with a friend, to get help with a task, or just to talk. “Let’sdo lunch sometime,” is not an appointment. Set specific times and dates, such as “Lunch, Tuesday atnoon.”

• Reward yourself for accomplishing something, and/or penalize yourself for not accomplishingsomething.• Make something you normally do and enjoy contingent upon doing the avoided task: “I’ll work on mylibrary research half an hour before going to play racquetball.”• Use impulsiveness to your advantage. Do something (productive) when you think of it, instead ofputting it off. Do instant, tiny things.• Make your working environment conducive to working. Eliminate distractions (TV, phone, radio, otherpeople) and have at hand all the tools you’ll need.ACCEPT YOURSELF• Give yourself time to change.• Expect and forgive backsliding.• Give yourself credit for the things you do.• Forgive yourself a lot.11CAUSES OF PROCRASTINATIONSelf Deception—“I can always do it later.” “I work best under pressure anyway.” “Getting started early doesn’thelp me.” Some folks tend to rationalize their unwillingness to start unpleasant tasks.Perfectionism—It may seem strange at first that a procrastinator is a perfectionist, but this is often the case.Procrastinators often put unrealistic demands on themselves to be perfect—an all or nothing attitude. Anotherperfectionist expectation is that excellence should come with little or no effort. For example, when it becomesobvious that not every class in college is fun and interesting, some get discouraged and just quit attending classor completing assignments.Perfectionists are frequently competitive, although it may seem strange that a student who hands in latepapers would be competitive. In a sense, these folk “choose to lose” so that they never have to truly testthemselves and/or risk failure.Inappropriate Commitments—This is the person who is active in all parts of campus and community life andstretches him/herself too thin. When all the energy goes into Greek life or athletics, academics can sometimesslide. This is a failure to establish priorities.Tasks That Seem Too Big—Rather than take a major research paper step by step, the procrastinator “awfulizes”about how terrible it is that students are required to do so much work. Instead of using little bits of time to get

started the procrastinator becomes paralyzed by the thought of how much effort/time the paper will take.Non-Productive Behaviors—Some students spend too much time “getting ready” to study. They sharpenpencils, put on background music, feed the cats, clean off the bed (so they will not be distracted)—then noticethat an hour has passed and it “must be about time to take a break from studying.”Lack of organization contributes to wasting time. Procrastinators often have no idea how to get started,or what procedures to follow.Not knowing how to prioritize is another example. Some people spend 3 hours on a project that is fun,but may be an elective course. Then, they may spend almost no time studying for a comprehensive final—in acourse they do not like—which is worth 1/3 of the course grade.Finally, an unwillingness to say “NO” to friends contributes to procrastination. If you just can’t turndown some invitations to socialize, you will be at the mercy to anyone/everyone who interrupts your studying12Procrastination QuotientDirections: Mark an “X” in the column for your response to each of the twelve items. Total the“X”’s in each column, multiply by the weight at the bottom of the column, and add you products.Almost AlmostAlways Frequently Occasionally Never1. I find reasons for not acting immediatelyon a difficult assignment. _________ _________ _________ _________2. I know what I have to do but findthat I have done something else. _________ _________ _________ _________3.I carry my books/work assignmentswith me to various places butdo not open them. _________ _________ _________ _________4. I work best at the “last minute”when the pressure is really on. _________ _________ _________ _________5. There are too many interruptionsthat interfere with my most importantstudy goals. _________ _________ _________ _________6. I avoid setting priorities for the dayand doing the most important tasks first. _________ _________ _________ _________7. I avoid or delay unpleasant decisions._________ _________ _________ _________8. I have been too tired, nervous, orupset to get started on my assignment _________ _________ _________ _________9. I like to get my room in excellent

order before starting a difficult study task. _________ _________ _________ _________10. I wait for inspirations beforebecoming involved in important study/work tasks. _________ _________ _________ _________11. I fear failing at my most importantstudy tasks. _________ _________ _________ _________12. I demand perfection in my work/study performance. _________ _________ _________ _________Total Responses in each column _________ _________ _________ _________x4 x3 x2 x1Procrastination is _________ + ________ + _________ + ________P.Q. below 22 - minor concernP.Q. 23 to 32 - moderate concernP.

What is Attitude?“Attitude” is another word used commonly but loosely. Dictionaries offer two differing definitions. The firstrelates to the inner working of the human mind, where attitude is “state of mind, mental view or disposition withregard to a fact or state”. A second equally valid definition describes the positioning of an object in space, suchas an aircraft, spaceship, or missile, where attitude is said to mean “orientation of axes in relation to somereference plane, usually the horizontal”.It is interesting to note that both definitions insist that attitude can only exist in relation to a datum point – eithera fact towards which one holds a mental disposition, or a reference plane such as the horizon against whichorientation is measured. In this respect “attitude” is similar to “risk”, which is defined in terms of objectives.Although at first sight mental views and aircraft positioning do not seem to have much in common, in fact thetwo definitions of attitude are not incompatible or unrelated (Hillson & Murray-Webster, 2005):Just as the pilot makes a decision on what attitude to adopt for the aircraft in three-dimensional space inorder to position it to execute the desired manoeuvre, so an individual or group can make an attitudinalchoice to lean towards a particular desired response, behaviour or outcome.The attitude of an aircraft does not in itself result in motion, although it is a direct influence on the directiontaken. In addition to attitude some force must act on the aircraft to generate motion – analogous tomotivation.Aircraft attitude needs to be followed by movement if it is to result in execution of a manoeuvre, andsimilarly individual or group attitudes must be translated into action if the desired outcome is to beachieved.Attitude in space can be described using a number of elements, usually termed “pitch”, “roll” and “yaw”. Itis also possible to subdivide human attitudes into their component dimensions to enable them to be betterunderstood and managed.As the number of degrees of freedom for aircraft movement is almost unlimited within the three dimensionsof space, so there is a bewildering array of potential attitudes that can be chosen in any given situation.While there may be a preferred response (initial default positioning), the final outcome remains a matter ofchoice.As a result of this comparison, the term “attitude” as applied to internal human mental processes and positioningis used here to refer to chosen responses to situations. Some attitudes may be deeply rooted, representing corevalues for the individual or group, but they nevertheless represent a choice. Other attitudes may be moremalleable. Attitudes differ from personal characteristics in that they are situational responses rather than naturalpreferences or traits, and chosen attitudes may therefore differ depending on a range of different influences.Clearly if these influences can be identified and understood, the possibility of changing them is introduced,

allowing individuals and groups to manage their attitudes proactively. Emotional intelligence and emotionalliteracy provide the basis for achieving such attitudinal management and this concept is explored belowQ. above 32 - major concern Total Score ____________ = P.Q

General goals of teaching to the affective domain

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Book II Affective Domain

citation and bibliographic information (out of print, but available from used booksellers)This landmark book outlines the need for and basis of the affective domain in education, presents a detailed classification scheme for the affective domain, describes each level in the taxonomy, and offers methods for assessment.

A Structure for the Affective Domain in Relation to Science Education

citation and bibliographic information This paper establishes a system for considering the affective domain while teaching science. The author presents a detailed matrix that integrates affective behaviors with scientific activities, events and inquiry.

Learning and Teaching in the Affective Domain (more info)

This article addresses attitudes and attitude change in students, with a discussion of several theories of attitude change. The article also features sections on instructional design for attitude change, with examples and links to lesson plans.

The Art of Possibility

citation and bibliographic information This is the book chosen at 'Boot camp for Profs' to help faculty become aware of the effects of the imagination and affective domain on their own choices in career and practice. Many situations in the book are case studies that concern teaching and learning. All offer rich insights into the awareness of how our affective domain determines actions, outcomes, and satisfaction that emerge from challenges to achieve.

Methods for teaching in ways that address the affective domain

A Checklist for Designing Instruction in the Affective Domain

citation and bibliographic information This paper presents a simple model for accomplishing the often complex and nebulous task of developing instruction for the affective domain.

Increasing Enrollment in Higher-Level Mathematics Classes through the Affective Domain

citation and bibliographic information The author presents 10 teaching strategies that give attention to affective variables to increase the likelihood that high school students will continue to enroll in higher level mathematics courses. Strategies focus on frustration, vocabulary use, anxiety, confidence, cooperative learning, creativity, remediation, and promoting mathematics courses.

The Relationship between Teacher Management Communication Style and Affective Learning

citation and bibliographic information This statistical study measured students' responses to a survey to determine the amount of affective learning that took place in their class. The factors that had the most influence on affective learning were nonverbal immediacy, a student-centered classroom management style, and regular class attendance by the students themselves.

De Bono's Red Hat on Krathwohl's Head: Irrational Means to Rational Ends (Microsoft Word 71kB Feb7 07)

by Edward B. Nuhfer, Center for Teaching and Learning, Idaho State UniversityThis article provides useful background on the relationship between the cognitive and affective domains and encourages faculty to recognize that the affective domain is "legitimate, powerful, and even useful." The paper describes several examples of how one's affective teaching can be improved, which may result in increased self-awareness, a more positive classroom environment and a better connection with students. This article is from The National Teaching & Learning Forum, Volume 14, Number 5, September 2005.

Students' View of Intelligence Can Help Grades

This news feature from National Public Radio discusses a new study in the scientific journal Child Development. The study shows that if you teach students that their intelligence can grow and increase, they do better in school. The study was carried out by research psychologist Carol Dweck from Stanford University. This website contains an interview with Dweck and an audio file of the news feature that aired on NPR.

Evaluation of affective outcomes

Also see Assessment tools for the affective domain

Techniques for Evaluating Affective Objectives

citation and bibliographic information The paper presents three tools for evaluating the affective domain and gives some brief examples of how to use each type of evaluation. The assessment tools are the attitude checklist, the attitude questionnaire, and the projective indicator.

The Affective Domain Related to Science Education and its Evaluation

citation and bibliographic information This review paper discusses several approaches to measuring student outcomes in the affective domain. Several different authors' representations of attitudes in science are discussed, and the paper addresses methods to evaluate affective outcomes and attitudes, pitfalls and recommendations.

Science Motivation Questionnaire

The 30-item questionnaire by Shawn M. Glynn and Thomas R. Koballa, Jr. assesses six components of students' motivation to learn science in college or high school courses. The questions assess students' motivation, confidence, and anxiety along with the relevance of science and the responsibility for learning. This website includes the questionnaire, scoring keys, and links to references.

Development of an Assessment of Student Conception of the Nature of Science

By Julie Libarkin, Arizona State UniversityThis JGE paper describes a method to determine the effectiveness of science courses for non-majors using a Likert-scale instrument. Results from 991 students permitted a statistical analysis of this instrument's validity and reliability. This evaluation prompted the removal of a number of non-correlated items and indicated that the test consists of three scales: Attitude towards Learning Science, Attitude towards Science, and Conception of Science. Examples from two courses, one laboratory-based and the other grounded in collaborative learning, are provided to demonstrate the utility of these types of scales in assessing both prior knowledge and course outcomes.

Science and the Affective Domain

Research on the affective dimensions of science learning

Simpson, R. D., Koballa, T. R., Oliver, J. S., & Crawley, F. E. (1994)This paper is one chapter in the Handbook of Research on Science Teaching and Learning citation and bibliographic information .

This volume contains a comprehensive survey of the research in science education. The content of this volume provides an assessment of the significance of research, evaluates new developments, and examines current conflicts, controversies and issues in science pedagogy.

Attitudinal and motivational constructs in science learning

Koballa, T. R., & Glynn, S. M. (in press). Chapter 5 in S. K. Abell & N. Lederman (Eds.), Handbook for research in science education. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Americans fear decline in US performance in math and science This press release discusses a February 2007 poll about how science and scientists are perceived by the American public. Selected results show that more than half of Americans (52%) don't believe the U.S. is performing well in science and math education compared to other nations, but they know science is very important (85%). Most (87%) rate being a scientist as one of the most prestigious careers, yet 75% can't name a living scientist. Sixty-four percent don't think average Americans are knowledgeable about science, and 76% think it is very important that young people are encouraged to pursue scientific careers, and that more opportunities for these careers are created. The poll was conducted by Research!America.

Some Geoscience Examples

Journal of Geoscience Education special issue on Student Thinking about the Earthcitation and bibliographic information A wide range of methodologies that can be used to study learning are represented here, from case studies to interviews to quantitative approaches. These papers provide a basis for continued communication between workers in different disciplines striving to answer the question: "What works in the geoscience classroom?"

Qualitative Analysis of College Students' Ideas about the Earth: Interviews and Open-Ended Questionnairescitation and bibliographic information This study addresses student conceptual understanding and conceptual changes in college science courses. Analysis of students' interview responses indicates that students hold a number of non-scientific ideas about the Earth. Additionally, students apply a range of ontological categories to geologic phenomena, with significant implications for teaching geosciences.

How Students Think: Implications for Learning in Introductory Geoscience Coursescitation and bibliographic information This paper discusses the way that students in introductory geology courses think

and how this can influence what they learn. Approximately half the students in an introductory course do not have the skills to understand the abstract scientific concepts that are traditionally discussed. Many geological concepts will remain unlearned without appropriate activities that build on a foundation of concrete examples.

Developing Geoscience Student-Learning Centered Courses citation and bibliographic information This article discusses the development of courses that were designed with a focus on how students learn new content. Specific strategies include establishing clear objectives for the course, using questionnaires, surveys and discussions throughout the course, and assigning a variety of different assignments, such as writing papers, group posters and data analysis projects.

Fieldwork is Good? The Student Experience of Field Courses (more info) This site describes the results of a research project that was conducted across geography, earth science and environmental science disciplines to examine the effect of fieldwork on students' affective domain. The project aimed to monitor changes in student's attitudes to learning that occurred as a result of attending residential field courses. In addition, the changes in how students value the fieldwork experience were examined and differences in attitudes and values between different groups of students (for example age and gender) were explored.

Sense of Place and Place-Based Introductory Geoscience Teaching for American Indian and Alaska Native Undergraduates (by Steve Semken)citation and bibliographic information A student's "sense of place" incorporates their affective as well as cognitive responses to physical places. Students with strong cultural bonds to homelands, many of whom are underrepresented minorities (such as American Indian students) may be dissuaded by geoscience teaching that affronts their senses of place. Place-based geoscience teaching could potentially enhance science literacy among American Indian, Alaska Native, and other underrepresented minority students, and bring more of them into the geoscience profession. Five characteristics of place-based geoscience teaching are identified here and illustrated with suggestions for implementation in diverse educational settings.

1. THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT1.1 Consumer BehaviorSee also 42, 62, 63, 81, 100, 107, 108, 109, 113, 114, 123, 136,137, 139, 150, 155, 160, 181, 182, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 207,209, 211, 229Food for Thought. Roberta Bernstein, American Demographics,22 (May 2000), pp. 39–40, 42. [Hispanic and Asian consumers,Market potentials, Disposable income, Expenditures, Cultural andlanguage issues, Consumer panels, Shopping behavior, Packagedgoodsindustry.] 1Congestion Ahead. John Fetto, American Demographics, 22 (June2000), pp. 49–50. [Extreme commuting, Regions, Time spent intraffic, In-auto activities, Billboards, Radio promotions, Creative,Examples.] 2Make Room for Daddy. Rebecca Gardyn, American Demographics,22 (June 2000), pp. 34–36. [Trends, Fathers, Market potentials,Magazine readership, Household spending decisions, Time spentwith children, E-marketing, Statistical data.] 3

The Joy of Empty Nesting. Joan Raymond, American Demographics,22 (May 2000), pp. 48–52, 54. [Trends, Baby boomers,Discretionary income, Lifestyles, Affluence, Market strategy,Quality of life, Techno-savvy, Health concerns, Examples.] 4Life’s a Beach 101. Nancy Shepherdson, American Demographics,22 (May 2000), pp. 56–58, 60, 62, 64. [Echo boomers, Ecommerce,Customization, Market strategy, Web sites, Surveys,Recent college grads, Brand loyalty, Jobs, Starting salaries, Investing,Examples.] 5The Facilitating Influence of Consumer Knowledge on theEffectiveness of Daily Value Reference Information. Fuan Li,Paul W. Miniard, and Michael J. Barone, Journal of the Academyof Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 425–36. [Literaturereview, Hypothesis, Experiment, Measures, Trial intention, Attitude,Healthiness (overall, fat, fiber, sodium), Statistical analysis.]6Effects of Absurdity in Advertising: The Moderating Role ofProduct Category Attitude and the Mediating Role of CognitiveResponses. Leopoldo Arias-Bolzmann, Goutam Chakraborty,and John C. Mowen, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.35–49. [Literature review; Hypotheses; Experiment; Measures; Ad,brand, and product attitudes; Comparisons; Nonabsurd ads; Recall;Statistical analysis; Implications.] 7An Empirical Test of an Updated Relevance–AccessibilityModel of Advertising Effectiveness. William E. Baker andRichard J. Lutz, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.1–14. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment, Brand names,MYRON LEONARD, EditorWestern Carolina UniversityThis section is based on a selection of article abstracts from a comprehensivebusiness literature database. Marketing-related abstracts frommore than 125 journals (both academic and trade) are reviewed by JMstaff. Descriptors for each entry are assigned by JM staff. Each issue ofthis section represents three months of entries into the database.Each entry has an identifying number. Cross-references appear immediatelyunder each subject heading.The following article abstracts are available online from the ABI/INFORMdatabase, which is published and copyrighted by Bell & Howell Informationand Learning. For additional information about access to the database orabout obtaining photocopies of the articles abstracted here, please call(800) 521-0600 or write to B&H, 300 N. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48106.SUBJECT HEADINGS1. THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT1.1 Consumer Behavior1.2 Legal, Political, and Economic Issues1.3 Ethics and Social Responsibility2. MARKETING FUNCTIONS2.1 Management, Planning, and Strategy2.2 Retailing2.3 Channels of Distribution2.4 Electronic Marketing2.5 Physical Distribution2.6 Pricing2.7 Product2.8 Sales Promotion2.9 Advertising2.10 Personal Selling2.11 Sales Management3. SPECIAL MARKETING APPLICATIONS3.1 Industrial3.2 Nonprofit, Political, and Social Causes

3.3 International and Comparative3.4 Services4. MARKETING RESEARCH4.1 Theory and Philosophy of Science4.2 Research Methodology4.3 Information Technology5. OTHER TOPICS5.1 Educational and Professional Issues5.2 General Marketing

Marketing LiteratureReviewChoice processes (optimizing, satisficing, indifference), Types ofinformation (evidence of performance superiority, credibility, andliking), Statistical analysis, Implications.] 8Customer Satisfaction Cues to Support Market Segmentationand Explain Switching Behavior. Antreas D. Athanassopoulos,Journal of Business Research, 47 (March 2000), pp. 191–207. [Literaturereview, Model presentation, Hypotheses, Survey of banks’business and individual customers, Measures, Corporate, Innovativeness,Physical and staff service, Pricing, Convenience, Statisticalanalysis, Implications.] 9Representation of Numerical and Verbal Product Informationin Consumer Memory. Terry L. Childers and MadhubalanViswanathan, Journal of Business Research, 47 (February 2000),pp. 109–20. [Literature review, Conceptual framework based onsurface versus meaning level processing of information, Hypotheses,Two experiments, Recognition paradigm, Assessment.] 10Consumers’ Use of Persuasion Knowledge: The Effects ofAccessibility and Cognitive Capacity on Perceptions of anInfluence Agent. Margaret C. Campbell and Amna Kirmani, Journalof Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 69–83. [Literaturereview; Model presentation; Four experiments; When an ulteriorpersuasion motive is highly accessible, both cognitively busy targetsand unbusy observers use persuasion knowledge to evaluate asalesperson; Statistical analysis.] 11Indexicality and the Verification Function of Irreplaceable Possessions:A Semiotic Analysis. Kent Grayson and David Shulman,Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 17–30. [Literaturereview, Hypotheses, Two studies, Late-adolescent and latemiddle-age consumers view irreplaceable possessions as being distinctbecause of indexicality, Link between verification andirreplaceable possessions, Statistical analysis.] 12Determinants of Country-of-Origin Evaluations. ZeynepGurhan-Canli and Durairaj Maheswaran, Journal of ConsumerResearch, 27 (June 2000), pp. 96–108. [Literature review,Hypotheses, Two experiments, Variables, Evaluations, Beliefs,Information relevance, Total thoughts, Country-of-origin andattribute-related thoughts, Statistical analysis.] 13Standing on the Shoulders of Ancients: Consumer Research,Persuasion, and Figurative Language. William J. McGuire,Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 109–14. [Literaturereview, Early communication (tropes, rhetorical figures),Impacts, Creative hypothesis-generating phase of research, Assessment.]14Children, Advertising, and Product Experiences: A Multimethod

Inquiry. Elizabeth S. Moore and Richard J. Lutz, Journalof Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 31–48. [Literaturereview; Model presentation; Hypotheses; Experiment and depthinterviews; Both product trial and advertising have influences, butinterplay of these influences differs between older and youngerchildren; Statistical analysis.] 15Consumer Learning and Brand Equity. Stijn M.J. van Osselaerand Joseph W. Alba, Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (June2000), pp. 1–16. [Literature review, Series of experiments, Strongblocking effects were found despite a limited number of brand preexposuresand extensive exposure to predictive attribute information.]16The Role of Explanations and Need for Uniqueness in ConsumerDecision Making: Unconventional Choices Based onReasons. Itamar Simonson and Stephen M. Nowlis, Journal ofConsumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 49–68. [Literature review,Hypotheses, Series of studies, Explaining decisions shifts the focusfrom the choice of options to the choice of reasons. Buyers whoexplain their decisions and have high need for uniqueness tend toMarketing Literature Review / 95select unconventional reasons and are more likely to make unconventionalchoices.] 17Qualitative Steps Toward an Expanded Model of Anxiety inGift-Giving. David B. Wooten, Journal of Consumer Research, 27(June 2000), pp. 84–95. [Literature review, Model development,Survey of students and nonstudent adults, Givers become anxiouswhen they are highly motivated to elicit desired reactions fromtheir recipients but are pessimistic about their prospects of success.]18Understanding the Customer Base of Service Providers: AnExamination of the Differences Between Switchers and Stayers.Jaishankar Ganesh, Mark J. Arnold, and Kristy E. Reynolds,Journal of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 65–87. [Literaturereview, Hypotheses, Two studies, Consumers’ use of banking services,Impacts, Overall satisfaction, Satisfaction with servicedimensions, Involvement, Customer loyalty, Statistical analysis,Implications.] 19Self-Service Technologies: Understanding Customer Satisfactionwith Technology-Based Service Encounters. Matthew L.Meuter, Amy L. Ostrom, Robert I. Roundtree, and Mary Jo Bitner,Journal of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 50–64. [Literaturereview, Critical incident study (satisfying and dissatisfying),Sources, Consumer reactions, Comparisons, Interpersonalencounter satisfaction, Assessment, Managerial implications.] 20Consumer Response to Negative Publicity: The ModeratingRole of Commitment. Rohini Ahluwalia, Robert E. Burnkrant,and H. Rao Unnava, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May2000), pp. 203–14. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Three experiments,Consumers who are committed to a brand counterarguenegative information and can resist information that is likely toinduce switching behavior.] 21A Hierarchical Bayes Model for Assortment Choice. Eric T.Bradlow and Vithala R. Rao, Journal of Marketing Research, 37(May 2000), pp. 259–68. [Literature review, Experiment, Set ofeight popular magazines, Effects, Price, Attributes, Features,Selection, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 22Impact of Product-Harm Crises on Brand Equity: The ModeratingRole of Consumer Expectations. Niraj Dawar and MadanM. Pillutla, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.215–26. [Literature review, Expectations–evidence framework,Hypotheses, Field survey and two laboratory experiments,

Impacts, Consumers’ interpretation of the evidence from firmresponse, Managerial implications.] 23The Evolution of Brand Preferences and Choice Behaviors ofConsumers to a Market. Carrie M. Heilman, Douglas Bowman,and Gordon P. Wright, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May2000), pp. 139–55. [Literature review, Logit-mixture model withtime-varying parameters, Consumer panel data, Stages (informationcollection, extended to lesser-known brands, information consolidation),Impacts, Product experience and learning, Statisticalanalysis, Implications.] 24Choosing What I Want Versus Rejecting What I Do Not Want:An Application of Decision Framing to Product Option ChoiceDecisions. C. Whan Park, Sung Youl Jun, and Deborah J. Mac-Innis, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.187–202. [Literature review, Model presentation, Hypotheses,Three studies, Option framing, Psychological reactions, Moderators(option prices, product category prices, regret anticipation,product category commitment), Managerial effects.] 25Assessing a Place to Live: A Quality of Life Perspective. GlenRiecken, Don Shemwell, and Ugur Yavas, Journal of Nonprofit andPublic Sector Marketing, 7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 17–29. [Survey ofcommunity leaders, Factors, Weather, Crime, Economy, Education,Health, Housing, Leisure, Transportation, Arts, Importance/performanceanalysis, Policy implications.] 26Assessing the Effects of Quality, Value, and Customer Satisfactionon Consumer Behavioral Intentions in Service Environments.J. Joseph Cronin Jr., Michael K. Brady, and G. Tomas M.Hult, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 193–218. [Literaturereview, Model testing, Hypotheses, Two studies, Multipleservice providers, Direct and indirect effects, Relationships, Statisticalanalysis.] 271.2 Legal, Political and Economic IssuesSee also 51, 102, 151, 176, 188, 198, 199, 203, 227Ethical and Online Privacy Issues in Electronic Commerce.Eileen P. Kelly and Hugh C. Rowland, Business Horizons, 43(May/June 2000), pp. 3–12. [Discussion, Information gathering,Legal aspects, Freedom of choice, Voluntary and informed consent,Proposed legislation, Industry reaction, Managerial recommendations.]28The Measurement of Intellectual Property Rights Protection.Robert L. Ostergard Jr., Journal of International Business Studies,31 (Second Quarter 2000), pp. 349–60. [Discussion, Empiricalresearch, Comparisons, Countries, Law and enforcement measures,Protection score analysis (copyright, patent, trademark),Assessment.] 29Covenants Not to Compete. Erica B. Garay, Marketing Management,9 (Summer 2000), pp. 61–63. [Acquisitions and mergers,Legislation, Court decisions, Enforcing covenants arising in connectionwith the sale of a business, Limits to enforcement, Assessment.]30U.S. Trust Busters Eye Net Markets. Dan Gottlieb, Purchasing,128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S67, S69, S72. [Discussion, Net tradeexchanges, Legal aspects, Market power, Major industry players,Acquisitions and mergers, Anticompetitive effects, Assessment.]311.3 Ethics and Social ResponsibilitySee also 28, 151, 210, 228Representing the Perceived Ethical Work Climate AmongMarketing Employees. Barry J. Babin, James S. Boles, and DonaldP. Robin, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(Summer 2000), pp. 345–58. [Literature review, Survey of employees,

Models, Responsibility/trust, Peer behavior, Ethical norms,Selling practices, Role ambiguity, Role conflict, Job satisfaction,Organizational commitment, Statistical analysis, Implications.] 32Crime and Small Business: An Exploratory Study of Cost andPrevention Issues in U.S. Firms. Donald F. Kuratko, Jeffrey S.Hornsby, Douglas W. Naffziger, and Richard M. Hodgetts, Journalof Small Business Management, 38 (July 2000), pp. 1–13. [Literaturereview, Survey, Level of concern, Crime prevention actions,Training provided, Perceptions of crime against business, Annualcost of crime, Impact of industry type, Statistical anlaysis.] 33Making Business Sense of Environmental Compliance. JasbinderSingh, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp.91–100. [Discussion, Partnerships, Environmental and plant managers,Savings, Strategies, Review plant operations, Find best timesto install pollution-control equipment and upgrade productiontechnology, Allocate environmental costs, Integrate business andenvironmental decisions, Examples.] 34Corporate Responsibility Audits: Doing Well by Doing Good.Sandra Waddock and Neil Smith, Sloan Management Review, 41(Winter 2000), pp. 75–83. [Vision versus practice, CEO commitment,Teams, Corporate culture, Mission statement, Stakeholderelements, Existing policies and practices, Functional areas (humanresources, environmental practices, quality systems, communityrelations), Examples.] 3596 / Journal of Marketing, April 20012. MARKETING FUNCTIONS2.1 Management, Planning, and StrategySee also 9, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 64, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, 77, 82,83, 85, 86, 90, 96, 97, 98, 106, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121,122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 134, 135, 145, 146, 148, 149, 153, 154,161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174,175, 179, 183, 184, 186, 193, 202, 207, 210, 212, 214, 219, 221,228Avoiding the Complexity Trap. Alan Brache and Peter M. Tobia,Across the Board, 37 (June 2000), pp. 42–46. [Sustainable niches,Problems, Availability of outsourcing, Broadening capability andplunging price of technology, Workforce mobility, E-commerce,Impacts, Focus, Critical resources, Information on costs, Examples.]36Laying Off Risk. Stan Davis and Christopher Meyer. Across theBoard, 37 (April 2000), pp. 33–37. [Insuring against risk, Riskrelatedrewards, Organizing around risk, Hedging, Core competencies,Value creation, Examples.] 37The Negotiation Industry. Lee Edson, Across the Board, 37(April 2000), pp. 14–20. [Discussion, Use in hiring process, International,Special training, Educational initiatives, Win–win model,Examples.] 38The Secrets of Performance Appraisal. Dick Grote, Across theBoard, 37 (May 2000), pp. 14–20. [Corporate culture, Organizationalexpectations, Identification of specific core competencies,Evaluation, Mastery descriptions, Role of objectivity, Examples.]39Condition Critical. Phillip L. Polakoff and David G. Anderson,Across the Board, 37 (May 2000), pp. 42–47. [Health and safetyprograms, Control, Lost time costs, Risk shifting strategies, Helpingemployees manage their own care, Assessment, Guidelines.]40The Effects of Formal Strategic Marketing Planning on theIndustrial Firm’s Configuration, Structure, Exchange Patterns,and Performance. Andy Claycomb, Richard Germain, andCornelia Droge, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May

2000), pp. 219–34. [Literature review; Survey (Council of LogisticsManagment); Impacts; Use of integrative committees andmechanisms, specialization, decentralized decision making, andformal performance measurement (both internal and benchmarking).]41Implementing a Customer Relationship Strategy: The AsymmetricImpact of Poor Versus Excellent Execution. Mark R.Colgate and Peter J. Danaher, Journal of the Academy of MarketingScience, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 375–87. [Literature review;Survey of bank customers; Satisfaction, performance, usage ofbank; Personal banker; Good and bad strategies; Switching activity;Behavioral intentions; Statistical analysis; New Zealand.] 42Superordinate Identity in Cross-Functional Product DevelopmentTeams: Its Antecedents and Effect on New Product Performance.Rajesh Sethi, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,28 (Summer 2000), pp. 330–44. [Literature review,Hypotheses, Survey of key informants in cross-functional teams,Impacts, Special team structure, Traditional team factor, Interactioneffects, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 43Business Planning Practices in Small Size Companies: SurveyResults. Surendra S. Singhvi, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19(Summer 2000), pp. 3–4, 6, 8. [Primary objectives for preparing aplan, Responsibility, Planning horizon, Plan update, Achievement,Annual budget, Board approval, Financial success, Recommendations.]44Journal of Business Research, 47 (January 2000), pp. 3–89. [Eightarticles on dynamics of strategy, Executive pay and UK privatization,Nonprofit organization responses to anticipated changes ingovernment support for HIV/AIDS services, Evolving complexorganizational structures in new and unpredictable environments,Innovation teams, Institutional foundations of success and failure,Impact of technology policy integration on strategy, Businesstransformation, Impact of environmentally linked strategies oncompetitive advantage, Many countries.] 45Relationship of Firm Size, Initial Diversification, and Internationalizationwith Strategic Change. Parshotam Dass, Journal ofBusiness Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 135–46. [Theoretical discussion,Hypotheses, Data collection (COMPUSTAT II database),Variables, Initial and changes in product diversity, Industry performance,Risk, Slack, Firm size, International diversification, Interactions,Statistical analysis.] 46Organizational Values: The Inside View of Service Productivity.Dawn Dobni, J.R. Brent Ritchie, and Wilf Zerbe, Journal ofBusiness Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 91–107. [Literaturereview, Survey of service firms, Impacts, Employee mutualism,Market leadership, Customer intimacy, Operational efficiency,Organizational preservation, Change aversion, Social responsibility,Value systems (entrepreneurial, performance-pressured, integrated,temperate), Statistical analysis, Canada.] 47Firm Characteristics Influencing Export Propensity: AnEmpirical Investigation by Industry Type. Rajshekhar G.Javalgi, D. Steven White, and Oscar Lee, Journal of BusinessResearch, 47 (March 2000), pp. 217–28. [Literature review,Hypotheses, Survey, Comparisons, Export versus nonexport firms,Variables, Number of employees, Total sales, Years in business,International trade activity, Primary industrial classification, Firmownership, Statistical analysis.] 48Benchmarking Cultural Transition. Roger Connors and TomSmith, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.10–12. [Corporate culture, The best benchmarks are keyed toimportant before-and-after results the organization must achieve

and to the beliefs and actions that produce those results,Assessment.] 49Investigation of Factors Contributing to the Success of Cross-Functional Teams. Edward F. McDonough III, Journal of ProductInnovation Management, 17 (May 2000), pp. 221–35. [Literaturereview, Model presentation, Survey of new product developmentprofessionals, Outcome and process reasons for adopting crossfunctionalteams, Interactions, Stage setters, Enablers, Teambehaviors, Performance, Assessment.] 50Environmental and Ownership Characteristics of Small Businessesand Their Impact on Development. William B. Gartnerand Subodh Bhat, Journal of Small Business Management, 38 (July2000), pp. 14–26. [Literature review, Survey, Growth expectations,Effects, Crime, Neighborhood appearance, Ethnicity of owner,Legal structure of firm, Firm type and size, Statistical analysis,Recommendations.] 51Strategic Planning in the Military: The U.S. Naval SecurityGroup Changes Its Strategy, 1992–1998. William Y. Frentzell II,John M. Bryson, and Barbara C. Crosby, Long Range Planning(UK), 33 (June 2000), pp. 402–29. [Discussion, Creating vision,Middle and top-level management involvement, Stakeholder andSWOT analyses, Scenario planning, Cognitive and oval mapping,Assessment.] 52The Future.org. Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and GrantMiles, Long Range Planning (UK), 33 (June 2000), pp. 300–21.[Collaboration-based organizational model for innovation, Essentialconditions (time, trust, territory), Design principles (selfmanagement,behavioral protocols, shared strategic intent, equitablesharing of returns), Barriers (institutional, philosophical,organizational), Examples.] 53Marketing Literature Review / 97Business Domain Definition Practice: Does It Affect OrganisationalPerformance? Jatinder S. Sidhu, Edwin J. Nijssen, andHarry R. Commandeur, Long Range Planning (UK), 33 (June2000), pp. 376–401. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Survey ofmanagers, Focus, Stable versus turbulent environments, Impacts,Customer need, Technological competence, Assessment, Implications,The Netherlands.] 54Marketing Decision Support Systems for Strategy Building.Sanjay K. Rao, Marketing Health Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp.15–18. [Pharmaceutical products, Customer and market environments,System outputs (interaction between pricing and other marketingmix strategies), Cash flows, Outcomes, Assessment.] 55What’s in a Name? New CPO Title Reflects Buying’s StrategicRole. William Atkinson, Purchasing, 128 (June 1, 2000), pp. 45,49–51. [Chief procurement officer, Organizational structure, Functions,Responsibilities, Top management support, Implications forsuppliers, Examples.] 56Supporting a For-Profit Cause. Guy Kawasaki, Sales and MarketingManagement, (May 2000), pp. S16–S19. [Corporate culture,Customer focused, Morale, Impacts, Creating a good product andservice, Sense of ownership, Training, Empowerment, Support,Examples.] 57A Position of Power. Chad Kaydo, Sales and Marketing Management,(June 2000), pp. 104–106, 108, 110, 112, 114. [Corporateimage, Product positioning, Product differentiation, Factors, Identifythe difference, Make it relevant, Keep it simple, Watch thecompetition, Examples.] 58Technology Is Not Enough: Improving Performance by BuildingOrganizational Memory. Rob Cross and Lloyd Baird, SloanManagement Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp. 69–78. [Organizational

learning, Explicit and tacit knowledge, Databases, Social bonding,Work processes and support systems, Targeting, Structuring,Embedding, Examples.] 59Outsourcing Innovation: The New Engine of Growth. JamesBrian Quinn, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer 2000), pp.13–28. [Discussion, Basic and early-stage research, Businessprocesses, New-product introductions, Impacts, Resource limits,Specialist talents, Multiple risks, Attracting talent, Speed, Examples.]60Leading Laterally in Company Outsourcing. Michael Useemand Joseph Harder, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Winter 2000),pp. 25–38. [Personal interviews, Senior managers, Leadershipcapabilities (strategic thinking, deal making, partnership governing,managing change), Assessment.] 612.2 RetailingSee also 73, 87, 96, 99, 100, 105, 109, 110, 132, 133, 215, 224A Longitudinal Analysis of Satisfaction and Profitability. KennethL. Bernhardt, Naveen Donthu, and Pamela A. Kennett, Journalof Business Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 161–71. [Literaturereview, Hypotheses, Consumer survey, Impacts, Customerand employee satisfaction, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications,Fast-food restaurant industry.] 62Towards Understanding Consumer Response to Stock-Outs.Katia Campo, Els Gijsbrechts, and Patricia Nisol, Journal ofRetailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 219–42. [Literature review;Model estimation; Store intercept; Characteristics (product, consumer,situation); Costs; Impacts; Item, package size, and storeswitching; Purchase deferment and cancellation; Statistical analysis;Belgium.] 63Attention, Retailers! How Convenient Is Your ConvenienceStrategy? Kathleen Seiders, Leonard L. Berry, and Larry G. Gresham,Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp. 79–89.[Trends; Access, possession, and transaction convenience; Locatingthe right product; Integrated approach; Examples.] 64Customer Relationship Management. Susan Reda, Stores, 82(April 2000), pp. 33–36. [Target markets, Databases, Softwarepackages, Consultants, Role of marketing department, Examples.]65Real Estate, Customer Research Become Key Tools in ServiceMerchandise Revival. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.118, 120, 122. [Discussion, Consultants, Customer profiles, Productcategories, Point-of-sale information, Software packages, Website, Internet alliances, Trade area analysis, Case study.] 66Rethinking the Rules. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.34–35, 38. [Retailing industry, Impacts, Online revolution, Confrontingnew realities, More fluid environment, Logistics expertise,Acquisition strategy, Bricks-and-mortar advantages, Examples.]672.3 Channels of DistributionSee also 56, 84, 91, 92, 94, 95, 104, 147, 163, 165, 185, 190Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (July 2000), pp. 285–386.[Nine articles on business marketing networks, Implementing programmaticinitiatives in manufacturer–retailer networks, Supplierrelations, Interconnectedness, Strategic alliances, Partner as customer,Relationship strategy, Quality, Customer retention, Purchasingbehavior, Satisfaction in industrial markets.] 68On Interfirm Power, Channel Climate, and Solidarity in IndustrialDistributor–Supplier Dyads. Keysuk Kim, Journal of theAcademy of Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 388–405.[Literature review, Model estimation, Hypotheses, Survey, Measures,Supplier and distributor power, Coercive and noncoercive

influence strategy, Trust, Relationship continuity, Solidarity, Statisticalanalysis.] 69A Brand’s Advertising and Promotion Allocation Strategy: TheRole of the Manufacturer’s Relationship with Distributors asModerated by Relative Market Share. Kenneth Anselmi, Journalof Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 113–22. [Literaturereview; Hypotheses; Survey of manufacturers; As exchange relationshipsbecome more relational, manufacturers increase advertisingallocations; More discrete relationships, increase allocation topromotion; Market share moderates the influence of exchange relationshiptype.] 70Relationship Marketing Activities, Commitment, and MembershipBehaviors in Professional Associations. Thomas W.Gruen, John O. Summers, and Frank Acito, Journal of Marketing,64 (July 2000), pp. 34–49. [Literature review, Model presentation,Hypotheses, Survey of life insurance agents, Measures, Commitment(affective, continuance, normative), Impacts, Membershipretention, Exchange-based participation, Cooperatively basedcoproduction, Statistical analysis.] 71Sales Through Sequential Distribution Channels: An Applicationto Movies and Videos. Donald R. Lehmann and Charles B.Weinberg, Journal of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 18–33. [Literaturereview, Model structure and analysis, Data from 35 movies,Exponential sales curves, Optimal release times, Assessment.] 72Control Mechanisms and the Relationship Life Cycle: Implicationsfor Safeguarding Specific Investments and DevelopingCommitment. Sandy D. Jap and Shankar Ganesan, Journal ofMarketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp. 227–45. [Literaturereview, Conceptual framework, Hypotheses, Survey of retailers,Measures, Transaction-specific investments, Relational norms,Explicit contracts, Supplier’s commitment, Performance, Conflictlevel, Relationship satisfaction and phase, Interdependence magnitudeand asymmetry, Statistical analysis.] 7398 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001Organizing Distribution Channels for Information Goods onthe Internet. Rajiv Dewan, Marshall Freimer, and Abraham Seidmann,Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 483–95. [Electroniccommerce, Electronic publishing, Digital and pricing content,Internet service providers, Industrial organization, Spatialcompetition, Industry structure, Assessment, Managerial implications.]74Price Protection in the Personal Computer Industry. Hau L.Lee, V. Padmanabhan, Terry A. Taylor, and Seungjin Whang, ManagementScience, 46 (April 2000), pp. 467–82. [Literature review,Obsolescence-prone market, Single- and two-buying-opportunitymodels, Channel coordination, Supply chain management, Incentives,Numerical example.] 75Pursuing Risk-Sharing, Gain-Sharing Arrangements. JamesB.L. Thomson and James C. Anderson, Marketing Management, 9(Summer 2000), pp. 40–47. [Customer–supplier relations, Marketstrategy, Implementation (assess customer measurement systems,determine products and services, build historical database, measurementresponsibility, sharing risks and gains, outline specificactions and initiate the agreement), Case study, Hospital supplyindustry.] 76Distributors: How Good Are They? James P. Morgan, Purchasing,128 (May 4, 2000), pp. 50–52, 54, 58. [Survey of purchasingprofessionals, Percentage of companies’ purchases, Product categories,Needs priorities, Performance ratings, Use of e-businesstools, Problems (prices, delivery, damage, cost control, e-business,inventory, personnel, information), Slow implementation, Examples.]

772.4 Electronic MarketingSee also 3, 5, 28, 31, 67, 74, 77, 128, 132, 133, 151, 179, 184, 213Beating the Banner Ad. Christine Blank, American Demographics,22 (June 2000), pp. 42–44. [E-mail campaigns, Target markets,Entertainment, Multisensory, Interactive, Click-and-play videomessages, Rich media, Costs, Examples.] 78Mouse-Trapping the Student Market. Rebecca Gardyn, AmericanDemographics, 22 (May 2000), pp. 30, 32–34. [In-school marketing,Ad-supported mousepads, Effectiveness, Comparisons,Internet banner ads, Online sweepstakes, Newspaper ads, Casestudy.] 79Cracking the Niche. Christina Le Beau, American Demographics,22 (June 2000), pp. 38–40. [Online marketing, Market segments,Web-based groups with focused interests, Becoming part of a community,Examples.] 80Internet: A Vehicle for On-line Shopping.Venkatakrishna V. Bellur,Finnish Journal of Business and Economics, 49 (No. 2, 2000),pp. 191–207. [Literature review, Survey of households, Demographicand socioeconomic profile, Internet access and usage rates,Impacts, Occupation, Income, Discriminant analysis.] 81Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp. 84–114.[Three articles on e-business, Syndication, Roles, Structure, Business-to-business marketplaces, E-hubs, Integrating virtual andphysical operations, Examples.] 82How to Acquire Customers on the Web. Donna L. Hoffman andThomas P. Novak, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000),pp. 179–80, 183–86, 188. [Discussion, Banner ads, Affiliate marketing,Integrated strategy (mass media, online advertising, strategicpartnerships, word of mouth, free links, PR), Examples.] 83The All-in-One Market. Paul Nunes, Diane Wilson, and AjitKambil, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp.19–20. [Trends, Evolution, Online transactions, Mechanisms, Pricecompetition, Examples.] 84Going Up! Vertical Marketing on the Web. Sunny Baker andKim Baker, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.30–33. [Discussion, Mission, Customer needs, Market segments,Building awareness, E-commerce strategy, Assessment.] 85The Eight Deadly Assumptions of E-Business. Alan Brache andJim Webb, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.13–17. [Discussion, Technology is the answer, Get on the e-businessbandwagon, Expand the customer base, Enables global expansion,Reengineering will help to better serve e-business needs, Websites will ensure more e-business, Delegate development andimplementation to the IT department or to a consultant, Going digitalquickly, Assessment.] 86Frictionless Commerce? A Comparison of Internet and ConventionalRetailers. Erik Brynjolfsson and Michael D. Smith,Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 563–85. [Literaturereview, Data collection, Competition, Price changes, Menu costs,Price dispersion, Asymmetrically informed consumers and searchcosts, Product and retailer heterogeneity, Assessment.] 87Debunking the Myths of Web Site Promotion. Joyce Flory, MarketingHealth Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 31–35. [Discussion,Site registration, Registration services, Search engines, Specifictypes of information, Impacts, Promotion efforts, Awards,Press releases, Contests and giveaways, Success, Guidelines.] 88Branding on the Internet. Larry Chiagouris and Brant Wansley,Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 34–38. [Discussion,Relationship-building continuum, Impacts, E-branding tactics,Measurement issues, Examples.] 89

Ride or Drive? Ralph A. Oliva, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer2000), pp. 58–60. [Web-based hubs, Driving (starting yourown digital marketplace for multiple buyers and sellers), Riding(signing on to a hub run by another firm), Managing cognitivespaces, Spin ups, Hub wars, Ride versus drive, Assessment.] 90Buyers Are Hot on Internet, Wary About E-Procurement. Purchasing,128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S6–S7, S10, S13. [Survey, Attitudes,Communications (requests for information and quotes fromsuppliers, shipments tracking and expediting, ordering), Costs,Ease of use, Security, Reliability, Current or projected use, Examples.]91E-Auction Model Morphs to Meet Buyers’ Needs. Anne MillenPorter, Purchasing, 128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S31–S32, S34, S36,S39, S40, S44, S46. [Discussion, Reverse e-auctions, Biddinginvolving many suppliers, Impacts, Profit margins, Consultants,Software packages, Requirements, Transactions, Markets, Outsourcing,Examples.] 92Cashing In. Ginger Conlon, Sales and Marketing Management,(June 2000), pp. 94–96, 102. [Business growth, Dot-com businesses,Market potentials, Factors, Understand the audience, Actquickly, Risk, Stability, Examples.] 93Why Dealers Must Buy In to the Web. Brent Keltner, Sales andMarketing Management, (April 2000), pp. 29–30. [Discussion,Benefits, Strategies, Focus on underperforming products, Integratesales and marketing, Offer incentives, Provide technical support,Examples.] 94Clicks and Misses. Melinda Ligos, Sales and Marketing Management,(June 2000), pp. 68–70, 72, 74, 76. [E-business, Problems,Alienating channel partners, Not focusing on core competencies,Not integrating customer service systems, Trying to serve massmarket instead of existing customers, Not involving salespeople,Not knowing when to outsource, Examples.] 95Finding Sustainable Profitability in Electronic Commerce.John M. de Figueiredo, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer2000), pp. 41–52. [E-commerce product continuum, Market strategy(commodity products, quasi commodity, look and feel goods,look and feel with variable quality), Incumbents versus newentrants, Sustaining competitive advantage, Examples.] 96Marketing Literature Review / 99Fast Venturing: The Quick Way to Start Web Businesses. AjitKambil, Erik D. Eselius, and Karen A. Monteiro, Sloan ManagementReview, 41 (Summer 2000), pp. 55–67. [Model presentation;Roles (innovators, equity and operational partners); Stages (illumination,investigation, implementation); Why, when, and how companiesshould fast venture; Venture networks; Examples.] 97Building Stronger Brands Through Online Communities. GilMcWilliam, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp.43–54. [Discussion, Traditional user groups, Forum for exchangeof common interests, Attracting new members, Links to other sites,Brand owner’s control over content, Skills needed to manageonline communities, Examples.] 98Domain Names Emerge as Key Tools for On-line Retail Marketing.Jennifer Karas, Stores, 82 (May 2000), pp. 94, 96, 98. [Discussion,Name by which a company is known on the Internet,Advantages, Professional and credible Web presence, Name competition,Examples.] 99In-Store Interactive Systems Take on Major Role in DrawingTechnology-Savvy Customers. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (May2000), pp. 44, 46, 48. [Study, Integration of online and in-storeactivities (digital signage, electronic messaging, kiosks), Consumerexpectations, Shopping behavior, Examples.] 100

2.5 Physical DistributionSee also 67, 111, 147, 194, 195Early Supplier Involvement in Customer New Product Development:A Contingency Model of Component Supplier Intentions.Douglas W. LaBahn and Robert Krapfel, Journal of BusinessResearch, 47 (March 2000), pp. 173–90. [Literature review,Hypotheses, Survey, Customer power advantage, Adherence toagreements, Customer promise, Supplier intentions, Interdependence,Statistical analysis, Implications.] 101An Industry Still in Need of Integration. Brian Milligan, Purchasing,128 (May 18, 2000), pp. 147, 149–50. [Business growth,Intermodal transport, Acquisitions and mergers, Government regulation,Examples.] 102Service Providers Under Pressure to Control Rates. Brian Milligan,Purchasing, 128 (April 20, 2000), pp. 113, 116–17, 119,121. [Transportation, Third-party logistics, Industry growth, Purchasingmanagers, Time constraints, Bundled services, Costs,Internet investments, Software packages, Examples.] 103Supply Chain Software Moves to the Web. Brian Milligan, Purchasing,128 (April 6, 2000), pp. 67–68. [Transportation, Impacts,Business processes, Forecasting shipments, Demand forecasts,Meeting anticipated transportation requirements, Needed improvements,Examples.] 104E-Replenishment System Counters Continuing Problem ofSupermarket Out-of-Stocks. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (April2000), pp. 70, 72. [Supply chain initiatives, POS system investments,Scanning data, Software packages, Collaborative planning,Initialization, Execution, Monitoring, Examples.] 1052.6 PricingSee also 55, 75, 84, 87, 103, 113Industrial Export Pricing Practices in the United Kingdom.Nikolaos Tzokas, Susan Hart, Paraskevas Argouslidis, and MichaelSaren, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp.191–204. [Literature review, Survey of export marketing directorsfrom three industrial sectors, High and low competence firms, Pricingorientations, Objectives, Policies, Methods used, Statisticalanalysis, Managerial implications, UK.] 106Advertised Reference Price Effects on Consumer Price Estimates,Value Perception, and Search Intention. Bruce L. Alfordand Brian T. Engelland, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May2000), pp. 93–100. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment,Plausible and implausible price exposure conditions, Statisticalanalysis, Practical implications.] 107An Investigation of Reference Price Segments. Tridib Mazumdarand Purushottam Papatla, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May2000), pp. 246–58. [Literature review, Model development, Datacollection (ERIM scanner panel of ACNielsen), Use of internal andexternal reference prices, Brand preferences and responses tomarketing-mix variables, Statistical analysis, Managerialimplications.] 108Insights into Cross- and Within-Store Price Search: RetailerEstimates vs. Consumer Self-Reports. Joel E. Urbany, Peter R.Dickson, and Alan G. Sawyer, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer2000), pp. 243–58. [Literature review, Surveys, Attitudes, Consumerpatronage behavior, Price comparison frequency, Search forand responsiveness to price specials, Belief discrepancies, Assessment,Theoretical and managerial implications.] 109Burden of Frequent Price Changes Spurs Development ofAutomated Pricing Systems. Michael Hartnett, Stores, 82 (May2000), pp. 56, 58. [Retail chains; Software packages; Categorymanagement; Pricing rules can be applied to maintain family group

and parity pricing by item, flavor, size, brand, competitor’s pricing,margins, and the retailer’s value image.] 1102.7 ProductSee also 1, 6, 7, 8, 10, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 43, 50, 55, 58, 60,63, 70, 89, 98, 101, 108, 135, 145, 147, 148, 154, 155, 167, 170,173, 206Product Development Partnerships: Balancing the Needs ofOEMs and Suppliers. Morgan L. Swink and Vincent A. Mabert,Business Horizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 59–68. [Discussion,OEM needs (providers of scarce resources and capabilities, supportof global product strategies, minimized risks), Supplier needs(rewards for up-front involvement, protected business interests,shared wealth), Success, Guidelines.] 111Building an Innovation Factory. Andrew Hargadon and Robert I.Sutton, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp.157–66. [Knowledge-brokering cycle, Factors, Capturing newideas, Keeping ideas alive, Imagining new uses for old ideas,Putting promising concepts to the test, Examples.] 112Price and Brand Name as Indicators of Quality Dimensions forConsumer Durables. Merrie Brucks, Valarie A. Zeithaml, andGillian Naylor, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(Summer 2000), pp. 359–74. [Literature review, Model presentation,Hypotheses, Laboratory experiment, Ease of use, Versatility,Durability, Service ability, Performance, Prestige, Consumers’judgment processes and inferences, Statistical analysis.] 113Introducing Short-Term Brands: A New Branding Tool for aNew Consumer Reality. Dan Herman, Journal of Brand Management(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 330–40. [Changes in consumer preferencesand behavior, Market strategy, Evolving and varietybrands, Planned limited life expectancies, Value added, Examples.]114A Survey of Brand Risk Management. Rory F. Knight and DeborahJ. Pretty, Journal of Brand Management (UK), 7 (May 2000),pp. 353–65. [Discussion; Brand significance and perception; Corequalities of brands across regions, industry sectors, and organizationalposition; Threats; Protection mechanisms; Brand insurance;Brand valuation; Assessment; Many countries.] 115Call Branding: Identifying, Leveraging, and Managing NewBranding Opportunities. Kevin M. Waters, Journal of BrandManagement (UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 321–29. [Modifying a brandto correspond with its verbal identity (Kraft Mayo, FedEx), Partialdeclaration and use, Acronyms, Success, Guidelines.] 116100 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001The Incumbent’s Curse? Incumbency, Size, and Radical ProductInnovation. Rajesh K. Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, Journal ofMarketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 1–17. [Literature review; Data collection(more than 250 books and 500 articles); Recently, largefirms and incumbents are significantly more likely to introduceradical innovations than small firms and nonincumbents; Nationality;Implications.] 117Impact of a Late Entrant on the Diffusion of a NewProduct/Service. Trichy V. Krishnan, Frank M. Bass, and V.Kumar, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.269–78. [Model testing, Mathematical equations, Brand-level salesdata in multiple markets, Effects, Market potentials, Diffusionspeed of the category and of incumbent brands, Statisticalanalysis.] 118Customization of Product Technology and International NewProduct Success: Mediating Effects of New Product Developmentand Rollout Timeliness. George M. Chryssochoidis andVeronica Wong, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17

(July 2000), pp. 268–85. [Literature review, Model proposal,Hypotheses, Interviews with managers in multinational companies,Impacts, Scheduling, Individual country requirements, Statisticalanalysis.] 119Company Competencies as a Network: The Role of ProductDevelopment. Hanne Harmsen, Klaus G. Grunert, and KarstenBove, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17 (May 2000),pp. 194–207. [Literature review, Survey of managers, Rankings,Perceived success factors and problems, Assessment, Implications.]120Harnessing Tacit Knowledge to Achieve Breakthrough Innovation.Ronald Mascitelli, Journal of Product Innovation Management,17 (May 2000), pp. 179–93. [Discussion, Model presentation,Methods, Achieve emotional commitment and personalinvolvement from design team members, Use of early and frequentprototyping, Face-to-face interaction during product development,Examples, Managerial implications.] 121Technological Innovativeness as a Moderator of New ProductDesign Integration and Top Management Support. MorganSwink, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17 (May2000), pp. 208–20. [Literature review, Model presentation,Hypotheses, Study of new product development projects, Effects,Financial performance, Design quality, Time-based performance,Interactions, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 122Consumer-Level Factors Moderating the Success of PrivateLabel Brands. Rajeev Batra and Indrajit Sinha, Journal of Retailing,76 (Summer 2000), pp. 175–91. [Literature review, Modelestimation, Mall-intercept study, Measures (consequences of purchasemistake, degree of quality variation in category, search versusexperience nature of category, price consciousness), Statisticalanalysis, Managerial implications.] 123Choosing the Right Branding Expert.Victoria Barkan and DebraSemans, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 29–31.[Discussion, Understanding your needs, Approach/methodology,Objectivity and bias, Experience, Future perspective, Leadingedgethinking, Benchmark results, Client satisfaction, Stayinvolved and visible, Assessment.] 124Market-Driven Product Development. Stephan A. Butscher andMichael Laker, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp.48–53. [Target-costing pricing approach, Definition of target segments,Competitive advantages and disadvantages, Product positioning,Fine-tuning product design and pricing, Market simulations,Target costs, Examples.] 125Brand Waves: Building Momentum Throughout the OwnershipCycle. Peter H. Farquhar, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer2000), pp. 14–21. [Discussion, Ownership cycle, Trigger,Consideration, Drivers (awareness, relevance, differentiation, quality,affordability, availability), Conversion, Purchase and confirmation,Taking credit, Value, Examples.] 126How to Build a Billion Dollar Business-to-Business Brand. DonE. Schultz and Heidi F. Schultz, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer2000), pp. 22–28. [Discussion; Evolution of b-to-b companies;Product-, distribution-, and customer-driven; Brand structures andpolicies; Building and development; Communication; Measuringresults; Example.] 1272.8 Sales PromotionSee also 70, 75, 88Redeeming Qualities. Jennifer Lach, American Demographics, 22(May 2000), pp. 36–38. [Study, Incentives, S&H greenpoints.com,Online participation, Customer retention, Age groups, Incomes,Effectiveness, Examples.] 128

An Evaluation of State Sponsored Promotion Programs. TimothyJ. Wilkinson and Lance Eliot Brouthers, Journal of BusinessResearch, 47 (March 2000), pp. 229–36. [Data collection (relationshipsbetween program offerings and state exports), Variables(direct exports, trade shows, trade missions, foreign offices, marketinformation activities, population), Statistical analysis,Implications.] 129Money Isn’t Everything. Vincent Alonzo, Sales and MarketingManagement, (April 2000), pp. 47–48. [Sweepstakes, Appeals,Effectiveness, Impacts, Long-term sales, Offering prizes appropriatefor clients, Examples.] 130The Shows Will Go On. Danielle Harris, Sales and MarketingManagement, (May 2000), pp. 85–88. [Discussion, Trade shows,Factors, Increasing booth traffic and generating quality leads,Motivating salespeople, Budgets, Examples.] 131Internet Retailers Shift Focus from Attracting to RetainingOn-line Customers. Maureen Licata, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.66, 68, 70, 72. [Value-focused customers, Loyalty incentives, Discounts,Giveaways, Contests, Sweepstakes, Free shipping, Customerdatabases, Impacts, Content, Community, Communication,Examples.] 132Electronic Coupons Find Growing Uses for Both Stores and ECommerceSites. Tony Seideman, Stores, 82 (April 2000), pp.104, 106. [Target markets, Flexibility, Costs, Customer databases,Profiles, Effectiveness, Examples.] 1332.9 AdvertisingSee also 2, 3, 7, 8, 15, 70, 78, 79, 80, 83, 152, 159, 177, 197, 224Who’s Next? Richard Linnett, Advertising Age, 71 (May 29,2000), pp. 12, 15. [Strategic planning, Advertising agencies, Competitiveadvantage, Acquisitions and mergers, Impacts, Clients,Business growth, Examples.] 134Linking Advertising and Brand Value. Irene M. Herremans,John K. Ryans Jr., and Raj Aggarwal, Business Horizons, 43(May/June 2000), pp. 19–26. [Literature review, Model presentation,Advertising turnover, Marketing investment, Product quality,Market share, Study of firms, High- and low-efficiency brandenhancers, Brand deterioration, Future unknown, Neglect,Examples.] 135Narrative Music in Congruent and Incongruent TV Advertising.Kineta Hung, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.25–34. [Literature review, Content analysis, Experiment, Meaningsassociated with ad components and commercials, Textual elaboration,Assessment.] 136The Impact of Verbal Anchoring on Consumer Response toImage Ads. Barbara J. Phillips, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring2000), pp. 15–24. [Literature review, Experiment, Attitude towardMarketing Literature Review / 101the ad, Presence and level of verbal anchoring, Comprehension,Statistical analysis.] 137Journal of Advertising Research, 40 (May/June 2000), pp. 7–52.[Four articles on creativity; Recall, liking, and creativity in TVcommercials; Creative differences between copywriters and artdirectors; Correlates of integrated marketing communications;Customer/brand loyalty in the interactive marketplace.] 138Advertising Attitudes and Advertising Effectiveness. AbhilashaMehta, Journal of Advertising Research, 40 (May/June 2000), pp.67–72. [Literature review, Data collection (Magazine ImpactResearch Systems), Measures, Attitudinal statements, Intrusiveness/recall, Persuasion/buying interest, Statistical analysis, Implications.]1392.10 Personal Selling

See also 11, 142, 217, 218Sales Call Anxiety: Exploring What It Means When Fear Rulesa Sales Encounter.Willem Verbeke and Richard P. Bagozzi, Journalof Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 88–101. [Literature review,Model testing, Hypotheses, Survey of salespeople, Factors, Negativeself-evaluations, Negative evaluations from customers, Physiologicalsymptoms, Protective actions, Statistical analysis, TheNetherlands.] 140Independents Day. Dan Hanover, Sales and Marketing Management,(April 2000), pp. 64–66, 68. [Independent sales reps, Motivation,Communication, Support, Rewards, Short-term bonus andincentives programs, Examples.] 1412.11 Sales ManagementSee also 57, 93, 95, 130, 131, 140, 141, 147, 213Comparisons of Alternative Perceptions of Sales Performance.Paul A. Dion and Peter M. Banting, Industrial Marketing Management,29 (May 2000), pp. 263–70. [Study of industrial market triads(salesperson, sales manager, buyer), There were assessmentdiscrepancies in addition to what constituted good performance,Gender evaluation, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.]142Driving Down Costs. Christine Galea, Sales and Marketing Management,(May 2000), pp. 102–104, 106, 108, 110. [Corporatecars, Strategy, Industry, Lease or own, Depreciation, Fuel concerns,Vehicle duration, Reselling, Buy from one manufacturer,Managing risk, Examples.] 143Masterful Meetings. Erin Strout, Sales and Marketing Management,(May 2000), pp. 68–72, 74, 76. [Discussion, Planning,Choose destination carefully to set the right tone, Set straightforwardagenda, Stick to budget, Develop postmeeting actionplans.] 1443. SPECIAL MARKETING APPLICATIONS3.1 IndustrialSee also 41, 46, 50, 56, 68, 69, 77, 101, 106, 111, 119, 121, 122,142, 163, 164, 166, 173, 193, 194, 195, 212, 217Marketing High Technology: Preparation, Targeting, Positioning,Execution. Chris Easingwood and Anthony Koustelos, BusinessHorizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 27–34. [Discussion; Marketstrategy; Supply to OEMs; Market education; Distribution;Target innovative adopters, pragmatists, conservatives, current customers,competitors’ customers; Emphasize exclusivity, low price,technological superiority; Execution; Examples.] 145Do Trade-Offs Exist in Operations Strategy? Insights from theStamping Die Industry. Mark Pagell, Steve Melnyk, and RobertHandfield, Business Horizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 69–77.[Study of firms, Performance, Comparisons, Strategic advantagesand disadvantages, Relative fixed costs and lead time, Employeecommitment, Assessment.] 146Strategic Selling in the Age of Modules and Systems. John W.Henke, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp.271–84. [Discussion, OEM impediments to module and systemacquisition, Developing a sales strategy, Capabilities andresources, Cooperation among participating suppliers, Design considerations,Markup practices, Supply chain management experience,Case study, Automotive industry.] 147Differential Effects of the Primary Forms of Cross FunctionalIntegration on Product Development Cycle Time. J. DanielSherman, William E. Souder, and Svenn A. Jenssen, Journal ofProduct Innovation Management, 17 (July 2000), pp. 257–67. [Literaturereview; Survey of high-technology firms; Variables; Integrationof knowledge from past projects; R&D/customer, marketing,

manufacturing, supplier integration; Strategic partnershipintegration; Statistical analysis; US and Scandinavian firms.] 148Prepping the Supply Base for Leaner Supply Systems. TomStundza, Purchasing, 128 (June 1, 2000), pp. 62–64, 66, 68. [Supplierdevelopment programs, Quality control processes, Materialresource planning, Just-in-time delivery, Make or buy studies,Component kitting, Best supplier evaluations, Outsourcing,Improving performance, Implementation, Case study, Aerospaceindustry.] 1493.2 Nonprofit, Political, and Social CausesSee also 26, 52, 129, 158, 180, 208Demographics, Personality Traits, Roles, Motivations, andAttrition Rates of Hospice Volunteers. Becky J. Starnes and WalterW. Wymer Jr., Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing,7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 61–76. [Literature review, Volunteer profile,Services to patients and families, Religious beliefs, Personalexperiences, Training and expectations, Assessment.] 1503.3 International and ComparativeSee also 13, 29, 38, 42, 45, 46, 48, 54, 63, 106, 115, 117, 119, 129,140, 148, 177, 188, 189, 191, 200, 201, 211, 216, 223Privacy on the Net: Europe Changes the Rules. William J.Scheibal and Julia Alpert Gladstone, Business Horizons, 43(May/June 2000), pp. 13–18. [Discussion, Legal aspects, Businessimpact, EU privacy directive, Impacts, US, Assessment.] 151Color Usage in International Business-to-Business PrintAdvertising. Irvine Clarke III and Earl D. Honeycutt Jr., IndustrialMarketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp. 255–61. [Literaturereview, Hypotheses, Content analysis, Comparisons, Black/whiteads, Color distribution by magazine, Cultural meanings, Managerialimplications, France, US, Venezuela.] 152Managing International Joint Venture Relationships: A LongitudinalPerspective. Akmal S. Hyder and Pervez N. Ghauri,Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp. 205–18.[Literature review, Model presentation, In-depth interviews,Motives, Resources, Learning, Network, Performance, Case studies,Telecommunications industry, Sweden, India.] 153Positioned for Success: Branding in the Czech Brewing Industry.Chris Lewis and Angela Vickerstaff, Journal of Brand Management(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 341–52. [Literature review,Brand appeals (function, image and personality), Market strategy,Price, Quality, Traditional, Modern, Effects, Foreign ownershipand expertise, Case studies.] 154Country of Branding: A Review and Research Propositions.Ian Phau and Gerard Prendergast, Journal of Brand Management(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 366–75. [Literature review, Hypotheses,Quality perceptions, Brand image, Country of branding versuscountry of manufacturing, Luxury brands, Development of country,High versus low involvement, Assessment, Asia.] 155102 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001Forecasting Practices in the Pharmaceutical Industry in Singapore.Louis Choo, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19 (Summer2000), pp. 18–20. [Survey, Extent of involvement, Purpose of forecasts,Techniques used, Sources of information, Forecast drivers,Assessment.] 156A Systematic Approach to Tourism Policy. Jafar Alavi and MahmoudM. Yasin, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp.147–56. [Discussion, Revenues, Model presentation, Mathematicalequations, Effects (areawide, region-mix, competitive, allocation),Statistical data, Shift-share analysis, Policy implications, Manycountries.] 157Marketing of a Financial Innovation: Commercial Use of the

Euro by European Companies Prior to Mandatory Adoption.Yvonne M. van Everdingen and Gary J. Bamossy, Journal of BusinessResearch, 48 (May 2000), pp. 123–33. [Theoretical discussion,Model presentation, Survey of firms, Measures, Perceivedinnovation characteristics, Perceptions of political and businessenvironment, Organizational characteristics, Internal communicationbehavior, Adoption behavior, Statistical analysis, Recommendations.]158Effect of a Buy-National Campaign on Member Firm Performance.Graham D. Fenwick and Cameron I. Wright, Journal ofBusiness Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 135–45. [Literaturereview, Survey, Comparisons, Nonparticipating firms, Staff memberand domestic sales changes, Statistical analysis, New Zealand.]159Global Sourcing, Multiple Country-of-Origin Facets, and ConsumerReactions. Zhan G. Li, L. William Murray, and Don Scott,Journal of Business Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 121–33.[Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment, Comparisons, Country-of-design, Assembly, Corporation, Dimensions (functional,symbolic, overall quality), Statistical analysis, Implications.] 160New Rules for Global Markets. Richard W. Oliver, Journal ofBusiness Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp. 7–9. [Discussion;Competitive strategies; Think and act globally; Focus on ethnicgroup, not country; Focus on neighbors first; Focus on the cities;Culture is an important barrier; Use global market muscle; Focussouth, not east–west; Develop new mind-set.] 161Mode of International Entry: An Isomorphism Perspective.Peter S. Davis, Ashay B. Desai, and John D. Francis, Journal ofInternational Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter 2000), pp.239–58. [Literature review, Model development, Hypotheses, Surveyof firms, Pressures to conform to behavioral norms withinenvironments, Comparisons, Wholly owned, Exporting, Joint ventures,Licensing agreements, Statistical analysis.] 162The Determinants of Trust in Supplier–Automaker Relationshipsin the U.S., Japan, and Korea. Jeffrey H. Dyer and WujinChu, Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter2000), pp. 259–85. [Literature review, Model presentation,Hypotheses, Personal interviews, Measures, Length of relationship,Face-to-face communication, Relationship continuity, Assistanceto supplier, Stock ownership, Statistical analysis.] 163Social Ties and Foreign Market Entry. Paul Ellis, Journal ofInternational Business Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp.443–69. [Literature review, Propositions, Interviews with experiencedmembers of manufacturing firms, Knowledge of foreignmarket opportunities is commonly acquired through existing interpersonallinks rather than through market research, Hong Kong.]164Process Standardization Across Intra- and Inter-cultural Relationships.David A. Griffith, Michael Y. Hu, and John K. Ryans Jr.,Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter2000), pp. 303–24. [Literature review, Model presentation,Hypotheses, Survey of distributors, Measures, Trust, Commitment,Conflict, Satisfaction, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications,Canada, Chile, Mexico, US.] 165Productivity Spillovers from Foreign Direct Investment: Evidencefrom UK Industry Level Panel Data. Xia ming Liu,Pamela Siler, Chengqi Wang, and Yingqi Wei, Journal of InternationalBusiness Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 407–25. [Literaturereview, Model presentation, Impacts, Situations in whichhost country is developed, Introduction of advanced technology,Statistical analysis.] 166

The International Biotechnology Industry: A Dynamic CapabilitiesPerspective. Anoop Madhok and Thomas Osegowitsch,Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter2000), pp. 325–35. [International diffusion of technology, Propositions,Organizational form and geographic flows, Transactions,Licensing and marketing agreements, Research agreements, Jointventures, Acquisition, New subsidiaries, Composite groupings,Assessment, Implications.] 167National Culture and Strategic Change in Belief Formation.Livia Markoczy, Journal of International Business Studies, 31(Third Quarter 2000), pp. 427–42. [Literature review, Study ofHungarian organizations recently acquired by Anglo-Saxon partners,Individual beliefs, Causal relationships, Impacts, Being amember of the functional area favored by the strategic change, Statisticalanalysis.] 168Synergy, Managerialism or Hubris? An Empirical Examinationof Motives for Foreign Acquisitions of U.S. Firms. AnjuSeth, Kean P. Song, and Richardson Pettit, Journal of InternationalBusiness Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 387–405. [Theoreticaldiscussion, Testable hypotheses and empirical predictions,Data collection, Relationship between target gains and acquirergains, Total gains, Statistical analysis.] 169Knowledge Flows in the Global Innovation System: Do U.S.Firms Share More Scientific Knowledge Than Their JapaneseRivals? Jennifer W. Spencer, Journal of International BusinessStudies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 521–530. [Discussion,Hypotheses, Data collection (firms’ publication and citation patterns),Japanese firms appropriated no more knowledge from theglobal community than their US counterparts, Statistical analysis.]170The Management Implications of Ethnicity in South Africa.Adele Thomas and Mike Bendixen, Journal of International BusinessStudies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 507–19. [Literaturereview, Hypotheses, Interviews with middle managers, Both managementculture and perceived management effectiveness werefound to be independent of both race and the dimensions of culture,Implications.] 171A Case for Comparative Entrepreneurship: Assessing the Relevanceof Culture. Anisya S. Thomas and Stephen L. Mueller,Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter2000), pp. 287–301. [Literature review, Survey of students, Measures,Innovativeness, Locus of control, Risk-taking, Energy level,Impacts, Cultural distance, Many countries.] 172Customer-Driven Product Development Through QualityFunction Deployment in the U.S. and Japan. John J. Cristiano,Jeffrey K. Liker, and Chelsea C. White III, Journal of ProductInnovation Management, 17 (July 2000), pp. 286–308. [Literaturereview; Survey of companies; US companies reported a higherdegree of quality function deployment usage, management support,cross-functional support, data sources, benefits; Assessment.]173Venture Capitalist Involvement in Portfolio Companies:Insights from South Africa. Michael H. Morris, John W. Watling,and Minet Schindehutte, Journal of Small Business Management,38 (July 2000), pp. 68–77. [Literature review, Survey, Types ofMarketing Literature Review / 103companies in which venture capitalists prefer to invest, Factorsinfluencing involvement, Areas of involvement, Interactions, Statisticalanalysis, Implications.] 174International Competition in Mixed Industries. Roland Calori,Tugrul Atamer, and Pancho Nunes, Long Range Planning (UK), 33

(June 2000), pp. 349–75. [Discussion, Formation of regional competitiveterritories, Dual effect of marketing intensity, Influence ofdemand factors, Role of strategic innovators across borders, Examples.]175Information Technology and Productivity: Evidence fromCountry-Level Data. Sanjeev Dewan and Kenneth L. Kraemer,Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 548–62. [Discussion,Production function, Hypotheses, Data collection, Capital investment,GDP per worker, Asset categories, Developed and developingcountries, Statistical analysis, Policy implications.] 1763.4 ServicesSee also 9, 19, 20, 27, 37, 40, 42, 47, 55, 60, 71, 72, 76, 78, 102,103, 150, 157, 192, 214, 230, 231Putting the “World” in the World Series. Rebecca Gardyn,American Demographics, 22 (April 2000), pp. 28–30. [Trends,Multicultural players and fans, International, TV viewers, Radio,Impacts, Marketers, Prestige, Brand acceptance, Localism,Examples.] 177Journal of Business Research, 48 (June 2000), pp. 165–283.[Eleven articles on health care research, Quality-of-life/needsassessment model, Internal marketing, Financial management,Measurement error, Role of nurse practitioners, Market orientationand organizational performance, Antitrust concerns about evolvingvertical relationships, Measuring service quality, Modeling healthplan choice behavior, Roles of primary and secondary control inolder adulthood, Service quality for inpatient nursing services.]178One-to-One Marketing Doesn’t Have to Be Web-Based. Joel R.Lapointe, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.34–37. [Discussion, Customer relations, Scenarios (hospitality,professional services, customer service/sales), Impacts, Key roleidentification, High performer profiling, Key information accessibility,Assessment.] 179Current Resource Constraints and the Role of Marketing inHealth Research Organizations. Dennis R. McDermott, HowardP. Tuckman, and David J. Urban, Journal of Nonprofit and PublicSector Marketing, 7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 3–16. [Survey of CEOs representingnational sample of HROs, Attitudes, Fundraising, Revenuesources, Budget allocations, Strategic, Assessment, Recommendations.]180A Comprehensive Framework for Service Quality: An Investigationof Critical Conceptual and Measurement IssuesThrough a Longitudinal Study. Pratibha A. Dabholkar, C. DavidShepherd, and Dayle I. Thorpe, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer2000), pp. 139–73. [Literature review, Propositions, Consumer survey,Components and antecedents (reliability, personal attention,comfort, features), Impacts, Behavioral intentions, Measured disconfirmationversus perceptions, Statistical analysis, Implications.]181Switching Barriers and Repurchase Intentions in Services.Michael A. Jones, David L. Mothersbaugh, and Sharon E. Beatty,Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 259–74. [Literaturereview, Model testing, Hypotheses, Consumer survey, Effects,Core-service satisfaction, Interpersonal relationships, Switchingcosts, Attractiveness of alternatives, Interactions, Statistical analysis,Implications.] 182Access to Capital and Terms of Credit: A Comparison of MenandWomen-Owned Small Businesses. Susan Coleman, Journalof Small Business Management, 38 (July 2000), pp. 37–52. [Literaturereview, Model presentation, Data collection (Federal ReserveBoard and Small Business Administration), Firm characteristics,

Most recent loan, Usage of bank credit products, Interest rates,Collateral, Statistical analysis.] 183Customer Service: An Essential Component for a SuccessfulWeb Site. Cherryl Carlson, Marketing Health Services, 20 (Summer2000), pp. 28–30. [Discussion, E-mail management, Response(automatic, intelligent agent–aided, intelligent automated), Selfhelp, Live text chat, Outsourcing, Assessment.] 184Dissecting the HMO–Benefits Managers Relationship: What toMeasure and Why. James W. Peltier and John Westfall, MarketingHealth Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 5–13. [Discussion, Surveyof employee benefits managers, Attitudes, Dimensions (financial/economic, social/responsiveness, structural/partnership),Overall satisfaction and quality, Relationship commitment/loyalty,Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 185Practicing Best-in-Class Service Recovery. Stephen W. Brown,Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 8–9. [Best practices;Hiring, training, and empowerment; Service recovery guidelinesand standards; Easy access and effective response; Customerand product databases; Failure; Companywide recovery; Profits;Technology; Examples.] 1864. MARKETING RESEARCH4.1 Theory and Philosophy of ScienceSee also 74, 75, 87, 118, 169Bayesian Dynamic Factor Models and Portfolio Allocation.Omar Aguilar and Mike West, Journal of Business and EconomicStatistics, 18 (July 2000), pp. 338–57. [Dynamic linear models,Exchange rates forecasting, Markov chain Monte Carlo, Multivariatestochastic volatility, Portfolio selection, Sequential forecasting,Variance matrix discounting, Assessment.] 187Modeling the Sources of Output Growth in a Panel of Countries.Gary Koop, Jacek Osiewalski, and Mark F.J. Steel, Journalof Business and Economic Statistics, 18 (July 2000), pp. 284–99.[Stochastic production-frontier model, Efficiency levels, Bayesianinference, Growth decompositions, Technical change, Numericalimplementation.] 188The Theoretical Foundation for Intercultural Business Communication:A Conceptual Model. Iris I. Varner, Journal of BusinessCommunication, 37 (January 2000), pp. 39–57. [Literaturereview, Research questions, Impacts, Intercultural communicationstrategy, Country-specific and comparative studies, Assessment.]189Information, Contracting, and Quality Costs. Stanley Baiman,Paul E. Fischer, and Madhav V. Rajan, Management Science, 46(June 2000), pp. 776–89. [Literature review, Model presentation,Propositions, Internal and external failure, First- and second-bestsettings, Contractible decisions, Impacts, Information systems,Assessment.] 190Modeling Intercategory and Generational Dynamics for aGrowing Information Technology Industry. Namwoon Kim,Dae Ryun Chang, and Allan D. Shocker, Management Science, 46(April 2000), pp. 496–512. [Wireless telecommunications service,Market potentials, Asymmetry of effect, Bidirectional interrelationship,Implications, Hong Kong, Korea.] 191Measuring the Robustness of Empirical Efficiency Valuations.Ludwig Kuntz and Stefan Scholtes, Management Science, 46 (June2000), pp. 807–23. [Model extension, Propositions, Data envelopmentanalysis, Hospital capacity planning, Monotone oneparameterperturbations, Assessment.] 192Behind the Learning Curve: Linking Learning Activities toWaste Reduction. Michael A. Lapre, Amit Shankar Mukherjee,104 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001

and Luk N. Van Wassenhove, Management Science, 46 (May2000), pp. 597–611. [Literature review, Organizational learning,Quality, Technological knowledge, Experimentation, Knowledgetransfer, Implications.] 193The Value of Information Sharing in a Two-Level SupplyChain. Hau L. Lee, Kut C. So, and Christopher S. Tang, ManagementScience, 46 (May 2000), pp. 626–43. [Supply chain management,Mathematical models, Production planning and inventorycontrol, Electronic data interchange, Quick response, Analyticaland numerical analyses.] 194Scheduling Resource-Constrained Projects Competitively atModest Memory Requirements. Arno Sprecher, ManagementScience, 46 (May 2000), pp. 710–23. [Model presentation, Branchand-bound algorithm, Rules, Extended and simplified single enumeration,Local left-shift, Extended global left-shift, Contraction,Set-based dominance, Nonoptimality, Heuristic, Computationalresults.] 1954.2 Research MethodologySee also 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 42, 62, 63, 66, 72, 73, 80, 81, 107,108, 109, 113, 118, 123, 136, 137, 139, 156, 159, 160, 177, 178,180, 181, 182, 200, 209, 217, 229, 230American Demographics, 22 (June 2000), pp. 54–56, 58, 60–62,64–65. [Three articles on our sense of place, Work-at-home laborforce, Desire for complex appliances with simple and easy-to-usedesigns, Networking, Shortening the distance between places andpeople, Impacts, Neighborhoods, Cities, Emerging markets, Consumerexpenditures, Cities, Statistical data.] 196What’s on Your Mind? Rebecca Gardyn, American Demographics,22 (April 2000), pp. 31–33. [Electroencephalogram technology,Reading consumers’ brain-wave activity, System testing,Problems, Data translation, Acceptance, TV content researchapplicability, Could be useful in conjunction with focus groups.]197Riding High on the Market. Cheryl Russell and Marcia Mogelonsky,American Demographics, 22 (April 2000), pp. 44–46, 48, 50,52, 54. [Economic expansion, Household incomes, Age groups,Financial assets, Risks, Stock holdings, Home values, Debt, Networth, Saving for retirement, Statistical data.] 198The Money in the Middle. Alison Stein Wellner, American Demographics,22 (April 2000), pp. 56–58, 60, 62, 64. [Economicexpansion, Impacts, Middle class, Definition problems, Role ofimmigration, Age groups, Education, Household income, Internetusage, Statistical data.] 199The Measurement of Intergenerational Communication andInfluence on Consumption: Development, Validation, andCross-Cultural Comparison of the IGEN Scale. MadhubalanViswanathan, Terry L. Childers, and Elizabeth S. Moore, Journalof the Academy of Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp.406–24. [Literature review, Consumer socialization, Three studies,Components relevant to marketplace transactions (consumer skills,preferences, attitudes toward marketer supplied information),Comparisons, Parents, Children, US, Thailand.] 200Innovation and International Business Communication: CanEuropean Research Help to Increase the Validity and Reliabilityfor Our Business and Teaching Practice? Jan Ulijn, Journalof Business Communication, 37 (April 2000), pp. 173–87. [Literaturereview, Quantitative/qualitative, Real life/simulation, Studyinglanguage, Culture (national, corporate, professional), Communicationmedium, Assessment.] 201Debunking Executive Conventional Wisdom. Larry Lapide,

Journal of Business Forecasting, 19 (Summer 2000), pp. 16–17.[Myths about forecasting; Forecasts are always wrong, so why putany focus on demand planning; All we need is a quantitativeexpert; Forecasting software will take care of all forecasting needs;Process is too expensive; Assessment.] 202State Demographic Forecasting for Business and Policy Applications.Jon David Vasche, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19(Summer 2000), pp. 23, 28–30. [Reliance on a large, multidimensionalmatrix modeling system with extensive input vectors aids inprojection of aggregate population and its characteristics.] 203Journal of Business Research, 48 (April 2000), pp. 5–92. [Ten articleson replication research, Brand awareness effects on consumerdecision making, Credit card effect, Business turnarounds followingacquisitions, Organizational growth determinants, Impact ofinternalization on the diversification–performance relationship,Advertising complex products, Religious symbols as peripheralcues in advertising, Market orientation and business profitability,How salespeople build quality relationships, Conducting marketingscience.] 204Riding the Wave: Response Rates and the Effects of TimeIntervals Between Successive Mail Survey Follow-Up Efforts.Cindy Claycomb, Stephen S. Porter, and Charles L. Martin, Journalof Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 157–62. [Literaturereview; Experiment; Follow-up mailings sent to each of 20 differenttreatment groups, testing follow-up intervals ranging from 3 to60 days; Assessment; Implications.] 205Historical Method in Marketing Research with New Evidenceon Long-Term Market Share Stability. Peter N. Golder, Journalof Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp. 156–72. [Literaturereview, Stages, Select topic and collect evidence, Critically evaluatesources along with evidence, Analyze and interpret, Presentconclusions, Application.] 206Cast Demographics, Unobserved Segments, and HeterogeneousSwitching Costs in a Television Viewing Choice Model.Ron Shachar and John W. Emerson, Journal of MarketingResearch, 37 (May 2000), pp. 173–86. [Model comparisons, Datacollection (ACNielsen), Examination of strategic programmingand scheduling decisions, Optimal programming decisions, Goodness-of-fit and ratings predictions, Applications.] 207The Effectiveness of Survey Response Rate Incentives in a PublicNon-profit Environment. Frank H. Wadsworth and Eldon Little,Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 7 (No. 2,1999), pp. 53–60. [Literature review, Convenience sample, Treatmentgroups, Deadlines, Prepaid and promised monetary and nonmonetaryrewards, Statistical analysis, Recommendations.] 2084.3 Information TechnologySee also 53, 59, 78, 82, 85, 86, 91, 92, 94, 97, 98, 104, 105, 110,176, 184, 190, 191, 195, 225Teens’ Use of Traditional Media and the Internet. Carrie LaFerle, Steven M. Edwards, and Wei-na Lee, Journal of AdvertisingResearch, 40 (May/June 2000), pp. 55–65. [Literature review, Survey,Time spent with media, Media used by activity, Frequency ofInternet use by gender, Location of Internet connection, Source ofinformation about Web sites, Internet and interpersonal sources ofcommunication, Statistical analysis, Implications.] 209Riding Shotgun on the Information Superhighway. Chris Wood,Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp. 38–42.[Internet security, Strategy, Problems, Vulnerability, Costs, Documentationprocess, Policies, Adding hardware and software, Success,Guidelines.] 210Understanding the Trade Winds: The Global Evolution of Production,

Consumption, and the Internet. Peter R. Dickson, Journalof Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 115–22. [Literaturereview, Economic history, Diffusion technologies, Systemsdynamicperspective, Example.] 211Marketing Literature Review / 105What Buyers Want in Technology Tools.William Atkinson, Purchasing,128 (April 20, 2000), pp. 57–58, 61. [Survey, Attitudes,Software packages, Web-based e-procurement systems, Electronicdata interchange, Benefits, Satisfaction, Company’s internal performance,Supplier selection, After-sales support from suppliers,Management support, Examples.] 212Web Wise. Patricia B. Seybold, Sales and Marketing Management,(May 2000), pp. S4–S6, 58. [E-business, Customer orientation,Factors, Streamline customer scenarios, Touchpoints and crosschannelsolutions, Warehousing and logistics, Staffing and trainingcall/contact center personnel, Managing customer-affecting applications,Examples.] 213Information Orientation: People, Technology and the BottomLine. Donald A. Marchand, William J. Kettinger, and John D.Rollins, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer 2000), pp.69–80. [Study of senior managers, Measures of effective informationuse (information technology and information managementpractices, information behaviors and values), Achieving high informationorientation, Guidelines, Banking industry.] 214Sophisticated Systems Help Retailers Develop Complete Pictureof Each Customer. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.42, 44. [Customer relationship management, Data strategy, Softwarepackages, Customer analysis, Data warehousing, E-mailresponse management, Modeling and file integration, Examples.]2155. OTHER TOPICS5.1 Educational and Professional IssuesSee also 29, 38, 79, 189, 201The Ivory Chateau. Stuart Crainer and Des Dearlove, Across theBoard, 37 (June 2000), pp. 35–40. [Discussion, INSEAD, Globalclassroom, Students, Competitive advantage, MBA program, Jobs,Web-based businesses, Assessment.] 216Cross-National Industrial Mail Surveys: Why Do ResponseRates Differ Between Countries? Anne-Wil Harzing, IndustrialMarketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp. 243–54. [Literaturereview, Survey, Attitudes, Undergraduate courses, Professional andsocial activities, Work experience, International exposure, Statisticalanalysis.] 217Preparing the Next Generation of Industrial Sales Representatives:Advice from Senior Sales Executives. Michael R. Luthy,Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp. 235–42.[Literature review, Survey, Attitudes, Undergraduate courses, Professionaland social activities, Work experience, Internationalexposure, Statistical analysis.] 218Corporate Universities Crack Open Their Doors. Meryl DavidsLandau, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.18–23. [Discussion, Opening training centers to outsiders, Receivinga bigger return on investment, Impacts, Traditional universities,Technology, Assessment.] 219Publications in Major Marketing Journals: An Analysis ofScholars and Marketing Departments. Aysen Bakir, Scott J.Vitell, and Gregory M. Rose, Journal of Marketing Education, 22(August 2000), pp. 99–107. [Total number of published articlesand a fractional score based on the number of authors of an article,Faculty size, Comparisons, Previous studies.] 220Using the Theory of Constraints’ Thinking Processes to

Improve Problem-Solving Skills in Marketing. Marjorie J.Cooper and Terry W. Loe, Journal of Marketing Education, 22(August 2000), pp. 137–46. [Identify a list of undesirable effects,Generate conflict clouds from the list, Construct a generic conflictcloud, Build a current reality tree that shows the core conflict andhow it leads to the undesirable effects, Classroom implementation.]221Relating Pedagogical Preference of Marketing Seniors andAlumni to Attitude Toward the Major. Richard Davis, ShekharMisra, and Stuart Van Auken, Journal of Marketing Education, 22(August 2000), pp. 147–54. [Literature review, Learning styles,Motivation, Attitudinal enhancement, Survey, Variables, In-classexercises, Lectures, Cases, Association between in-class activitiesand overall attitude toward the marketing major.] 222Study Abroad Learning Activities: A Synthesis and Comparison.Charles R. Duke, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August2000), pp. 155–65. [Discussion, Effectiveness, Criteria (location,tour integration with academic credit, time spent on tour), Activities(lecture and test, company visits, journals, treasure hunt, projects,simulation), Assessment.] 223Improving Students’ Understanding of the Retail AdvertisingBudgeting Process. Myron Gable, Ann Fairhurst, Roger Dickinson,and Lynn Harris, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August2000), pp. 120–28. [Survey of retailing educators; Favorite techniqueis objective and task; Requires the use of methods of bothprioritizing alternative expenditures and setting a cutoff point;These points are often neglected by academics, including textbookwriters; Recommendations.] 224Development of a Web-Based Internet Marketing Course.Shohreh A. Kaynama and Garland Keesling, Journal of MarketingEducation, 22 (August 2000), pp. 84–89. [Seven-step systemsmodel; Define purpose of course; Analyze appropriate knowledge,skills, and abilities; Determine what the students should learn andensure that the learning takes place; Development; Implementation;Assessment; Evaluation.] 225Determinants of Student Evaluations of Global Measures ofInstructor and Course Value. Ronald B. Marks, Journal of MarketingEducation, 22 (August 2000), pp. 108–19. [Literaturereview; Model development; Structural paths; Student evaluationsmay lack discriminant validity, the extent to which a measure doesnot correlate with other constructs it is not supposed to measure106 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001(e.g., expected/fairness of grading does have a large impact on ratingsof teaching ability).] 226Teaching Marketing Law: A Business Law Perspective on IntegratingMarketing and Law. Ross D. Petty, Journal of MarketingEducation, 22 (August 2000), pp. 129–36. [Literature review, Marketinglaw organized by 4 Ps and defined by protected interests,Topics distributed by course, Teaching methods, Assessment.] 227Introducing Marketing Students to Business Intelligence UsingProject-Based Learning on the World Wide Web. Carolyn F.Siegel, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August 2000), pp.90–98. [Discussion, Intelligence process, Business espionage,Overview, Projects, Advantages, Disadvantages, Assessment.] 228Consumer Primacy on Campus: A Look at the Perceptions ofNavajo and Anglo Consumers. Dennis N. Bristow and DouglasAmyx, Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 7 (No.2, 1999), pp. 31–51. [Literature review, Marketing lens model,Hypotheses, Survey, Importance ratings among educational attributes,Anticipated preparation after graduation, Satisfaction witheducational product, Statistical analysis, Managerial recommendations.]

2295.2 General MarketingSee also 220An Exploration of the Meaning and Outcomes of a Customer-Defined Market Orientation. Dave Webb, Cynthia Webster, andAreti Krepapa, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp.101–12. [Literature review, Models, Hypotheses, Survey of bankclients, Relationships, Service quality, Satisfaction, Statisticalanalysis.] 230The Four “P”s of Marketing Are Dead. Joel English, MarketingHealth Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 21–23. [Discussion, Shiftsin channel dynamics within health care, New model (relevance,

response, relationships, results), Assessment.] 231

1. THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT1.1 Consumer BehaviorSee also 42, 62, 63, 81, 100, 107, 108, 109, 113, 114, 123, 136,137, 139, 150, 155, 160, 181, 182, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 207,209, 211, 229Food for Thought. Roberta Bernstein, American Demographics,22 (May 2000), pp. 39–40, 42. [Hispanic and Asian consumers,Market potentials, Disposable income, Expenditures, Cultural andlanguage issues, Consumer panels, Shopping behavior, Packagedgoodsindustry.] 1Congestion Ahead. John Fetto, American Demographics, 22 (June2000), pp. 49–50. [Extreme commuting, Regions, Time spent intraffic, In-auto activities, Billboards, Radio promotions, Creative,Examples.] 2Make Room for Daddy. Rebecca Gardyn, American Demographics,22 (June 2000), pp. 34–36. [Trends, Fathers, Market potentials,Magazine readership, Household spending decisions, Time spentwith children, E-marketing, Statistical data.] 3The Joy of Empty Nesting. Joan Raymond, American Demographics,22 (May 2000), pp. 48–52, 54. [Trends, Baby boomers,Discretionary income, Lifestyles, Affluence, Market strategy,Quality of life, Techno-savvy, Health concerns, Examples.] 4Life’s a Beach 101. Nancy Shepherdson, American Demographics,22 (May 2000), pp. 56–58, 60, 62, 64. [Echo boomers, Ecommerce,Customization, Market strategy, Web sites, Surveys,Recent college grads, Brand loyalty, Jobs, Starting salaries, Investing,Examples.] 5The Facilitating Influence of Consumer Knowledge on theEffectiveness of Daily Value Reference Information. Fuan Li,Paul W. Miniard, and Michael J. Barone, Journal of the Academyof Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 425–36. [Literaturereview, Hypothesis, Experiment, Measures, Trial intention, Attitude,Healthiness (overall, fat, fiber, sodium), Statistical analysis.]6Effects of Absurdity in Advertising: The Moderating Role ofProduct Category Attitude and the Mediating Role of CognitiveResponses. Leopoldo Arias-Bolzmann, Goutam Chakraborty,and John C. Mowen, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.35–49. [Literature review; Hypotheses; Experiment; Measures; Ad,brand, and product attitudes; Comparisons; Nonabsurd ads; Recall;Statistical analysis; Implications.] 7An Empirical Test of an Updated Relevance–AccessibilityModel of Advertising Effectiveness. William E. Baker andRichard J. Lutz, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.1–14. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment, Brand names,

MYRON LEONARD, EditorWestern Carolina UniversityThis section is based on a selection of article abstracts from a comprehensivebusiness literature database. Marketing-related abstracts frommore than 125 journals (both academic and trade) are reviewed by JMstaff. Descriptors for each entry are assigned by JM staff. Each issue ofthis section represents three months of entries into the database.Each entry has an identifying number. Cross-references appear immediatelyunder each subject heading.The following article abstracts are available online from the ABI/INFORMdatabase, which is published and copyrighted by Bell & Howell Informationand Learning. For additional information about access to the database orabout obtaining photocopies of the articles abstracted here, please call(800) 521-0600 or write to B&H, 300 N. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48106.SUBJECT HEADINGS1. THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT1.1 Consumer Behavior1.2 Legal, Political, and Economic Issues1.3 Ethics and Social Responsibility2. MARKETING FUNCTIONS2.1 Management, Planning, and Strategy2.2 Retailing2.3 Channels of Distribution2.4 Electronic Marketing2.5 Physical Distribution2.6 Pricing2.7 Product2.8 Sales Promotion2.9 Advertising2.10 Personal Selling2.11 Sales Management3. SPECIAL MARKETING APPLICATIONS3.1 Industrial3.2 Nonprofit, Political, and Social Causes3.3 International and Comparative3.4 Services4. MARKETING RESEARCH4.1 Theory and Philosophy of Science4.2 Research Methodology4.3 Information Technology5. OTHER TOPICS5.1 Educational and Professional Issues5.2 General Marketing94 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001Journal of MarketingVol. 65 (April 2001), 94–106

Marketing LiteratureReviewChoice processes (optimizing, satisficing, indifference), Types ofinformation (evidence of performance superiority, credibility, andliking), Statistical analysis, Implications.] 8Customer Satisfaction Cues to Support Market Segmentationand Explain Switching Behavior. Antreas D. Athanassopoulos,Journal of Business Research, 47 (March 2000), pp. 191–207. [Literaturereview, Model presentation, Hypotheses, Survey of banks’

business and individual customers, Measures, Corporate, Innovativeness,Physical and staff service, Pricing, Convenience, Statisticalanalysis, Implications.] 9Representation of Numerical and Verbal Product Informationin Consumer Memory. Terry L. Childers and MadhubalanViswanathan, Journal of Business Research, 47 (February 2000),pp. 109–20. [Literature review, Conceptual framework based onsurface versus meaning level processing of information, Hypotheses,Two experiments, Recognition paradigm, Assessment.] 10Consumers’ Use of Persuasion Knowledge: The Effects ofAccessibility and Cognitive Capacity on Perceptions of anInfluence Agent. Margaret C. Campbell and Amna Kirmani, Journalof Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 69–83. [Literaturereview; Model presentation; Four experiments; When an ulteriorpersuasion motive is highly accessible, both cognitively busy targetsand unbusy observers use persuasion knowledge to evaluate asalesperson; Statistical analysis.] 11Indexicality and the Verification Function of Irreplaceable Possessions:A Semiotic Analysis. Kent Grayson and David Shulman,Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 17–30. [Literaturereview, Hypotheses, Two studies, Late-adolescent and latemiddle-age consumers view irreplaceable possessions as being distinctbecause of indexicality, Link between verification andirreplaceable possessions, Statistical analysis.] 12Determinants of Country-of-Origin Evaluations. ZeynepGurhan-Canli and Durairaj Maheswaran, Journal of ConsumerResearch, 27 (June 2000), pp. 96–108. [Literature review,Hypotheses, Two experiments, Variables, Evaluations, Beliefs,Information relevance, Total thoughts, Country-of-origin andattribute-related thoughts, Statistical analysis.] 13Standing on the Shoulders of Ancients: Consumer Research,Persuasion, and Figurative Language. William J. McGuire,Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 109–14. [Literaturereview, Early communication (tropes, rhetorical figures),Impacts, Creative hypothesis-generating phase of research, Assessment.]14Children, Advertising, and Product Experiences: A MultimethodInquiry. Elizabeth S. Moore and Richard J. Lutz, Journalof Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 31–48. [Literaturereview; Model presentation; Hypotheses; Experiment and depthinterviews; Both product trial and advertising have influences, butinterplay of these influences differs between older and youngerchildren; Statistical analysis.] 15Consumer Learning and Brand Equity. Stijn M.J. van Osselaerand Joseph W. Alba, Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (June2000), pp. 1–16. [Literature review, Series of experiments, Strongblocking effects were found despite a limited number of brand preexposuresand extensive exposure to predictive attribute information.]16The Role of Explanations and Need for Uniqueness in ConsumerDecision Making: Unconventional Choices Based onReasons. Itamar Simonson and Stephen M. Nowlis, Journal ofConsumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 49–68. [Literature review,Hypotheses, Series of studies, Explaining decisions shifts the focusfrom the choice of options to the choice of reasons. Buyers whoexplain their decisions and have high need for uniqueness tend toMarketing Literature Review / 95select unconventional reasons and are more likely to make unconventionalchoices.] 17Qualitative Steps Toward an Expanded Model of Anxiety inGift-Giving. David B. Wooten, Journal of Consumer Research, 27

(June 2000), pp. 84–95. [Literature review, Model development,Survey of students and nonstudent adults, Givers become anxiouswhen they are highly motivated to elicit desired reactions fromtheir recipients but are pessimistic about their prospects of success.]18Understanding the Customer Base of Service Providers: AnExamination of the Differences Between Switchers and Stayers.Jaishankar Ganesh, Mark J. Arnold, and Kristy E. Reynolds,Journal of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 65–87. [Literaturereview, Hypotheses, Two studies, Consumers’ use of banking services,Impacts, Overall satisfaction, Satisfaction with servicedimensions, Involvement, Customer loyalty, Statistical analysis,Implications.] 19Self-Service Technologies: Understanding Customer Satisfactionwith Technology-Based Service Encounters. Matthew L.Meuter, Amy L. Ostrom, Robert I. Roundtree, and Mary Jo Bitner,Journal of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 50–64. [Literaturereview, Critical incident study (satisfying and dissatisfying),Sources, Consumer reactions, Comparisons, Interpersonalencounter satisfaction, Assessment, Managerial implications.] 20Consumer Response to Negative Publicity: The ModeratingRole of Commitment. Rohini Ahluwalia, Robert E. Burnkrant,and H. Rao Unnava, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May2000), pp. 203–14. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Three experiments,Consumers who are committed to a brand counterarguenegative information and can resist information that is likely toinduce switching behavior.] 21A Hierarchical Bayes Model for Assortment Choice. Eric T.Bradlow and Vithala R. Rao, Journal of Marketing Research, 37(May 2000), pp. 259–68. [Literature review, Experiment, Set ofeight popular magazines, Effects, Price, Attributes, Features,Selection, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 22Impact of Product-Harm Crises on Brand Equity: The ModeratingRole of Consumer Expectations. Niraj Dawar and MadanM. Pillutla, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.215–26. [Literature review, Expectations–evidence framework,Hypotheses, Field survey and two laboratory experiments,Impacts, Consumers’ interpretation of the evidence from firmresponse, Managerial implications.] 23The Evolution of Brand Preferences and Choice Behaviors ofConsumers to a Market. Carrie M. Heilman, Douglas Bowman,and Gordon P. Wright, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May2000), pp. 139–55. [Literature review, Logit-mixture model withtime-varying parameters, Consumer panel data, Stages (informationcollection, extended to lesser-known brands, information consolidation),Impacts, Product experience and learning, Statisticalanalysis, Implications.] 24Choosing What I Want Versus Rejecting What I Do Not Want:An Application of Decision Framing to Product Option ChoiceDecisions. C. Whan Park, Sung Youl Jun, and Deborah J. Mac-Innis, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.187–202. [Literature review, Model presentation, Hypotheses,Three studies, Option framing, Psychological reactions, Moderators(option prices, product category prices, regret anticipation,product category commitment), Managerial effects.] 25Assessing a Place to Live: A Quality of Life Perspective. GlenRiecken, Don Shemwell, and Ugur Yavas, Journal of Nonprofit andPublic Sector Marketing, 7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 17–29. [Survey ofcommunity leaders, Factors, Weather, Crime, Economy, Education,Health, Housing, Leisure, Transportation, Arts, Importance/performanceanalysis, Policy implications.] 26

Assessing the Effects of Quality, Value, and Customer Satisfactionon Consumer Behavioral Intentions in Service Environments.J. Joseph Cronin Jr., Michael K. Brady, and G. Tomas M.Hult, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 193–218. [Literaturereview, Model testing, Hypotheses, Two studies, Multipleservice providers, Direct and indirect effects, Relationships, Statisticalanalysis.] 271.2 Legal, Political and Economic IssuesSee also 51, 102, 151, 176, 188, 198, 199, 203, 227Ethical and Online Privacy Issues in Electronic Commerce.Eileen P. Kelly and Hugh C. Rowland, Business Horizons, 43(May/June 2000), pp. 3–12. [Discussion, Information gathering,Legal aspects, Freedom of choice, Voluntary and informed consent,Proposed legislation, Industry reaction, Managerial recommendations.]28The Measurement of Intellectual Property Rights Protection.Robert L. Ostergard Jr., Journal of International Business Studies,31 (Second Quarter 2000), pp. 349–60. [Discussion, Empiricalresearch, Comparisons, Countries, Law and enforcement measures,Protection score analysis (copyright, patent, trademark),Assessment.] 29Covenants Not to Compete. Erica B. Garay, Marketing Management,9 (Summer 2000), pp. 61–63. [Acquisitions and mergers,Legislation, Court decisions, Enforcing covenants arising in connectionwith the sale of a business, Limits to enforcement, Assessment.]30U.S. Trust Busters Eye Net Markets. Dan Gottlieb, Purchasing,128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S67, S69, S72. [Discussion, Net tradeexchanges, Legal aspects, Market power, Major industry players,Acquisitions and mergers, Anticompetitive effects, Assessment.]311.3 Ethics and Social ResponsibilitySee also 28, 151, 210, 228Representing the Perceived Ethical Work Climate AmongMarketing Employees. Barry J. Babin, James S. Boles, and DonaldP. Robin, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(Summer 2000), pp. 345–58. [Literature review, Survey of employees,Models, Responsibility/trust, Peer behavior, Ethical norms,Selling practices, Role ambiguity, Role conflict, Job satisfaction,Organizational commitment, Statistical analysis, Implications.] 32Crime and Small Business: An Exploratory Study of Cost andPrevention Issues in U.S. Firms. Donald F. Kuratko, Jeffrey S.Hornsby, Douglas W. Naffziger, and Richard M. Hodgetts, Journalof Small Business Management, 38 (July 2000), pp. 1–13. [Literaturereview, Survey, Level of concern, Crime prevention actions,Training provided, Perceptions of crime against business, Annualcost of crime, Impact of industry type, Statistical anlaysis.] 33Making Business Sense of Environmental Compliance. JasbinderSingh, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp.91–100. [Discussion, Partnerships, Environmental and plant managers,Savings, Strategies, Review plant operations, Find best timesto install pollution-control equipment and upgrade productiontechnology, Allocate environmental costs, Integrate business andenvironmental decisions, Examples.] 34Corporate Responsibility Audits: Doing Well by Doing Good.Sandra Waddock and Neil Smith, Sloan Management Review, 41(Winter 2000), pp. 75–83. [Vision versus practice, CEO commitment,Teams, Corporate culture, Mission statement, Stakeholderelements, Existing policies and practices, Functional areas (humanresources, environmental practices, quality systems, communityrelations), Examples.] 35

96 / Journal of Marketing, April 20012. MARKETING FUNCTIONS2.1 Management, Planning, and StrategySee also 9, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 64, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, 77, 82,83, 85, 86, 90, 96, 97, 98, 106, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121,122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 134, 135, 145, 146, 148, 149, 153, 154,161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174,175, 179, 183, 184, 186, 193, 202, 207, 210, 212, 214, 219, 221,228Avoiding the Complexity Trap. Alan Brache and Peter M. Tobia,Across the Board, 37 (June 2000), pp. 42–46. [Sustainable niches,Problems, Availability of outsourcing, Broadening capability andplunging price of technology, Workforce mobility, E-commerce,Impacts, Focus, Critical resources, Information on costs, Examples.]36Laying Off Risk. Stan Davis and Christopher Meyer. Across theBoard, 37 (April 2000), pp. 33–37. [Insuring against risk, Riskrelatedrewards, Organizing around risk, Hedging, Core competencies,Value creation, Examples.] 37The Negotiation Industry. Lee Edson, Across the Board, 37(April 2000), pp. 14–20. [Discussion, Use in hiring process, International,Special training, Educational initiatives, Win–win model,Examples.] 38The Secrets of Performance Appraisal. Dick Grote, Across theBoard, 37 (May 2000), pp. 14–20. [Corporate culture, Organizationalexpectations, Identification of specific core competencies,Evaluation, Mastery descriptions, Role of objectivity, Examples.]39Condition Critical. Phillip L. Polakoff and David G. Anderson,Across the Board, 37 (May 2000), pp. 42–47. [Health and safetyprograms, Control, Lost time costs, Risk shifting strategies, Helpingemployees manage their own care, Assessment, Guidelines.]40The Effects of Formal Strategic Marketing Planning on theIndustrial Firm’s Configuration, Structure, Exchange Patterns,and Performance. Andy Claycomb, Richard Germain, andCornelia Droge, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May2000), pp. 219–34. [Literature review; Survey (Council of LogisticsManagment); Impacts; Use of integrative committees andmechanisms, specialization, decentralized decision making, andformal performance measurement (both internal and benchmarking).]41Implementing a Customer Relationship Strategy: The AsymmetricImpact of Poor Versus Excellent Execution. Mark R.Colgate and Peter J. Danaher, Journal of the Academy of MarketingScience, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 375–87. [Literature review;Survey of bank customers; Satisfaction, performance, usage ofbank; Personal banker; Good and bad strategies; Switching activity;Behavioral intentions; Statistical analysis; New Zealand.] 42Superordinate Identity in Cross-Functional Product DevelopmentTeams: Its Antecedents and Effect on New Product Performance.Rajesh Sethi, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,28 (Summer 2000), pp. 330–44. [Literature review,Hypotheses, Survey of key informants in cross-functional teams,Impacts, Special team structure, Traditional team factor, Interactioneffects, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 43Business Planning Practices in Small Size Companies: SurveyResults. Surendra S. Singhvi, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19(Summer 2000), pp. 3–4, 6, 8. [Primary objectives for preparing aplan, Responsibility, Planning horizon, Plan update, Achievement,Annual budget, Board approval, Financial success, Recommendations.]

44Journal of Business Research, 47 (January 2000), pp. 3–89. [Eightarticles on dynamics of strategy, Executive pay and UK privatization,Nonprofit organization responses to anticipated changes ingovernment support for HIV/AIDS services, Evolving complexorganizational structures in new and unpredictable environments,Innovation teams, Institutional foundations of success and failure,Impact of technology policy integration on strategy, Businesstransformation, Impact of environmentally linked strategies oncompetitive advantage, Many countries.] 45Relationship of Firm Size, Initial Diversification, and Internationalizationwith Strategic Change. Parshotam Dass, Journal ofBusiness Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 135–46. [Theoretical discussion,Hypotheses, Data collection (COMPUSTAT II database),Variables, Initial and changes in product diversity, Industry performance,Risk, Slack, Firm size, International diversification, Interactions,Statistical analysis.] 46Organizational Values: The Inside View of Service Productivity.Dawn Dobni, J.R. Brent Ritchie, and Wilf Zerbe, Journal ofBusiness Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 91–107. [Literaturereview, Survey of service firms, Impacts, Employee mutualism,Market leadership, Customer intimacy, Operational efficiency,Organizational preservation, Change aversion, Social responsibility,Value systems (entrepreneurial, performance-pressured, integrated,temperate), Statistical analysis, Canada.] 47Firm Characteristics Influencing Export Propensity: AnEmpirical Investigation by Industry Type. Rajshekhar G.Javalgi, D. Steven White, and Oscar Lee, Journal of BusinessResearch, 47 (March 2000), pp. 217–28. [Literature review,Hypotheses, Survey, Comparisons, Export versus nonexport firms,Variables, Number of employees, Total sales, Years in business,International trade activity, Primary industrial classification, Firmownership, Statistical analysis.] 48Benchmarking Cultural Transition. Roger Connors and TomSmith, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.10–12. [Corporate culture, The best benchmarks are keyed toimportant before-and-after results the organization must achieveand to the beliefs and actions that produce those results,Assessment.] 49Investigation of Factors Contributing to the Success of Cross-Functional Teams. Edward F. McDonough III, Journal of ProductInnovation Management, 17 (May 2000), pp. 221–35. [Literaturereview, Model presentation, Survey of new product developmentprofessionals, Outcome and process reasons for adopting crossfunctionalteams, Interactions, Stage setters, Enablers, Teambehaviors, Performance, Assessment.] 50Environmental and Ownership Characteristics of Small Businessesand Their Impact on Development. William B. Gartnerand Subodh Bhat, Journal of Small Business Management, 38 (July2000), pp. 14–26. [Literature review, Survey, Growth expectations,Effects, Crime, Neighborhood appearance, Ethnicity of owner,Legal structure of firm, Firm type and size, Statistical analysis,Recommendations.] 51Strategic Planning in the Military: The U.S. Naval SecurityGroup Changes Its Strategy, 1992–1998. William Y. Frentzell II,John M. Bryson, and Barbara C. Crosby, Long Range Planning(UK), 33 (June 2000), pp. 402–29. [Discussion, Creating vision,Middle and top-level management involvement, Stakeholder andSWOT analyses, Scenario planning, Cognitive and oval mapping,Assessment.] 52The Future.org. Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Grant

Miles, Long Range Planning (UK), 33 (June 2000), pp. 300–21.[Collaboration-based organizational model for innovation, Essentialconditions (time, trust, territory), Design principles (selfmanagement,behavioral protocols, shared strategic intent, equitablesharing of returns), Barriers (institutional, philosophical,organizational), Examples.] 53Marketing Literature Review / 97Business Domain Definition Practice: Does It Affect OrganisationalPerformance? Jatinder S. Sidhu, Edwin J. Nijssen, andHarry R. Commandeur, Long Range Planning (UK), 33 (June2000), pp. 376–401. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Survey ofmanagers, Focus, Stable versus turbulent environments, Impacts,Customer need, Technological competence, Assessment, Implications,The Netherlands.] 54Marketing Decision Support Systems for Strategy Building.Sanjay K. Rao, Marketing Health Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp.15–18. [Pharmaceutical products, Customer and market environments,System outputs (interaction between pricing and other marketingmix strategies), Cash flows, Outcomes, Assessment.] 55What’s in a Name? New CPO Title Reflects Buying’s StrategicRole. William Atkinson, Purchasing, 128 (June 1, 2000), pp. 45,49–51. [Chief procurement officer, Organizational structure, Functions,Responsibilities, Top management support, Implications forsuppliers, Examples.] 56Supporting a For-Profit Cause. Guy Kawasaki, Sales and MarketingManagement, (May 2000), pp. S16–S19. [Corporate culture,Customer focused, Morale, Impacts, Creating a good product andservice, Sense of ownership, Training, Empowerment, Support,Examples.] 57A Position of Power. Chad Kaydo, Sales and Marketing Management,(June 2000), pp. 104–106, 108, 110, 112, 114. [Corporateimage, Product positioning, Product differentiation, Factors, Identifythe difference, Make it relevant, Keep it simple, Watch thecompetition, Examples.] 58Technology Is Not Enough: Improving Performance by BuildingOrganizational Memory. Rob Cross and Lloyd Baird, SloanManagement Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp. 69–78. [Organizationallearning, Explicit and tacit knowledge, Databases, Social bonding,Work processes and support systems, Targeting, Structuring,Embedding, Examples.] 59Outsourcing Innovation: The New Engine of Growth. JamesBrian Quinn, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer 2000), pp.13–28. [Discussion, Basic and early-stage research, Businessprocesses, New-product introductions, Impacts, Resource limits,Specialist talents, Multiple risks, Attracting talent, Speed, Examples.]60Leading Laterally in Company Outsourcing. Michael Useemand Joseph Harder, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Winter 2000),pp. 25–38. [Personal interviews, Senior managers, Leadershipcapabilities (strategic thinking, deal making, partnership governing,managing change), Assessment.] 612.2 RetailingSee also 73, 87, 96, 99, 100, 105, 109, 110, 132, 133, 215, 224A Longitudinal Analysis of Satisfaction and Profitability. KennethL. Bernhardt, Naveen Donthu, and Pamela A. Kennett, Journalof Business Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 161–71. [Literaturereview, Hypotheses, Consumer survey, Impacts, Customerand employee satisfaction, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications,Fast-food restaurant industry.] 62Towards Understanding Consumer Response to Stock-Outs.Katia Campo, Els Gijsbrechts, and Patricia Nisol, Journal of

Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 219–42. [Literature review;Model estimation; Store intercept; Characteristics (product, consumer,situation); Costs; Impacts; Item, package size, and storeswitching; Purchase deferment and cancellation; Statistical analysis;Belgium.] 63Attention, Retailers! How Convenient Is Your ConvenienceStrategy? Kathleen Seiders, Leonard L. Berry, and Larry G. Gresham,Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp. 79–89.[Trends; Access, possession, and transaction convenience; Locatingthe right product; Integrated approach; Examples.] 64Customer Relationship Management. Susan Reda, Stores, 82(April 2000), pp. 33–36. [Target markets, Databases, Softwarepackages, Consultants, Role of marketing department, Examples.]65Real Estate, Customer Research Become Key Tools in ServiceMerchandise Revival. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.118, 120, 122. [Discussion, Consultants, Customer profiles, Productcategories, Point-of-sale information, Software packages, Website, Internet alliances, Trade area analysis, Case study.] 66Rethinking the Rules. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.34–35, 38. [Retailing industry, Impacts, Online revolution, Confrontingnew realities, More fluid environment, Logistics expertise,Acquisition strategy, Bricks-and-mortar advantages, Examples.]672.3 Channels of DistributionSee also 56, 84, 91, 92, 94, 95, 104, 147, 163, 165, 185, 190Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (July 2000), pp. 285–386.[Nine articles on business marketing networks, Implementing programmaticinitiatives in manufacturer–retailer networks, Supplierrelations, Interconnectedness, Strategic alliances, Partner as customer,Relationship strategy, Quality, Customer retention, Purchasingbehavior, Satisfaction in industrial markets.] 68On Interfirm Power, Channel Climate, and Solidarity in IndustrialDistributor–Supplier Dyads. Keysuk Kim, Journal of theAcademy of Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 388–405.[Literature review, Model estimation, Hypotheses, Survey, Measures,Supplier and distributor power, Coercive and noncoerciveinfluence strategy, Trust, Relationship continuity, Solidarity, Statisticalanalysis.] 69A Brand’s Advertising and Promotion Allocation Strategy: TheRole of the Manufacturer’s Relationship with Distributors asModerated by Relative Market Share. Kenneth Anselmi, Journalof Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 113–22. [Literaturereview; Hypotheses; Survey of manufacturers; As exchange relationshipsbecome more relational, manufacturers increase advertisingallocations; More discrete relationships, increase allocation topromotion; Market share moderates the influence of exchange relationshiptype.] 70Relationship Marketing Activities, Commitment, and MembershipBehaviors in Professional Associations. Thomas W.Gruen, John O. Summers, and Frank Acito, Journal of Marketing,64 (July 2000), pp. 34–49. [Literature review, Model presentation,Hypotheses, Survey of life insurance agents, Measures, Commitment(affective, continuance, normative), Impacts, Membershipretention, Exchange-based participation, Cooperatively basedcoproduction, Statistical analysis.] 71Sales Through Sequential Distribution Channels: An Applicationto Movies and Videos. Donald R. Lehmann and Charles B.Weinberg, Journal of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 18–33. [Literaturereview, Model structure and analysis, Data from 35 movies,Exponential sales curves, Optimal release times, Assessment.] 72

Control Mechanisms and the Relationship Life Cycle: Implicationsfor Safeguarding Specific Investments and DevelopingCommitment. Sandy D. Jap and Shankar Ganesan, Journal ofMarketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp. 227–45. [Literaturereview, Conceptual framework, Hypotheses, Survey of retailers,Measures, Transaction-specific investments, Relational norms,Explicit contracts, Supplier’s commitment, Performance, Conflictlevel, Relationship satisfaction and phase, Interdependence magnitudeand asymmetry, Statistical analysis.] 7398 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001Organizing Distribution Channels for Information Goods onthe Internet. Rajiv Dewan, Marshall Freimer, and Abraham Seidmann,Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 483–95. [Electroniccommerce, Electronic publishing, Digital and pricing content,Internet service providers, Industrial organization, Spatialcompetition, Industry structure, Assessment, Managerial implications.]74Price Protection in the Personal Computer Industry. Hau L.Lee, V. Padmanabhan, Terry A. Taylor, and Seungjin Whang, ManagementScience, 46 (April 2000), pp. 467–82. [Literature review,Obsolescence-prone market, Single- and two-buying-opportunitymodels, Channel coordination, Supply chain management, Incentives,Numerical example.] 75Pursuing Risk-Sharing, Gain-Sharing Arrangements. JamesB.L. Thomson and James C. Anderson, Marketing Management, 9(Summer 2000), pp. 40–47. [Customer–supplier relations, Marketstrategy, Implementation (assess customer measurement systems,determine products and services, build historical database, measurementresponsibility, sharing risks and gains, outline specificactions and initiate the agreement), Case study, Hospital supplyindustry.] 76Distributors: How Good Are They? James P. Morgan, Purchasing,128 (May 4, 2000), pp. 50–52, 54, 58. [Survey of purchasingprofessionals, Percentage of companies’ purchases, Product categories,Needs priorities, Performance ratings, Use of e-businesstools, Problems (prices, delivery, damage, cost control, e-business,inventory, personnel, information), Slow implementation, Examples.]772.4 Electronic MarketingSee also 3, 5, 28, 31, 67, 74, 77, 128, 132, 133, 151, 179, 184, 213Beating the Banner Ad. Christine Blank, American Demographics,22 (June 2000), pp. 42–44. [E-mail campaigns, Target markets,Entertainment, Multisensory, Interactive, Click-and-play videomessages, Rich media, Costs, Examples.] 78Mouse-Trapping the Student Market. Rebecca Gardyn, AmericanDemographics, 22 (May 2000), pp. 30, 32–34. [In-school marketing,Ad-supported mousepads, Effectiveness, Comparisons,Internet banner ads, Online sweepstakes, Newspaper ads, Casestudy.] 79Cracking the Niche. Christina Le Beau, American Demographics,22 (June 2000), pp. 38–40. [Online marketing, Market segments,Web-based groups with focused interests, Becoming part of a community,Examples.] 80Internet: A Vehicle for On-line Shopping.Venkatakrishna V. Bellur,Finnish Journal of Business and Economics, 49 (No. 2, 2000),pp. 191–207. [Literature review, Survey of households, Demographicand socioeconomic profile, Internet access and usage rates,Impacts, Occupation, Income, Discriminant analysis.] 81Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp. 84–114.[Three articles on e-business, Syndication, Roles, Structure, Business-to-business marketplaces, E-hubs, Integrating virtual and

physical operations, Examples.] 82How to Acquire Customers on the Web. Donna L. Hoffman andThomas P. Novak, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000),pp. 179–80, 183–86, 188. [Discussion, Banner ads, Affiliate marketing,Integrated strategy (mass media, online advertising, strategicpartnerships, word of mouth, free links, PR), Examples.] 83The All-in-One Market. Paul Nunes, Diane Wilson, and AjitKambil, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp.19–20. [Trends, Evolution, Online transactions, Mechanisms, Pricecompetition, Examples.] 84Going Up! Vertical Marketing on the Web. Sunny Baker andKim Baker, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.30–33. [Discussion, Mission, Customer needs, Market segments,Building awareness, E-commerce strategy, Assessment.] 85The Eight Deadly Assumptions of E-Business. Alan Brache andJim Webb, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.13–17. [Discussion, Technology is the answer, Get on the e-businessbandwagon, Expand the customer base, Enables global expansion,Reengineering will help to better serve e-business needs, Websites will ensure more e-business, Delegate development andimplementation to the IT department or to a consultant, Going digitalquickly, Assessment.] 86Frictionless Commerce? A Comparison of Internet and ConventionalRetailers. Erik Brynjolfsson and Michael D. Smith,Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 563–85. [Literaturereview, Data collection, Competition, Price changes, Menu costs,Price dispersion, Asymmetrically informed consumers and searchcosts, Product and retailer heterogeneity, Assessment.] 87Debunking the Myths of Web Site Promotion. Joyce Flory, MarketingHealth Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 31–35. [Discussion,Site registration, Registration services, Search engines, Specifictypes of information, Impacts, Promotion efforts, Awards,Press releases, Contests and giveaways, Success, Guidelines.] 88Branding on the Internet. Larry Chiagouris and Brant Wansley,Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 34–38. [Discussion,Relationship-building continuum, Impacts, E-branding tactics,Measurement issues, Examples.] 89Ride or Drive? Ralph A. Oliva, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer2000), pp. 58–60. [Web-based hubs, Driving (starting yourown digital marketplace for multiple buyers and sellers), Riding(signing on to a hub run by another firm), Managing cognitivespaces, Spin ups, Hub wars, Ride versus drive, Assessment.] 90Buyers Are Hot on Internet, Wary About E-Procurement. Purchasing,128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S6–S7, S10, S13. [Survey, Attitudes,Communications (requests for information and quotes fromsuppliers, shipments tracking and expediting, ordering), Costs,Ease of use, Security, Reliability, Current or projected use, Examples.]91E-Auction Model Morphs to Meet Buyers’ Needs. Anne MillenPorter, Purchasing, 128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S31–S32, S34, S36,S39, S40, S44, S46. [Discussion, Reverse e-auctions, Biddinginvolving many suppliers, Impacts, Profit margins, Consultants,Software packages, Requirements, Transactions, Markets, Outsourcing,Examples.] 92Cashing In. Ginger Conlon, Sales and Marketing Management,(June 2000), pp. 94–96, 102. [Business growth, Dot-com businesses,Market potentials, Factors, Understand the audience, Actquickly, Risk, Stability, Examples.] 93Why Dealers Must Buy In to the Web. Brent Keltner, Sales andMarketing Management, (April 2000), pp. 29–30. [Discussion,Benefits, Strategies, Focus on underperforming products, Integrate

sales and marketing, Offer incentives, Provide technical support,Examples.] 94Clicks and Misses. Melinda Ligos, Sales and Marketing Management,(June 2000), pp. 68–70, 72, 74, 76. [E-business, Problems,Alienating channel partners, Not focusing on core competencies,Not integrating customer service systems, Trying to serve massmarket instead of existing customers, Not involving salespeople,Not knowing when to outsource, Examples.] 95Finding Sustainable Profitability in Electronic Commerce.John M. de Figueiredo, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer2000), pp. 41–52. [E-commerce product continuum, Market strategy(commodity products, quasi commodity, look and feel goods,look and feel with variable quality), Incumbents versus newentrants, Sustaining competitive advantage, Examples.] 96Marketing Literature Review / 99Fast Venturing: The Quick Way to Start Web Businesses. AjitKambil, Erik D. Eselius, and Karen A. Monteiro, Sloan ManagementReview, 41 (Summer 2000), pp. 55–67. [Model presentation;Roles (innovators, equity and operational partners); Stages (illumination,investigation, implementation); Why, when, and how companiesshould fast venture; Venture networks; Examples.] 97Building Stronger Brands Through Online Communities. GilMcWilliam, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp.43–54. [Discussion, Traditional user groups, Forum for exchangeof common interests, Attracting new members, Links to other sites,Brand owner’s control over content, Skills needed to manageonline communities, Examples.] 98Domain Names Emerge as Key Tools for On-line Retail Marketing.Jennifer Karas, Stores, 82 (May 2000), pp. 94, 96, 98. [Discussion,Name by which a company is known on the Internet,Advantages, Professional and credible Web presence, Name competition,Examples.] 99In-Store Interactive Systems Take on Major Role in DrawingTechnology-Savvy Customers. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (May2000), pp. 44, 46, 48. [Study, Integration of online and in-storeactivities (digital signage, electronic messaging, kiosks), Consumerexpectations, Shopping behavior, Examples.] 1002.5 Physical DistributionSee also 67, 111, 147, 194, 195Early Supplier Involvement in Customer New Product Development:A Contingency Model of Component Supplier Intentions.Douglas W. LaBahn and Robert Krapfel, Journal of BusinessResearch, 47 (March 2000), pp. 173–90. [Literature review,Hypotheses, Survey, Customer power advantage, Adherence toagreements, Customer promise, Supplier intentions, Interdependence,Statistical analysis, Implications.] 101An Industry Still in Need of Integration. Brian Milligan, Purchasing,128 (May 18, 2000), pp. 147, 149–50. [Business growth,Intermodal transport, Acquisitions and mergers, Government regulation,Examples.] 102Service Providers Under Pressure to Control Rates. Brian Milligan,Purchasing, 128 (April 20, 2000), pp. 113, 116–17, 119,121. [Transportation, Third-party logistics, Industry growth, Purchasingmanagers, Time constraints, Bundled services, Costs,Internet investments, Software packages, Examples.] 103Supply Chain Software Moves to the Web. Brian Milligan, Purchasing,128 (April 6, 2000), pp. 67–68. [Transportation, Impacts,Business processes, Forecasting shipments, Demand forecasts,Meeting anticipated transportation requirements, Needed improvements,Examples.] 104E-Replenishment System Counters Continuing Problem of

Supermarket Out-of-Stocks. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (April2000), pp. 70, 72. [Supply chain initiatives, POS system investments,Scanning data, Software packages, Collaborative planning,Initialization, Execution, Monitoring, Examples.] 1052.6 PricingSee also 55, 75, 84, 87, 103, 113Industrial Export Pricing Practices in the United Kingdom.Nikolaos Tzokas, Susan Hart, Paraskevas Argouslidis, and MichaelSaren, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp.191–204. [Literature review, Survey of export marketing directorsfrom three industrial sectors, High and low competence firms, Pricingorientations, Objectives, Policies, Methods used, Statisticalanalysis, Managerial implications, UK.] 106Advertised Reference Price Effects on Consumer Price Estimates,Value Perception, and Search Intention. Bruce L. Alfordand Brian T. Engelland, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May2000), pp. 93–100. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment,Plausible and implausible price exposure conditions, Statisticalanalysis, Practical implications.] 107An Investigation of Reference Price Segments. Tridib Mazumdarand Purushottam Papatla, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May2000), pp. 246–58. [Literature review, Model development, Datacollection (ERIM scanner panel of ACNielsen), Use of internal andexternal reference prices, Brand preferences and responses tomarketing-mix variables, Statistical analysis, Managerialimplications.] 108Insights into Cross- and Within-Store Price Search: RetailerEstimates vs. Consumer Self-Reports. Joel E. Urbany, Peter R.Dickson, and Alan G. Sawyer, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer2000), pp. 243–58. [Literature review, Surveys, Attitudes, Consumerpatronage behavior, Price comparison frequency, Search forand responsiveness to price specials, Belief discrepancies, Assessment,Theoretical and managerial implications.] 109Burden of Frequent Price Changes Spurs Development ofAutomated Pricing Systems. Michael Hartnett, Stores, 82 (May2000), pp. 56, 58. [Retail chains; Software packages; Categorymanagement; Pricing rules can be applied to maintain family groupand parity pricing by item, flavor, size, brand, competitor’s pricing,margins, and the retailer’s value image.] 1102.7 ProductSee also 1, 6, 7, 8, 10, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 43, 50, 55, 58, 60,63, 70, 89, 98, 101, 108, 135, 145, 147, 148, 154, 155, 167, 170,173, 206Product Development Partnerships: Balancing the Needs ofOEMs and Suppliers. Morgan L. Swink and Vincent A. Mabert,Business Horizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 59–68. [Discussion,OEM needs (providers of scarce resources and capabilities, supportof global product strategies, minimized risks), Supplier needs(rewards for up-front involvement, protected business interests,shared wealth), Success, Guidelines.] 111Building an Innovation Factory. Andrew Hargadon and Robert I.Sutton, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp.157–66. [Knowledge-brokering cycle, Factors, Capturing newideas, Keeping ideas alive, Imagining new uses for old ideas,Putting promising concepts to the test, Examples.] 112Price and Brand Name as Indicators of Quality Dimensions forConsumer Durables. Merrie Brucks, Valarie A. Zeithaml, andGillian Naylor, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(Summer 2000), pp. 359–74. [Literature review, Model presentation,Hypotheses, Laboratory experiment, Ease of use, Versatility,Durability, Service ability, Performance, Prestige, Consumers’

judgment processes and inferences, Statistical analysis.] 113Introducing Short-Term Brands: A New Branding Tool for aNew Consumer Reality. Dan Herman, Journal of Brand Management(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 330–40. [Changes in consumer preferencesand behavior, Market strategy, Evolving and varietybrands, Planned limited life expectancies, Value added, Examples.]114A Survey of Brand Risk Management. Rory F. Knight and DeborahJ. Pretty, Journal of Brand Management (UK), 7 (May 2000),pp. 353–65. [Discussion; Brand significance and perception; Corequalities of brands across regions, industry sectors, and organizationalposition; Threats; Protection mechanisms; Brand insurance;Brand valuation; Assessment; Many countries.] 115Call Branding: Identifying, Leveraging, and Managing NewBranding Opportunities. Kevin M. Waters, Journal of BrandManagement (UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 321–29. [Modifying a brandto correspond with its verbal identity (Kraft Mayo, FedEx), Partialdeclaration and use, Acronyms, Success, Guidelines.] 116100 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001The Incumbent’s Curse? Incumbency, Size, and Radical ProductInnovation. Rajesh K. Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, Journal ofMarketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 1–17. [Literature review; Data collection(more than 250 books and 500 articles); Recently, largefirms and incumbents are significantly more likely to introduceradical innovations than small firms and nonincumbents; Nationality;Implications.] 117Impact of a Late Entrant on the Diffusion of a NewProduct/Service. Trichy V. Krishnan, Frank M. Bass, and V.Kumar, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.269–78. [Model testing, Mathematical equations, Brand-level salesdata in multiple markets, Effects, Market potentials, Diffusionspeed of the category and of incumbent brands, Statisticalanalysis.] 118Customization of Product Technology and International NewProduct Success: Mediating Effects of New Product Developmentand Rollout Timeliness. George M. Chryssochoidis andVeronica Wong, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17(July 2000), pp. 268–85. [Literature review, Model proposal,Hypotheses, Interviews with managers in multinational companies,Impacts, Scheduling, Individual country requirements, Statisticalanalysis.] 119Company Competencies as a Network: The Role of ProductDevelopment. Hanne Harmsen, Klaus G. Grunert, and KarstenBove, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17 (May 2000),pp. 194–207. [Literature review, Survey of managers, Rankings,Perceived success factors and problems, Assessment, Implications.]120Harnessing Tacit Knowledge to Achieve Breakthrough Innovation.Ronald Mascitelli, Journal of Product Innovation Management,17 (May 2000), pp. 179–93. [Discussion, Model presentation,Methods, Achieve emotional commitment and personalinvolvement from design team members, Use of early and frequentprototyping, Face-to-face interaction during product development,Examples, Managerial implications.] 121Technological Innovativeness as a Moderator of New ProductDesign Integration and Top Management Support. MorganSwink, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17 (May2000), pp. 208–20. [Literature review, Model presentation,Hypotheses, Study of new product development projects, Effects,Financial performance, Design quality, Time-based performance,Interactions, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 122

Consumer-Level Factors Moderating the Success of PrivateLabel Brands. Rajeev Batra and Indrajit Sinha, Journal of Retailing,76 (Summer 2000), pp. 175–91. [Literature review, Modelestimation, Mall-intercept study, Measures (consequences of purchasemistake, degree of quality variation in category, search versusexperience nature of category, price consciousness), Statisticalanalysis, Managerial implications.] 123Choosing the Right Branding Expert.Victoria Barkan and DebraSemans, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 29–31.[Discussion, Understanding your needs, Approach/methodology,Objectivity and bias, Experience, Future perspective, Leadingedgethinking, Benchmark results, Client satisfaction, Stayinvolved and visible, Assessment.] 124Market-Driven Product Development. Stephan A. Butscher andMichael Laker, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp.48–53. [Target-costing pricing approach, Definition of target segments,Competitive advantages and disadvantages, Product positioning,Fine-tuning product design and pricing, Market simulations,Target costs, Examples.] 125Brand Waves: Building Momentum Throughout the OwnershipCycle. Peter H. Farquhar, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer2000), pp. 14–21. [Discussion, Ownership cycle, Trigger,Consideration, Drivers (awareness, relevance, differentiation, quality,affordability, availability), Conversion, Purchase and confirmation,Taking credit, Value, Examples.] 126How to Build a Billion Dollar Business-to-Business Brand. DonE. Schultz and Heidi F. Schultz, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer2000), pp. 22–28. [Discussion; Evolution of b-to-b companies;Product-, distribution-, and customer-driven; Brand structures andpolicies; Building and development; Communication; Measuringresults; Example.] 1272.8 Sales PromotionSee also 70, 75, 88Redeeming Qualities. Jennifer Lach, American Demographics, 22(May 2000), pp. 36–38. [Study, Incentives, S&H greenpoints.com,Online participation, Customer retention, Age groups, Incomes,Effectiveness, Examples.] 128An Evaluation of State Sponsored Promotion Programs. TimothyJ. Wilkinson and Lance Eliot Brouthers, Journal of BusinessResearch, 47 (March 2000), pp. 229–36. [Data collection (relationshipsbetween program offerings and state exports), Variables(direct exports, trade shows, trade missions, foreign offices, marketinformation activities, population), Statistical analysis,Implications.] 129Money Isn’t Everything. Vincent Alonzo, Sales and MarketingManagement, (April 2000), pp. 47–48. [Sweepstakes, Appeals,Effectiveness, Impacts, Long-term sales, Offering prizes appropriatefor clients, Examples.] 130The Shows Will Go On. Danielle Harris, Sales and MarketingManagement, (May 2000), pp. 85–88. [Discussion, Trade shows,Factors, Increasing booth traffic and generating quality leads,Motivating salespeople, Budgets, Examples.] 131Internet Retailers Shift Focus from Attracting to RetainingOn-line Customers. Maureen Licata, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.66, 68, 70, 72. [Value-focused customers, Loyalty incentives, Discounts,Giveaways, Contests, Sweepstakes, Free shipping, Customerdatabases, Impacts, Content, Community, Communication,Examples.] 132Electronic Coupons Find Growing Uses for Both Stores and ECommerceSites. Tony Seideman, Stores, 82 (April 2000), pp.104, 106. [Target markets, Flexibility, Costs, Customer databases,

Profiles, Effectiveness, Examples.] 1332.9 AdvertisingSee also 2, 3, 7, 8, 15, 70, 78, 79, 80, 83, 152, 159, 177, 197, 224Who’s Next? Richard Linnett, Advertising Age, 71 (May 29,2000), pp. 12, 15. [Strategic planning, Advertising agencies, Competitiveadvantage, Acquisitions and mergers, Impacts, Clients,Business growth, Examples.] 134Linking Advertising and Brand Value. Irene M. Herremans,John K. Ryans Jr., and Raj Aggarwal, Business Horizons, 43(May/June 2000), pp. 19–26. [Literature review, Model presentation,Advertising turnover, Marketing investment, Product quality,Market share, Study of firms, High- and low-efficiency brandenhancers, Brand deterioration, Future unknown, Neglect,Examples.] 135Narrative Music in Congruent and Incongruent TV Advertising.Kineta Hung, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.25–34. [Literature review, Content analysis, Experiment, Meaningsassociated with ad components and commercials, Textual elaboration,Assessment.] 136The Impact of Verbal Anchoring on Consumer Response toImage Ads. Barbara J. Phillips, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring2000), pp. 15–24. [Literature review, Experiment, Attitude towardMarketing Literature Review / 101the ad, Presence and level of verbal anchoring, Comprehension,Statistical analysis.] 137Journal of Advertising Research, 40 (May/June 2000), pp. 7–52.[Four articles on creativity; Recall, liking, and creativity in TVcommercials; Creative differences between copywriters and artdirectors; Correlates of integrated marketing communications;Customer/brand loyalty in the interactive marketplace.] 138Advertising Attitudes and Advertising Effectiveness. AbhilashaMehta, Journal of Advertising Research, 40 (May/June 2000), pp.67–72. [Literature review, Data collection (Magazine ImpactResearch Systems), Measures, Attitudinal statements, Intrusiveness/recall, Persuasion/buying interest, Statistical analysis, Implications.]1392.10 Personal SellingSee also 11, 142, 217, 218Sales Call Anxiety: Exploring What It Means When Fear Rulesa Sales Encounter.Willem Verbeke and Richard P. Bagozzi, Journalof Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 88–101. [Literature review,Model testing, Hypotheses, Survey of salespeople, Factors, Negativeself-evaluations, Negative evaluations from customers, Physiologicalsymptoms, Protective actions, Statistical analysis, TheNetherlands.] 140Independents Day. Dan Hanover, Sales and Marketing Management,(April 2000), pp. 64–66, 68. [Independent sales reps, Motivation,Communication, Support, Rewards, Short-term bonus andincentives programs, Examples.] 1412.11 Sales ManagementSee also 57, 93, 95, 130, 131, 140, 141, 147, 213Comparisons of Alternative Perceptions of Sales Performance.Paul A. Dion and Peter M. Banting, Industrial Marketing Management,29 (May 2000), pp. 263–70. [Study of industrial market triads(salesperson, sales manager, buyer), There were assessmentdiscrepancies in addition to what constituted good performance,Gender evaluation, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.]142Driving Down Costs. Christine Galea, Sales and Marketing Management,(May 2000), pp. 102–104, 106, 108, 110. [Corporatecars, Strategy, Industry, Lease or own, Depreciation, Fuel concerns,

Vehicle duration, Reselling, Buy from one manufacturer,Managing risk, Examples.] 143Masterful Meetings. Erin Strout, Sales and Marketing Management,(May 2000), pp. 68–72, 74, 76. [Discussion, Planning,Choose destination carefully to set the right tone, Set straightforwardagenda, Stick to budget, Develop postmeeting actionplans.] 1443. SPECIAL MARKETING APPLICATIONS3.1 IndustrialSee also 41, 46, 50, 56, 68, 69, 77, 101, 106, 111, 119, 121, 122,142, 163, 164, 166, 173, 193, 194, 195, 212, 217Marketing High Technology: Preparation, Targeting, Positioning,Execution. Chris Easingwood and Anthony Koustelos, BusinessHorizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 27–34. [Discussion; Marketstrategy; Supply to OEMs; Market education; Distribution;Target innovative adopters, pragmatists, conservatives, current customers,competitors’ customers; Emphasize exclusivity, low price,technological superiority; Execution; Examples.] 145Do Trade-Offs Exist in Operations Strategy? Insights from theStamping Die Industry. Mark Pagell, Steve Melnyk, and RobertHandfield, Business Horizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 69–77.[Study of firms, Performance, Comparisons, Strategic advantagesand disadvantages, Relative fixed costs and lead time, Employeecommitment, Assessment.] 146Strategic Selling in the Age of Modules and Systems. John W.Henke, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp.271–84. [Discussion, OEM impediments to module and systemacquisition, Developing a sales strategy, Capabilities andresources, Cooperation among participating suppliers, Design considerations,Markup practices, Supply chain management experience,Case study, Automotive industry.] 147Differential Effects of the Primary Forms of Cross FunctionalIntegration on Product Development Cycle Time. J. DanielSherman, William E. Souder, and Svenn A. Jenssen, Journal ofProduct Innovation Management, 17 (July 2000), pp. 257–67. [Literaturereview; Survey of high-technology firms; Variables; Integrationof knowledge from past projects; R&D/customer, marketing,manufacturing, supplier integration; Strategic partnershipintegration; Statistical analysis; US and Scandinavian firms.] 148Prepping the Supply Base for Leaner Supply Systems. TomStundza, Purchasing, 128 (June 1, 2000), pp. 62–64, 66, 68. [Supplierdevelopment programs, Quality control processes, Materialresource planning, Just-in-time delivery, Make or buy studies,Component kitting, Best supplier evaluations, Outsourcing,Improving performance, Implementation, Case study, Aerospaceindustry.] 1493.2 Nonprofit, Political, and Social CausesSee also 26, 52, 129, 158, 180, 208Demographics, Personality Traits, Roles, Motivations, andAttrition Rates of Hospice Volunteers. Becky J. Starnes and WalterW. Wymer Jr., Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing,7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 61–76. [Literature review, Volunteer profile,Services to patients and families, Religious beliefs, Personalexperiences, Training and expectations, Assessment.] 1503.3 International and ComparativeSee also 13, 29, 38, 42, 45, 46, 48, 54, 63, 106, 115, 117, 119, 129,140, 148, 177, 188, 189, 191, 200, 201, 211, 216, 223Privacy on the Net: Europe Changes the Rules. William J.Scheibal and Julia Alpert Gladstone, Business Horizons, 43(May/June 2000), pp. 13–18. [Discussion, Legal aspects, Businessimpact, EU privacy directive, Impacts, US, Assessment.] 151

Color Usage in International Business-to-Business PrintAdvertising. Irvine Clarke III and Earl D. Honeycutt Jr., IndustrialMarketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp. 255–61. [Literaturereview, Hypotheses, Content analysis, Comparisons, Black/whiteads, Color distribution by magazine, Cultural meanings, Managerialimplications, France, US, Venezuela.] 152Managing International Joint Venture Relationships: A LongitudinalPerspective. Akmal S. Hyder and Pervez N. Ghauri,Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp. 205–18.[Literature review, Model presentation, In-depth interviews,Motives, Resources, Learning, Network, Performance, Case studies,Telecommunications industry, Sweden, India.] 153Positioned for Success: Branding in the Czech Brewing Industry.Chris Lewis and Angela Vickerstaff, Journal of Brand Management(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 341–52. [Literature review,Brand appeals (function, image and personality), Market strategy,Price, Quality, Traditional, Modern, Effects, Foreign ownershipand expertise, Case studies.] 154Country of Branding: A Review and Research Propositions.Ian Phau and Gerard Prendergast, Journal of Brand Management(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 366–75. [Literature review, Hypotheses,Quality perceptions, Brand image, Country of branding versuscountry of manufacturing, Luxury brands, Development of country,High versus low involvement, Assessment, Asia.] 155102 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001Forecasting Practices in the Pharmaceutical Industry in Singapore.Louis Choo, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19 (Summer2000), pp. 18–20. [Survey, Extent of involvement, Purpose of forecasts,Techniques used, Sources of information, Forecast drivers,Assessment.] 156A Systematic Approach to Tourism Policy. Jafar Alavi and MahmoudM. Yasin, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp.147–56. [Discussion, Revenues, Model presentation, Mathematicalequations, Effects (areawide, region-mix, competitive, allocation),Statistical data, Shift-share analysis, Policy implications, Manycountries.] 157Marketing of a Financial Innovation: Commercial Use of theEuro by European Companies Prior to Mandatory Adoption.Yvonne M. van Everdingen and Gary J. Bamossy, Journal of BusinessResearch, 48 (May 2000), pp. 123–33. [Theoretical discussion,Model presentation, Survey of firms, Measures, Perceivedinnovation characteristics, Perceptions of political and businessenvironment, Organizational characteristics, Internal communicationbehavior, Adoption behavior, Statistical analysis, Recommendations.]158Effect of a Buy-National Campaign on Member Firm Performance.Graham D. Fenwick and Cameron I. Wright, Journal ofBusiness Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 135–45. [Literaturereview, Survey, Comparisons, Nonparticipating firms, Staff memberand domestic sales changes, Statistical analysis, New Zealand.]159Global Sourcing, Multiple Country-of-Origin Facets, and ConsumerReactions. Zhan G. Li, L. William Murray, and Don Scott,Journal of Business Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 121–33.[Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment, Comparisons, Country-of-design, Assembly, Corporation, Dimensions (functional,symbolic, overall quality), Statistical analysis, Implications.] 160New Rules for Global Markets. Richard W. Oliver, Journal ofBusiness Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp. 7–9. [Discussion;Competitive strategies; Think and act globally; Focus on ethnicgroup, not country; Focus on neighbors first; Focus on the cities;

Culture is an important barrier; Use global market muscle; Focussouth, not east–west; Develop new mind-set.] 161Mode of International Entry: An Isomorphism Perspective.Peter S. Davis, Ashay B. Desai, and John D. Francis, Journal ofInternational Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter 2000), pp.239–58. [Literature review, Model development, Hypotheses, Surveyof firms, Pressures to conform to behavioral norms withinenvironments, Comparisons, Wholly owned, Exporting, Joint ventures,Licensing agreements, Statistical analysis.] 162The Determinants of Trust in Supplier–Automaker Relationshipsin the U.S., Japan, and Korea. Jeffrey H. Dyer and WujinChu, Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter2000), pp. 259–85. [Literature review, Model presentation,Hypotheses, Personal interviews, Measures, Length of relationship,Face-to-face communication, Relationship continuity, Assistanceto supplier, Stock ownership, Statistical analysis.] 163Social Ties and Foreign Market Entry. Paul Ellis, Journal ofInternational Business Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp.443–69. [Literature review, Propositions, Interviews with experiencedmembers of manufacturing firms, Knowledge of foreignmarket opportunities is commonly acquired through existing interpersonallinks rather than through market research, Hong Kong.]164Process Standardization Across Intra- and Inter-cultural Relationships.David A. Griffith, Michael Y. Hu, and John K. Ryans Jr.,Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter2000), pp. 303–24. [Literature review, Model presentation,Hypotheses, Survey of distributors, Measures, Trust, Commitment,Conflict, Satisfaction, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications,Canada, Chile, Mexico, US.] 165Productivity Spillovers from Foreign Direct Investment: Evidencefrom UK Industry Level Panel Data. Xia ming Liu,Pamela Siler, Chengqi Wang, and Yingqi Wei, Journal of InternationalBusiness Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 407–25. [Literaturereview, Model presentation, Impacts, Situations in whichhost country is developed, Introduction of advanced technology,Statistical analysis.] 166The International Biotechnology Industry: A Dynamic CapabilitiesPerspective. Anoop Madhok and Thomas Osegowitsch,Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter2000), pp. 325–35. [International diffusion of technology, Propositions,Organizational form and geographic flows, Transactions,Licensing and marketing agreements, Research agreements, Jointventures, Acquisition, New subsidiaries, Composite groupings,Assessment, Implications.] 167National Culture and Strategic Change in Belief Formation.Livia Markoczy, Journal of International Business Studies, 31(Third Quarter 2000), pp. 427–42. [Literature review, Study ofHungarian organizations recently acquired by Anglo-Saxon partners,Individual beliefs, Causal relationships, Impacts, Being amember of the functional area favored by the strategic change, Statisticalanalysis.] 168Synergy, Managerialism or Hubris? An Empirical Examinationof Motives for Foreign Acquisitions of U.S. Firms. AnjuSeth, Kean P. Song, and Richardson Pettit, Journal of InternationalBusiness Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 387–405. [Theoreticaldiscussion, Testable hypotheses and empirical predictions,Data collection, Relationship between target gains and acquirergains, Total gains, Statistical analysis.] 169Knowledge Flows in the Global Innovation System: Do U.S.Firms Share More Scientific Knowledge Than Their Japanese

Rivals? Jennifer W. Spencer, Journal of International BusinessStudies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 521–530. [Discussion,Hypotheses, Data collection (firms’ publication and citation patterns),Japanese firms appropriated no more knowledge from theglobal community than their US counterparts, Statistical analysis.]170The Management Implications of Ethnicity in South Africa.Adele Thomas and Mike Bendixen, Journal of International BusinessStudies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 507–19. [Literaturereview, Hypotheses, Interviews with middle managers, Both managementculture and perceived management effectiveness werefound to be independent of both race and the dimensions of culture,Implications.] 171A Case for Comparative Entrepreneurship: Assessing the Relevanceof Culture. Anisya S. Thomas and Stephen L. Mueller,Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter2000), pp. 287–301. [Literature review, Survey of students, Measures,Innovativeness, Locus of control, Risk-taking, Energy level,Impacts, Cultural distance, Many countries.] 172Customer-Driven Product Development Through QualityFunction Deployment in the U.S. and Japan. John J. Cristiano,Jeffrey K. Liker, and Chelsea C. White III, Journal of ProductInnovation Management, 17 (July 2000), pp. 286–308. [Literaturereview; Survey of companies; US companies reported a higherdegree of quality function deployment usage, management support,cross-functional support, data sources, benefits; Assessment.]173Venture Capitalist Involvement in Portfolio Companies:Insights from South Africa. Michael H. Morris, John W. Watling,and Minet Schindehutte, Journal of Small Business Management,38 (July 2000), pp. 68–77. [Literature review, Survey, Types ofMarketing Literature Review / 103companies in which venture capitalists prefer to invest, Factorsinfluencing involvement, Areas of involvement, Interactions, Statisticalanalysis, Implications.] 174International Competition in Mixed Industries. Roland Calori,Tugrul Atamer, and Pancho Nunes, Long Range Planning (UK), 33(June 2000), pp. 349–75. [Discussion, Formation of regional competitiveterritories, Dual effect of marketing intensity, Influence ofdemand factors, Role of strategic innovators across borders, Examples.]175Information Technology and Productivity: Evidence fromCountry-Level Data. Sanjeev Dewan and Kenneth L. Kraemer,Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 548–62. [Discussion,Production function, Hypotheses, Data collection, Capital investment,GDP per worker, Asset categories, Developed and developingcountries, Statistical analysis, Policy implications.] 1763.4 ServicesSee also 9, 19, 20, 27, 37, 40, 42, 47, 55, 60, 71, 72, 76, 78, 102,103, 150, 157, 192, 214, 230, 231Putting the “World” in the World Series. Rebecca Gardyn,American Demographics, 22 (April 2000), pp. 28–30. [Trends,Multicultural players and fans, International, TV viewers, Radio,Impacts, Marketers, Prestige, Brand acceptance, Localism,Examples.] 177Journal of Business Research, 48 (June 2000), pp. 165–283.[Eleven articles on health care research, Quality-of-life/needsassessment model, Internal marketing, Financial management,Measurement error, Role of nurse practitioners, Market orientationand organizational performance, Antitrust concerns about evolvingvertical relationships, Measuring service quality, Modeling health

plan choice behavior, Roles of primary and secondary control inolder adulthood, Service quality for inpatient nursing services.]178One-to-One Marketing Doesn’t Have to Be Web-Based. Joel R.Lapointe, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.34–37. [Discussion, Customer relations, Scenarios (hospitality,professional services, customer service/sales), Impacts, Key roleidentification, High performer profiling, Key information accessibility,Assessment.] 179Current Resource Constraints and the Role of Marketing inHealth Research Organizations. Dennis R. McDermott, HowardP. Tuckman, and David J. Urban, Journal of Nonprofit and PublicSector Marketing, 7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 3–16. [Survey of CEOs representingnational sample of HROs, Attitudes, Fundraising, Revenuesources, Budget allocations, Strategic, Assessment, Recommendations.]180A Comprehensive Framework for Service Quality: An Investigationof Critical Conceptual and Measurement IssuesThrough a Longitudinal Study. Pratibha A. Dabholkar, C. DavidShepherd, and Dayle I. Thorpe, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer2000), pp. 139–73. [Literature review, Propositions, Consumer survey,Components and antecedents (reliability, personal attention,comfort, features), Impacts, Behavioral intentions, Measured disconfirmationversus perceptions, Statistical analysis, Implications.]181Switching Barriers and Repurchase Intentions in Services.Michael A. Jones, David L. Mothersbaugh, and Sharon E. Beatty,Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 259–74. [Literaturereview, Model testing, Hypotheses, Consumer survey, Effects,Core-service satisfaction, Interpersonal relationships, Switchingcosts, Attractiveness of alternatives, Interactions, Statistical analysis,Implications.] 182Access to Capital and Terms of Credit: A Comparison of MenandWomen-Owned Small Businesses. Susan Coleman, Journalof Small Business Management, 38 (July 2000), pp. 37–52. [Literaturereview, Model presentation, Data collection (Federal ReserveBoard and Small Business Administration), Firm characteristics,Most recent loan, Usage of bank credit products, Interest rates,Collateral, Statistical analysis.] 183Customer Service: An Essential Component for a SuccessfulWeb Site. Cherryl Carlson, Marketing Health Services, 20 (Summer2000), pp. 28–30. [Discussion, E-mail management, Response(automatic, intelligent agent–aided, intelligent automated), Selfhelp, Live text chat, Outsourcing, Assessment.] 184Dissecting the HMO–Benefits Managers Relationship: What toMeasure and Why. James W. Peltier and John Westfall, MarketingHealth Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 5–13. [Discussion, Surveyof employee benefits managers, Attitudes, Dimensions (financial/economic, social/responsiveness, structural/partnership),Overall satisfaction and quality, Relationship commitment/loyalty,Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 185Practicing Best-in-Class Service Recovery. Stephen W. Brown,Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 8–9. [Best practices;Hiring, training, and empowerment; Service recovery guidelinesand standards; Easy access and effective response; Customerand product databases; Failure; Companywide recovery; Profits;Technology; Examples.] 1864. MARKETING RESEARCH4.1 Theory and Philosophy of ScienceSee also 74, 75, 87, 118, 169Bayesian Dynamic Factor Models and Portfolio Allocation.

Omar Aguilar and Mike West, Journal of Business and EconomicStatistics, 18 (July 2000), pp. 338–57. [Dynamic linear models,Exchange rates forecasting, Markov chain Monte Carlo, Multivariatestochastic volatility, Portfolio selection, Sequential forecasting,Variance matrix discounting, Assessment.] 187Modeling the Sources of Output Growth in a Panel of Countries.Gary Koop, Jacek Osiewalski, and Mark F.J. Steel, Journalof Business and Economic Statistics, 18 (July 2000), pp. 284–99.[Stochastic production-frontier model, Efficiency levels, Bayesianinference, Growth decompositions, Technical change, Numericalimplementation.] 188The Theoretical Foundation for Intercultural Business Communication:A Conceptual Model. Iris I. Varner, Journal of BusinessCommunication, 37 (January 2000), pp. 39–57. [Literaturereview, Research questions, Impacts, Intercultural communicationstrategy, Country-specific and comparative studies, Assessment.]189Information, Contracting, and Quality Costs. Stanley Baiman,Paul E. Fischer, and Madhav V. Rajan, Management Science, 46(June 2000), pp. 776–89. [Literature review, Model presentation,Propositions, Internal and external failure, First- and second-bestsettings, Contractible decisions, Impacts, Information systems,Assessment.] 190Modeling Intercategory and Generational Dynamics for aGrowing Information Technology Industry. Namwoon Kim,Dae Ryun Chang, and Allan D. Shocker, Management Science, 46(April 2000), pp. 496–512. [Wireless telecommunications service,Market potentials, Asymmetry of effect, Bidirectional interrelationship,Implications, Hong Kong, Korea.] 191Measuring the Robustness of Empirical Efficiency Valuations.Ludwig Kuntz and Stefan Scholtes, Management Science, 46 (June2000), pp. 807–23. [Model extension, Propositions, Data envelopmentanalysis, Hospital capacity planning, Monotone oneparameterperturbations, Assessment.] 192Behind the Learning Curve: Linking Learning Activities toWaste Reduction. Michael A. Lapre, Amit Shankar Mukherjee,104 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001and Luk N. Van Wassenhove, Management Science, 46 (May2000), pp. 597–611. [Literature review, Organizational learning,Quality, Technological knowledge, Experimentation, Knowledgetransfer, Implications.] 193The Value of Information Sharing in a Two-Level SupplyChain. Hau L. Lee, Kut C. So, and Christopher S. Tang, ManagementScience, 46 (May 2000), pp. 626–43. [Supply chain management,Mathematical models, Production planning and inventorycontrol, Electronic data interchange, Quick response, Analyticaland numerical analyses.] 194Scheduling Resource-Constrained Projects Competitively atModest Memory Requirements. Arno Sprecher, ManagementScience, 46 (May 2000), pp. 710–23. [Model presentation, Branchand-bound algorithm, Rules, Extended and simplified single enumeration,Local left-shift, Extended global left-shift, Contraction,Set-based dominance, Nonoptimality, Heuristic, Computationalresults.] 1954.2 Research MethodologySee also 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 42, 62, 63, 66, 72, 73, 80, 81, 107,108, 109, 113, 118, 123, 136, 137, 139, 156, 159, 160, 177, 178,180, 181, 182, 200, 209, 217, 229, 230American Demographics, 22 (June 2000), pp. 54–56, 58, 60–62,64–65. [Three articles on our sense of place, Work-at-home labor

force, Desire for complex appliances with simple and easy-to-usedesigns, Networking, Shortening the distance between places andpeople, Impacts, Neighborhoods, Cities, Emerging markets, Consumerexpenditures, Cities, Statistical data.] 196What’s on Your Mind? Rebecca Gardyn, American Demographics,22 (April 2000), pp. 31–33. [Electroencephalogram technology,Reading consumers’ brain-wave activity, System testing,Problems, Data translation, Acceptance, TV content researchapplicability, Could be useful in conjunction with focus groups.]197Riding High on the Market. Cheryl Russell and Marcia Mogelonsky,American Demographics, 22 (April 2000), pp. 44–46, 48, 50,52, 54. [Economic expansion, Household incomes, Age groups,Financial assets, Risks, Stock holdings, Home values, Debt, Networth, Saving for retirement, Statistical data.] 198The Money in the Middle. Alison Stein Wellner, American Demographics,22 (April 2000), pp. 56–58, 60, 62, 64. [Economicexpansion, Impacts, Middle class, Definition problems, Role ofimmigration, Age groups, Education, Household income, Internetusage, Statistical data.] 199The Measurement of Intergenerational Communication andInfluence on Consumption: Development, Validation, andCross-Cultural Comparison of the IGEN Scale. MadhubalanViswanathan, Terry L. Childers, and Elizabeth S. Moore, Journalof the Academy of Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp.406–24. [Literature review, Consumer socialization, Three studies,Components relevant to marketplace transactions (consumer skills,preferences, attitudes toward marketer supplied information),Comparisons, Parents, Children, US, Thailand.] 200Innovation and International Business Communication: CanEuropean Research Help to Increase the Validity and Reliabilityfor Our Business and Teaching Practice? Jan Ulijn, Journalof Business Communication, 37 (April 2000), pp. 173–87. [Literaturereview, Quantitative/qualitative, Real life/simulation, Studyinglanguage, Culture (national, corporate, professional), Communicationmedium, Assessment.] 201Debunking Executive Conventional Wisdom. Larry Lapide,Journal of Business Forecasting, 19 (Summer 2000), pp. 16–17.[Myths about forecasting; Forecasts are always wrong, so why putany focus on demand planning; All we need is a quantitativeexpert; Forecasting software will take care of all forecasting needs;Process is too expensive; Assessment.] 202State Demographic Forecasting for Business and Policy Applications.Jon David Vasche, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19(Summer 2000), pp. 23, 28–30. [Reliance on a large, multidimensionalmatrix modeling system with extensive input vectors aids inprojection of aggregate population and its characteristics.] 203Journal of Business Research, 48 (April 2000), pp. 5–92. [Ten articleson replication research, Brand awareness effects on consumerdecision making, Credit card effect, Business turnarounds followingacquisitions, Organizational growth determinants, Impact ofinternalization on the diversification–performance relationship,Advertising complex products, Religious symbols as peripheralcues in advertising, Market orientation and business profitability,How salespeople build quality relationships, Conducting marketingscience.] 204Riding the Wave: Response Rates and the Effects of TimeIntervals Between Successive Mail Survey Follow-Up Efforts.Cindy Claycomb, Stephen S. Porter, and Charles L. Martin, Journalof Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 157–62. [Literaturereview; Experiment; Follow-up mailings sent to each of 20 different

treatment groups, testing follow-up intervals ranging from 3 to60 days; Assessment; Implications.] 205Historical Method in Marketing Research with New Evidenceon Long-Term Market Share Stability. Peter N. Golder, Journalof Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp. 156–72. [Literaturereview, Stages, Select topic and collect evidence, Critically evaluatesources along with evidence, Analyze and interpret, Presentconclusions, Application.] 206Cast Demographics, Unobserved Segments, and HeterogeneousSwitching Costs in a Television Viewing Choice Model.Ron Shachar and John W. Emerson, Journal of MarketingResearch, 37 (May 2000), pp. 173–86. [Model comparisons, Datacollection (ACNielsen), Examination of strategic programmingand scheduling decisions, Optimal programming decisions, Goodness-of-fit and ratings predictions, Applications.] 207The Effectiveness of Survey Response Rate Incentives in a PublicNon-profit Environment. Frank H. Wadsworth and Eldon Little,Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 7 (No. 2,1999), pp. 53–60. [Literature review, Convenience sample, Treatmentgroups, Deadlines, Prepaid and promised monetary and nonmonetaryrewards, Statistical analysis, Recommendations.] 2084.3 Information TechnologySee also 53, 59, 78, 82, 85, 86, 91, 92, 94, 97, 98, 104, 105, 110,176, 184, 190, 191, 195, 225Teens’ Use of Traditional Media and the Internet. Carrie LaFerle, Steven M. Edwards, and Wei-na Lee, Journal of AdvertisingResearch, 40 (May/June 2000), pp. 55–65. [Literature review, Survey,Time spent with media, Media used by activity, Frequency ofInternet use by gender, Location of Internet connection, Source ofinformation about Web sites, Internet and interpersonal sources ofcommunication, Statistical analysis, Implications.] 209Riding Shotgun on the Information Superhighway. Chris Wood,Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp. 38–42.[Internet security, Strategy, Problems, Vulnerability, Costs, Documentationprocess, Policies, Adding hardware and software, Success,Guidelines.] 210Understanding the Trade Winds: The Global Evolution of Production,Consumption, and the Internet. Peter R. Dickson, Journalof Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 115–22. [Literaturereview, Economic history, Diffusion technologies, Systemsdynamicperspective, Example.] 211Marketing Literature Review / 105What Buyers Want in Technology Tools.William Atkinson, Purchasing,128 (April 20, 2000), pp. 57–58, 61. [Survey, Attitudes,Software packages, Web-based e-procurement systems, Electronicdata interchange, Benefits, Satisfaction, Company’s internal performance,Supplier selection, After-sales support from suppliers,Management support, Examples.] 212Web Wise. Patricia B. Seybold, Sales and Marketing Management,(May 2000), pp. S4–S6, 58. [E-business, Customer orientation,Factors, Streamline customer scenarios, Touchpoints and crosschannelsolutions, Warehousing and logistics, Staffing and trainingcall/contact center personnel, Managing customer-affecting applications,Examples.] 213Information Orientation: People, Technology and the BottomLine. Donald A. Marchand, William J. Kettinger, and John D.Rollins, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer 2000), pp.69–80. [Study of senior managers, Measures of effective informationuse (information technology and information managementpractices, information behaviors and values), Achieving high informationorientation, Guidelines, Banking industry.] 214

Sophisticated Systems Help Retailers Develop Complete Pictureof Each Customer. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.42, 44. [Customer relationship management, Data strategy, Softwarepackages, Customer analysis, Data warehousing, E-mailresponse management, Modeling and file integration, Examples.]2155. OTHER TOPICS5.1 Educational and Professional IssuesSee also 29, 38, 79, 189, 201The Ivory Chateau. Stuart Crainer and Des Dearlove, Across theBoard, 37 (June 2000), pp. 35–40. [Discussion, INSEAD, Globalclassroom, Students, Competitive advantage, MBA program, Jobs,Web-based businesses, Assessment.] 216Cross-National Industrial Mail Surveys: Why Do ResponseRates Differ Between Countries? Anne-Wil Harzing, IndustrialMarketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp. 243–54. [Literaturereview, Survey, Attitudes, Undergraduate courses, Professional andsocial activities, Work experience, International exposure, Statisticalanalysis.] 217Preparing the Next Generation of Industrial Sales Representatives:Advice from Senior Sales Executives. Michael R. Luthy,Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp. 235–42.[Literature review, Survey, Attitudes, Undergraduate courses, Professionaland social activities, Work experience, Internationalexposure, Statistical analysis.] 218Corporate Universities Crack Open Their Doors. Meryl DavidsLandau, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.18–23. [Discussion, Opening training centers to outsiders, Receivinga bigger return on investment, Impacts, Traditional universities,Technology, Assessment.] 219Publications in Major Marketing Journals: An Analysis ofScholars and Marketing Departments. Aysen Bakir, Scott J.Vitell, and Gregory M. Rose, Journal of Marketing Education, 22(August 2000), pp. 99–107. [Total number of published articlesand a fractional score based on the number of authors of an article,Faculty size, Comparisons, Previous studies.] 220Using the Theory of Constraints’ Thinking Processes toImprove Problem-Solving Skills in Marketing. Marjorie J.Cooper and Terry W. Loe, Journal of Marketing Education, 22(August 2000), pp. 137–46. [Identify a list of undesirable effects,Generate conflict clouds from the list, Construct a generic conflictcloud, Build a current reality tree that shows the core conflict andhow it leads to the undesirable effects, Classroom implementation.]221Relating Pedagogical Preference of Marketing Seniors andAlumni to Attitude Toward the Major. Richard Davis, ShekharMisra, and Stuart Van Auken, Journal of Marketing Education, 22(August 2000), pp. 147–54. [Literature review, Learning styles,Motivation, Attitudinal enhancement, Survey, Variables, In-classexercises, Lectures, Cases, Association between in-class activitiesand overall attitude toward the marketing major.] 222Study Abroad Learning Activities: A Synthesis and Comparison.Charles R. Duke, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August2000), pp. 155–65. [Discussion, Effectiveness, Criteria (location,tour integration with academic credit, time spent on tour), Activities(lecture and test, company visits, journals, treasure hunt, projects,simulation), Assessment.] 223Improving Students’ Understanding of the Retail AdvertisingBudgeting Process. Myron Gable, Ann Fairhurst, Roger Dickinson,and Lynn Harris, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August2000), pp. 120–28. [Survey of retailing educators; Favorite technique

is objective and task; Requires the use of methods of bothprioritizing alternative expenditures and setting a cutoff point;These points are often neglected by academics, including textbookwriters; Recommendations.] 224Development of a Web-Based Internet Marketing Course.Shohreh A. Kaynama and Garland Keesling, Journal of MarketingEducation, 22 (August 2000), pp. 84–89. [Seven-step systemsmodel; Define purpose of course; Analyze appropriate knowledge,skills, and abilities; Determine what the students should learn andensure that the learning takes place; Development; Implementation;Assessment; Evaluation.] 225Determinants of Student Evaluations of Global Measures ofInstructor and Course Value. Ronald B. Marks, Journal of MarketingEducation, 22 (August 2000), pp. 108–19. [Literaturereview; Model development; Structural paths; Student evaluationsmay lack discriminant validity, the extent to which a measure doesnot correlate with other constructs it is not supposed to measure106 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001(e.g., expected/fairness of grading does have a large impact on ratingsof teaching ability).] 226Teaching Marketing Law: A Business Law Perspective on IntegratingMarketing and Law. Ross D. Petty, Journal of MarketingEducation, 22 (August 2000), pp. 129–36. [Literature review, Marketinglaw organized by 4 Ps and defined by protected interests,Topics distributed by course, Teaching methods, Assessment.] 227Introducing Marketing Students to Business Intelligence UsingProject-Based Learning on the World Wide Web. Carolyn F.Siegel, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August 2000), pp.90–98. [Discussion, Intelligence process, Business espionage,Overview, Projects, Advantages, Disadvantages, Assessment.] 228Consumer Primacy on Campus: A Look at the Perceptions ofNavajo and Anglo Consumers. Dennis N. Bristow and DouglasAmyx, Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 7 (No.2, 1999), pp. 31–51. [Literature review, Marketing lens model,Hypotheses, Survey, Importance ratings among educational attributes,Anticipated preparation after graduation, Satisfaction witheducational product, Statistical analysis, Managerial recommendations.]2295.2 General MarketingSee also 220An Exploration of the Meaning and Outcomes of a Customer-Defined Market Orientation. Dave Webb, Cynthia Webster, andAreti Krepapa, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp.101–12. [Literature review, Models, Hypotheses, Survey of bankclients, Relationships, Service quality, Satisfaction, Statisticalanalysis.] 230The Four “P”s of Marketing Are Dead. Joel English, MarketingHealth Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 21–23. [Discussion, Shiftsin channel dynamics within health care, New model (relevance,response, relationships, results), Assessment.] 231Perceived Attitude and Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) establishment: Why households’ characteristics matters in Coastal resources conservation initiatives in Tanzania. J. K. Sesabo a, b, c, , H. Lang d, R. S. J. Tol b, e, f

a International Max-Planck Research School for Maritime Affairs, Hamburg University, Mittelweg 187, 20148,Germany

b Research Unit Sustainability and Global Change, Hamburg University and Center for Marine and Atmospheric Science, Bundesstrasse 55, 20146 Hamburg, Germany c Department of Economics, Mzumbe University, P.O. Box 5 ,Morogoro, Tanzania d Institute for Ethnology, Hamburg University, Rothenbaumchaussee 67/69, 20148 Hamburg e Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands f Engineering and Public Policy, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA Working Paper FNU-99 Abstract In recent years, conservation initiatives through Marine Protected Area (MPAs) in many developing countries have been molded to win the support and participation of local communities. Increasingly, studies have been undertaken to enhance the understandings of the characteristics of rural communities. In the case of Tanzania, the level of compliance with marine and coastal resources management is constrained by lack of knowledge regarding coastal communities’ behavior and characteristics. Indeed, it is hypothesized that the knowledge about rural coastal communities will lead to an increase in compliance of conservation initiatives. Therefore, this paper provides an empirical assessment of households’ perceived attitudes towards proposed MPA establishment in two Tanzanian coastal villages (Mlingotini and Nyamanzi) and their vicinity. Based on survey data, the results indicate that 50.23% of households had favorable attitudes towards the introduction of MPA, out of which 34% belonged to the poor class. Moreover, a majority of households indicate that there is a need of public participation in planning and implementation of MPA. Subsequently, Probit regression, which featured in the analysis revealed that perceived costs and benefits accruing from MPAs establishment, awareness of MPAs objectives and rules that govern the use of marine and coastal resources, dependency on marine and coastal-based activities, perceived fishery conditions, wealth and location variables have a significant influence on perceived attitudes towards establishing of new MPA. Based on the findings, it can be concluded that conservation initiatives through the establishment of MPAs may be more beneficial and more effective when policy makers understand the characteristics and behavior of coastal communities. In addition, conservation initiatives should be based on the consensus building and participation of all stakeholders. 1

1. Introduction

Economies of the western Indian Ocean coastal countries states depend on the existence and abundance of marine and coastal resources to satisfy their needs and demands. These include; recreational, aesthetic and economic dimensions (Ngoile et al, 2001). At the same time, marine and coastal ecosystems are also paramount for critical life support functions and play a significant role in balancing the extremes of climatic conditions. Therefore, just like in other countries located along the coastal region, Tanzania’s marine and coastal resources support the life of about 25% of the country’s population for the provision of employment and food (TCMP, 2003; Francis and Bryceson, 2001). However, there are significant challenges such as conflict over and competition for limited marine and coastal resources as well as escalating environmental deterioration (Masalu, 2000). According to different studies conducted in Tanzania, human impact is the primary threat of marine and coastal resources. (Francis and Bryceson, 2001; Masalu, 2000). In addition, poverty has also emerged as a major problem, particularly in the Tanzanian coastal villages where average yearly income in most of these villages does not exceed US$ 100 (per person) (TCMP, 2001). Thus, poverty, human pressure and poor understanding of marine and coastal resource management have lead to a number of problems. These problems include excessive exploitation of fishery resources, careless cutting of mangrove, use of illegal fishing methods, destruction of coral reefs, sand mining, and pollution (IUCN, 2001). Consequently, the severity of marine and coastal ecosystem degradation does not only increasingly societies deny the goods and services necessary for life but it also puts the lives of coastal communities at risk. For example diminishing fishery resources entail a risk of mal-nutrition and threaten the source of livelihood for an estimated 25% of Tanzanian coastal population. In addition, it affects the long-term sustainability of any development strategy among coastal communities. It is therefore imperative that measures be undertaken to stop and reverse this negative trend. 2

Specifically, conserving and sustaining use of marine and coastal resources are among the means by which we can ensure the survival of coastal communities. However, it is therefore necessary to ensure a balance between stimulating economic growth at the coast while maintaining environmental quality. This balance should be made with the sole aim of reducing poverty among the coastal communities. In response to the growing cumulative threats to marine and coastal resources as well as coastal environmental degradation, the Tanzanian government established Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the 1990s (Levine 2004). Hence, the implementation of the conservation initiatives through MPAs was designed to protect the marine and coastal resources with the aim of ensuring not only their sustainability but also to improve life of the coastal communities. However, even though the conservation initiatives through MPAs are impressive in terms of their ecological and economical point of view, the successful conservation initiatives need to be acceptable by the communities living near and/or around conservation sites. This is necessary as most of the households in the target areas are poor and rely on marine and coastal resource-based activities. As a result, MPAs must be able to provide benefits through the creation of non-consumptive activities (e.g. tourism and recreation) in order to support rural coastal households’ livelihood. In coastal communities, households have different views and react differently to conservation initiatives. For example the socio-economic factors promoting household to support and engage in management, should be involved in planning and implementation process. These factors vary between households, cultures, and will certainly be different whether households utilize these resources in order to meet subsistence or commercial needs. In particular, the acceptance of a certain conservation measure (e.g. MPA) within communities can be severely hindered if some understanding of key factors such as perceived needs and benefits are not realized (Jeffrey 2000). 3

Therefore, to achieve and maintain successful operation of MPAs, arguments have been put forward that the decision-making process should include both social and economic factors in MPAs planning as well as their implementation. (Sumaila, 1998). In addition, there was an increased recognition that local communities must be actively involved in conservation and that their needs and aspiration have to be considered in initial establishment process in order to ensure their sustainability (Howe (2001)). The overriding reason for local communities inclusion is manifold: (i) local communities influence the stock and trend in marine and coastal resources, important when managing a MPA; (ii) local communities can provide a relative comparison between the state of coast environment between the present and future; and finally communities setups and culture determine largely the possibilities in designing successful management plans (Brown and Pomeroy 1999; Jentoft 2000; Howe 2001). In most of the developing countries recognition of local community participation has been resulted to formation of various programs, which promote public participation in planning, decision-making, and management of different conservation initiatives including protected areas. However, the success of individual conservation measure or program depends on its effect to individual households or communities (e.g see Wapole and Godwin 2001). Thus, the attitude and perception of communities towards conservation initiatives are important for sustainable management of natural resources. In Tanzania, despite the importance of societal heterogeneity in rural communities as well as their participation in the conservation process were not taken into account during planning and in implementing of MPAs. In particular, the role of socio-economic and cultural factors in decision-making process of coastal communities regarding marine and coastal resources use and management were neglected. One of the reasons for this is that most of these MPAs were initiated through the efforts of external organizations and they were fully or partially supported and/or managed by external/foreign agencies rather than the government or local communities themselves (Levine, 2004). In order to design and implement new MPAs, marine resource managers need to 4

develop an understanding of coastal communities’ values, attitude and behavior. They furthermore need to understand the way coastal communities value and use marine resources; as well as social, economic, and political dimensions of resource use (Cocklin, et al. 1998). The failure to take communities’ opinion regarding MPAs establishment into account led to poor public relations, less widely accepted decisions and lower levels of compliance (Wolfenden et al. 1994; Salz and Loomis 2005). Therefore, the inclusion of socio-economic and cultural factors of coastal communities into all decisions making processes (or by the organs) pertaining MPAs establishment from their design and implementation to everyday management is very crucial. Although studies considering the heterogeneity in coastal communities and attitudinal surveys could provide guidance for policy and management decision as well as baseline data to access the efficacy of conservation initiatives, they have been lacking in Tanzanian coastal areas. The conservation initiatives such as MPA to perform a dual goal (conserving marine and coastal resources as well as improving the life of coastal communities) requires an understanding of coastal communities’ dynamics behavior in terms of their attitudes towards introduction of MPA. Based on this argument, this paper uses household data from Mlingotini and Nyamanzi Village, seeking to address the following questions: what is the pattern of households’ perceived attitude towards the establishment of MPAs in the study area? What are the factors that influence this pattern? Therefore, the aim of this analysis lies in understanding the views of coastal households regarding conservation through MPAs establishment as well as identifying factors that facilitate or obstruct households to support MPA by using econometric methods. In addition, it is our hope that this evaluation will shed light on further need for local peoples’ involvement in terms of decision-making processes when establishing MPAs and other conservation initiatives in the coastal regions. 5

2. Conceptual framework and hypotheses

The decisions made in the course of management of natural resources (e.g. marine and coastal resources) cannot be evaluated outside the human context. Thus, the resources-use theory by Firey’s (1960) indicates that ecological, economic, ethnological or cultural factors play a role in determining local perception towards resources management initiatives as well as their fate. In addition, rural households differ in their needs, perceptions and attitudes towards conservation initiatives. Ajzen (1988), using the theory of reasoned action, argued that behavior is best predicted by the intention of a populace, which in turn is affected by the members’ attitudes and other’s influence on their intentions to act. Hence, different rural coastal households within their own framework of reference view coastal resources differently. They differ in their needs, perceptions, and attitudes towards resource use and management initiatives (for example the existence of Marine Protect Areas). Socio-economic research has revealed that rural households’ behavior regarding natural resource management is influenced by demographic and socio-economic factors (Pomeroy et al., 1996, Wright and Shindler, 2001). However, there is growing empirical evidence in support of the thesis that local people’s support for natural resource management (especially through establishment of Protected Areas) depends mainly on the tangible benefits and costs of living in or around such areas against the background of socio-economic and demographic consideration (Ite, 1996; Allendorf, 1999). Figure 1 provides a simple schematic framework for studying perceived attitudes of households in this study. The framework provided in Figure 1 forms the basis for selecting relevant variables influencing perceived attitudes towards MPAs establishment. Based on this conceptual framework and socio-economic researches, the factors used in this study to explain variation in perceived attitudes towards MPAs establishment include: perceived costs and benefits associated with MPAs establishment, awareness of MPAs objectives, presence of rules and regulations 6

governing use of marine and coastal resources, potential of marine and coastal resourced-based activities, perceived condition of marine and coastal resources (in particular fisheries), welfare of coastal communities and location of the community. Our hypotheses about how these factors may influence rural households’ perceived attitude towards MPAs introduction are drawn from literature on the attitude of local communities living near, within or around protected areas (see for example, Mehta and Kellert 1998; McClanahan et al., 2005; Shymsudar and Kramer 1997; Holmes, 2003; Jim and Xu 2002). Socio-economic and Demographic variables•Household structure•Age•Education•Livelihood sourcesRegulations and Resources•Informal rules•Formal rules•EnforcementCosts from MPAs•Denied access to the important livelihood source•Revenue is not used to compensate the loosers•No participation of local communities The outcome of the management option and sustainability of the marine and coastal resourcesATTITUDE TOWARD CONSERVATION OPTIONSBenefits from MPAs •Increase of resources in the future•Employment creation trough Tourism•Protect the marine and coastal ecosystemOther factors•Location•Resource trend

Figure 1 Conceptual relationships among factors that shape the attitude of households towards marine and coastal conservation initiatives (developed based on Mehta (2001); Buer (2003); Holmes (2003); Jim and Xu (2003)) In order to promote the use of MPAs as a conservation initiative there have been repeated efforts to implement policies that will give benefits to the rural households living near or around the protected areas. For instance, Mehta (2001) and Buer (2003) suggested that provision of direct and indirect benefits would promote incentives for people to perceive conservation positively. 7

Based on these results, it is expected that households who perceive that introduction of MPA may give some of benefits are more supportive about the introduction of MPAs near or around their local vicinity than households who do not expect any benefits from MPAs. However, the management of coastal resources through establishment of MPAs most often limit or prohibit extractive activities inside their boundaries in order to regulate users’ behavior (see for example Mehta and Kellert, 1998) In this case it is hypothesized that the existence of Marine protected areas may pose problems in meetings the resource needs of some rural coastal households and thereby influencing their attitudes toward coastal resource conservation initiatives. In addition, the awareness of rules and regulations and objectives of MPAs also play a critical role in influencing households’ attitude towards establishment of MPAs. The existence of regulations and rules on marine and coastal resources management (informal and formal rules which are enforced) depends on the awareness of rural households regarding resources management. In addition, the households’ knowledge about the reasons behind establishing MPAs depends on the understanding of the objectives of MPA. In our context, awareness is what a person thinks and understands about the reality affecting his attitude and decision towards policy and management. We hypothesize that households who are more aware of the existence of rules and regulations, which govern the use of marine and coastal resources at village level, will hold more favorable attitudes towards MPAs establishment than households without such knowledge. In the same way, we hypothesize that households who are aware of the objectives of MPAs will be more supportive to MPAs establishment than households without such awareness. Moreover, the natural resource condition may influence the rural households’ perception towards MPAs establishment. In this study, we consider fisheries trend to follow general trends in marine and coastal resources. The declining 8

pattern in fisheries resources acts as an incentive for households to support conservation initiative with the aim of improving their livelihood opportunities. We hypothesized that households who believe the fisheries resources are in poor shape (i.e. declining) will hold more favorable attitudes towards MPAs establishment than those households who believe the resources are in good shape (i.e. not declining). We also examine the influence of socio-economic and demographic factors on local attitudes. Socio-economic and demographic factors such as affluence, age or experience, education and level of dependence on natural resources have previously been defined as influencing attitudes in the literature, although not consistently (e.g Heinen 1993; Solecki 1997). For example Mordi (1987) proposed that education could make rural households more conscious and less utilitarian in their attitude towards conservation. In this study we hypothesized that educated households will be more favorable attitude towards the introduction of MPAs. The influence of wealth on conservation attitudes is not straightforward. Infield (1988) and Hackel (1999) showed that rural households with more resources in terms of land, labor, and materials at their disposal could better afford conservation. This implies that these households have the ability to absorb short-term costs of conservation as a result of realizing long-term benefits. This stands in contrast to poor households who depend mostly on natural resource-based activity for their survival (see Ruttan and Borgerhoff Mulder, 1999). As a result, wealthier households tend to support the conservation initiatives more than poorer households. Conversely, poor households may be highly motivated to support conservation measures since they depend more on common and open access resources than wealthier households. In addition, the dependency on marine and coastal resource-based activities has mixed effects on the perceived attitude towards MPAs establishment. On one hand, households who rely more on marine and coastal resources for their 9

livelihood may be more concerned with conservation initiatives (if they hope this will lead to an increase or security of resources for livelihood sustenance) than those households who have other sources of livelihood. Therefore, rural households with higher income share from marine and coastal resources based activities may hold favorable attitudes regarding MPAs establishment. On the other hand, relying more on marine and coastal resources make it difficult to achieve compliance with conservation initiatives as the opportunity cost of following restriction rules is high. As a result, rural households who depend more on marine and coastal resources for their income may hold negative attitudes about MPAs establishment.

3. Methodology

3.1 Data and Descriptive Analysis

Among Tanzanian coastal villages the utilization of marine and coastal resources as well as the attitudes towards conservation of these resources is heterogeneous (For example see Andersonn and Ngazy, 1998; Sesabo and Tol 2005). Understanding households’ heterogeneity is important in predicting the likely success of any conservation measure. In order to examine the factors, which influence households’ perceived attitude, we used data from a survey conducted between January and March 2004 in two coastal villages (see Figure 1). The questionnaire was administered in two districts of Tanzania (Bagamoyo and West). In Bagamoyo district, data was collected from Mlingotini village located close to Bagamoyo district headquarters (12 km) and about 56 km north of the capital city Dar-es-salaam. The village is more affected with migrants from nearby areas and there is no any area within or nearby the village, which is protected so as to ensure sustainable use of marine and coastal resources. In West district, data was collected in Nyamanzi village 16 km from Zanzibar Stone Town. Marine protected areas and an open Forest area (known as Free Economic Zone) are close to Nyamanzi village. Most of the households in this area were reported to have existed as fishing villages more than 30 years ago. Both villages are situated in the tropical humid climate of the coastal belt. They enjoy both 10

short rains (October-November) and long (March-May) rains, which characterize the East African coast. Important to note is that a total of 250 households were randomly selected from the two villages. Of these around 13% did not answer the background questions and these questionnaires were eliminated from the database (Mlingotini = 117; Nyamanzi=100). In the collection of data, structured interviews were conducted with each of the head of household. The questionnaire was designed to solicit information on households’ demographic structure, income sources, sales of outputs, access to markets, problems inherent in coastal resources and attitude towards management of coastal resources. Household income from agriculture, fishing, seaweed-farming, and other activities was estimated according to the reported production (for consumption or sale) at the prices that prevail in the local market. Fishing, transport and other assets were valued subjectively by respondents as equivalent to current resale value. Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the respondents. The respondents were predominantly male (84%) between the ages of 21-69 with an average of 46.01 years. The households’ size ranged from 1 member to 12 members with an average of 1.7 dependant members and 4.6 adult members. The average number STUDY AREAFigure 2. The map of the study area 11

of adult members with primary education was 1.7. In terms of their livelihood improvement, half of households (50.60%) reported a worse life than before. The majority of households (73.27%) were directly engaged in coastal resource based activities (shells collection, fishing, and seaweed farming). The others were farmers, traders or participating in other non-farm employment opportunities. On average, the household heads participating in fishing activities had 17.86 years of experience. The majority of households (66.36%) were classified to be poor. This classification was not based on an absolute scale. Consequently, households who reported to own a larger size of agricultural land, a good quality house, endowed with production assets (e.g fishing assets, transport assets etc) were classified as wealthy household whereas those with similar but few assets and of poor quality were classified as poor.

Table 1 Descriptive variables Variables description Variable name Mean or Percent Standard deviation

Gender of Household Head (1 if male and 0 otherwise)

GENDER 84%

Age of Household head (years) HHAGE 46.01 Household head fishing experience EXPF 17.86 Number of Adult members ADULT 2.66 Number of dependants DEPEND 1.7 Average education of adult members ADULTEDU 1.73 Size of Household HHSIZE 4.36 Income / livelihood condition (1 if worst and 0 otherwise)

CONDITION 50.60%

Welfare index (1 if poor and 0 otherwise)

WEALTH 66.63%

Percent of fishing income in total household income (in US$)

FISH INCOME RATIO 0.48

Support the MPAs establishment (1 if YES and 0 otherwise)*

ATTITUDE 50.23%

Perceived costs COSTS 38.71% Perceived benefits BENEFITS 47.93% Perceived Fisheries resources trend RESOURCE TREND 35.94% objective of MPAs ( 1 if aware of objectives and 0 otherwise)

OBJECTIVES 37%

Rules RULES 41.01%

A Study and Analysis of Management TrainingTechniques for the Heads of SMEs, particularlyUsing the Information and CommunicationTechnologies (ICTs)Final Report

22nd December 2000Contract DGENT 99/C/A3/31 S12.128934Funded by DG Enterprise of the European CommissioniiNJM European, Economic and Management Consultants Ltd.ContentsSection Page1Schematic PresentationExecutive Summaryv12 Introduction 63 Expertise Needs of Heads of SMEs: a review ofexisting knowledge83.1 Approach 83.2 Characteristics of SMEs 83.3 Characteristics of Entrepreneurs 103.4 EU Policy concerning SMEs and ICT development 113.5 General Usage of ICTs by SMEs 143.6 Summary of position for heads of SMEs 154 The Use of Information and CommunicationTechnologies in Training164.1 What is ICT Based Training 164.2 A Virtual Learning Environment 184.3 Current Position of ICTBT 195 Research into Priorities of Heads of SMEs 215.1 Composition of sample 245.2 General use of ICTs 285.3 Experience of ICT-based training 31iii5.4 Training preferences of SME managers 385.5 The effect of size 515.6 Analysis of effect of sex of respondent 575.7 Learning styles of SME managers 615.8 Requirements of Heads of SMEs 626 Analysis of Best Practice in the European Union 636.1 Interviews with training providers 636.2 Evidence of size differentiation 636.3 What training programmes are being offered? 636.4 Evidence of quality and involvement of SMEs 646.5 What networks do the training providers belong to? 656.6 Evidence of best practice in delivery - traditional

techniques666.7 Evidence of best practice in delivery - ICT techniques 676.7.1 How is ICT being used? 676.7.2 What advantages does ICT offer for trainingSME managers?686.7.3 What are the problems in using ICT in training? 706.7.4 What would make it easier to deliver ICT-basedtraining?726.8 Identifying best practice: focus group results 756.9 Conclusions regarding best practice from the EuropeanUnion77iv7 Identifying Best Practice in the United States 797.1 E-learning 797.2 US Small Business Administration 807.3 The virtual university 807.4 Best practice from EU-US collaboration 817.5 Best practice in traditional techniques 827.6 Conclusions - Best Practice from the United States 838 Conclusions 858.1 Demand from Heads of SMEs 858.2 Preferences of Heads of SMEs 858.3 Use of ICTBT by Heads of SMEs 868.4 Provision of Management Training 868.5 Bridging training and consultancy 878.6 Priorities of Heads of SMEs 898.7 Good Practice in Course Development 898.8 The ICTBT Opportunity 908.9 Problems and Constraints in providing ManagementTraining to Heads of SMEs909 Recommendations 92Heads of SMEs Section 1: Executive Summary11. EXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe study has investigated management training techniques for the heads of SMEs.This has involved:_ assessing training requirements of a sample of Heads of SMEs within seven EUMember States (Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and UnitedKingdom).

_ examination of the use of ICTs by Heads of SMEs in their management role andwithin the context of training_ review of current practices in the EU and USA with respect to SME managementtraining and use of ICT in training_ development of best practice recommendations regarding training for Heads ofSMEs, with particular reference to the use of ICTsThe Role and Characteristics of the SME ManagerAs the chief decision-maker, the head of an SME has to respond quickly to changesin all areas of business. There is a focus on problem solving across all businessareas and managing time in the short term. He or she is constantly moving fromthe exercise of one management skill to another. The rounded entrepreneurial roleis different from that of a manager in a large company. To be relevant training needsto deal with immediate tasks and real problems.Training Provision for the SME ManagerWithin the regions surveyed there is a low level of management training directedspecifically at SMEs. This is particularly the case for micro firms. Training provisionsuffers from defects of content, access, flexibility and cost. Trainers often lackexperience in SMEs. SMEs are also concerned about quality of training and gettinginformation about training.In terms of delivery of training, the majority of managers want training at theirrequest. They have preferences for short courses, group work and one to oneadvice or mentoring. However, there is a variety of demand determined by thenature of the firm and the character of the manager. A variety of provision needs torespond to this.There is a lack of use of ICT for training among managers. There is also a lack ofappropriate material available in ICT form. Furthermore, there are concerns overquality and relevance of existing material. Managers have some negative opinionsabout ICT for training and there is a lack of knowledge about the technology andtechniques of ICT based learning. This is partly a reflection of the still undeveloped

state of ICT supported training, where good practice has yet to be fully developed.Recognised good practice in training of all groups with ICT support involves abalance of human interaction and ICT elements. The former has beenunderestimated in the entire domain. This element is particularly important to theSME manager, and has been a major reservation in taking up ICT supported training.Existence of Good PracticeGood practice in meeting the needs of Heads of SMEs exists in Europe. It is alsogrowing. There are three main elements concerning the design process, delivery anduse of ICT. Design needs to take account of the needs of the manager and firm.These include sector-specific material, differentiation in provision between small andHeads of SMEs Section 1: Executive Summary2medium firms and regular feedback and evaluation from managers of SMEs. Deliverycan involve a variety of mechanisms within the training programme to increaseinterest and flexibility. Best practice delivery techniques include: groupwork,mentoring, problem solving, use of SME case studies, networking and use of ICTsupport tools. ICT does represent an opportunity for managers and training providersto overcome a number of barriers to the delivery of training. The advantagesinclude: access at any time and place; proceeding at one’s own tempo; access to avariety of sources; interactivity, good teacher contact and individual support throughemail; instant response and the ability to update and customise the material.RecommendationsRealising the potential of heads of SMEs requires action at Member State andEuropean levels. The weight of the actions falls on the Member States with theCommission playing a supportive role.More support is needed for heads of SMEs that meets their requirements in terms ofcontent and delivery. To do this the distinctive differences within the SME marketneed to be recognised, especially the different requirements of micro and smallfirms. Provision needs to bridge the division between training and consultancy tomeet the practical needs of SME managers. The Commission should play a role toensure the development of quality standards and exchange of expertise.

ICTBT presents an enormous opportunity to overcome the hurdles of time and placein the provision of support to SMEs. However, development costs put it outside therange of most SMEs. Member States should provide services through ICTBT toovercome this problem. Again, the Commission should play a co-ordinating role,encouraging exchanges and the development of quality standards. EU programmessuch as Leonardo da Vinci and the Structural Funds can play a significant role tothese ends.To overcome lack of trainers with expertise in either ICTBT or SME delivery, thetraining of trainers with these skills should be supported at a Member State level.The Commission should support these activities through Concerted Actions.At a European level, the benchmarking of provision in Member States is important tosupport the above three recommendations. This activity should involve quantitativebenchmarking to determine the actual access heads of SMEs have to provisions andqualitative benchmarking of provision through the development of quality standards.Heads of SMEs Section 1: Executive Summary31.1 Summary of New FindingsThe need for further investigation in certain crucial areas surrounding the needs ofheads of SMEs in terms of training and access to expertise is itemised. The principalways in which this study has met that need is set out below.About Headsof SMEsHeads of SMEs are different from employees. They exhibitactivist and pragmatist learning styles, prefer learning by doingand favour problem-centred approaches that offer flexibility.Requirementsfor training ofheads of SMEsFor more formal courses, heads of SMEs expressed six priorities:_ Relevance to real business situation_ Problem solving_ Short duration_ Flexible delivery_ Networking_ Quality assuranceHowever, the requirements of the managers was for provision,which bridged consultancy and training. The three crucial elements

are individualised support, focus on the SME itself and interaction.Size of company is a factor in preferences, with managers of micro,small and medium firms often having different requirements.There is a lack of training provision for micro firms.Opinions ofheads onavailabletrainingConstraints to take up of training include: time and place, cost andquality. There is a difficulty in finding information on the nature ofthe training available. The credibility of the deliverer for an SMEaudience is important.Suggested mechanisms for overcoming constraints include: betteraccess and flexibility, grants and information on the nature andquality of training.Usage andexpertise inICTUse has grown fast, and many managers are competent instandard applications. The sample showed a high general use ofICTs, with nearly 90% of managers using email and Internet. 92%are using ICT for financial management and 40-50% are using itfor other types of management. 25% have used e-commerce.The sample is therefore likely to be one of early adopters of ICTsolutionsExperience ofICT supportedtrainingAbout a quarter of managers have used ICTBT, with most commonforms being CD-ROM, email and Internet search.Attitudes toICT supportedtrainingManagers like the potential for immediacy, up-to-date material andlearning at own pace offered by ICTBT.Problems exist regarding lack of human support, poor presentationand unreliability of technology.There is a need to develop quality assurance and reduce the costof access.Recommendation from other SMEs is a factor in use of ICTBT.Heads of SMEs Section 1: Executive Summary4TrainingprovisionNature oftraining forheads of SMEsThere is a lack of specific training for heads of SMEs. The SMEtraining that is provided tends to serve either start-ups or mediumsized firms. Executive training at business schools is often targeted

at larger companies, and demands fairly strict timetables.There is a lack of best practice/expertise for training SME managers.There are no guides or standards as to how training providers shoulddeliver quality training to SME managers.Constraints onprovidersAttitudes ofprovidersSME managers are not a remunerative market. It is thereforedifficult to justify the costs for the specialised provision. It is alsodifficult to recruit trainers with appropriate backgrounds in SMEs.Although the SME market is not a prime market for trainingproviders, both EU and US bodies active in the field held interactionand, dealing with real problems to be important elements ofprovision. The survey of training providers identified good practicein the process of development and delivery of management trainingfor heads of SMEs._ Research or market analysis_ Involvement of SMEs in design, to enable a client-centredapproach – involves building relationships with SMEs or groups ofSMEs_ On-site initial assessment of the needs of the SME manager_ Expertise and experience of trainers in SMEs_ Generation of entrepreneur networks for participants_ Evaluation and feedbackUse of ICT intrainingdelivery forSMEsICT is used as a support tool in training delivery to SME managers byseveral providers. Much provision is low quality, ‘books on thescreen’. However, this is changing fast. E learning companies existin the USA and EU.North America has a much larger e learning industry. However,provision is predominantly corporate or academic, with littleprovision for SMEs.The North American industry has developed the technology andmany of the delivery techniques, which are being imported intoEurope. However, there remains a large need for content.Constraints inICT deliveryConstraints on ICTBT are pedagogical, technical and commercialPedagogical Disadvantages include:_ Rigidity in navigation through the material_ Lack of human interaction with trainer and other traineesTechnical Disadvantages include:_ Prior Knowledge of ICT techniques_ Appropriate ICT Infrastructure_ Delivery Speed inadequate for the use of sound and motionvideo, because of inadequate bandwith.

_ Security: Internet usage involves a security risk to publishedmaterials as well as raising the possibility of viral attackHeads of SMEs Section 1: Executive Summary5Commercial Disadvantages focus on cost. Creation of materialsinvolves the use of expensive labour. It may not be economical forthose with only a minority interest. This has a direct implication forSMEs, as their training needs are often very specific.Attitudes ofproviders toICT deliveryProviders had positive attitudes to ICTBT. The most common were_ Time saving_ Easier to give individual advice_ Overcoming distance and time barriers_ Ability of trainee to organise his or her learning better_ ICT offers a good way of getting information_ Trainees become more familiar with the technologies that arenow important for e-commerce_ Personalising of training_ Repetition is easierHowever, there were concerns over cost, less to do withdevelopment of sites and materials, but more to do with maintainingadequate tutor support at a distance.Heads of SMEs Section 2: Introduction62. INTRODUCTIONThis document forms the final report of Contract DGENT 99/C/A3/31 S12.128934."A Study and Analysis of Management Training Techniques for the Heads of SMEs,particularly Using the Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)"All work presented in this study has been carried out by a project consortiumcomprising the main contractor:NJM European, Economic and Management Consultants Ltdand the following organisations:Tampere Technology Centre Ltd FINLANDBretagne Innovation FRANCETechnologie Transfer Zentrum GERMANYThessaloniki Technologi Park GREECECSEA ITALYISQ PORTUGALCRE Group Ltd UNITED KINGDOMDetails of these organisations are presented as Appendix 4 to this report.2.1 Objectives of the StudyThe objectives of this study were to:_ Assess training requirements of a sample of Heads of SMEs within seven EUMember States (Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and UnitedKingdom).

_ Examine the use of ICTs by Heads of SMEs in each of the seven Member Statesin (a) their management role and (b) within the context of training_ Review current status in the EU and USA with respect to (a) managementtraining, (b) SME-specific training and (c) use of ICT in training_ Develop, based on the findings of the previous objectives, best practicerecommendations regarding training for Heads of SMEs, with particular referenceto the use of ICTs_ Obtain feedback on best practice recommendations from Heads of SMEs andtraining providers_ Present best practice recommendations in the context of (a) relevant EU policyand programmes and (b) future actions for support at an EU levelBy fulfilling these objectives, the study has been able to present empirical dataregarding the current status of management training and use of ICTs in training inseven Member States. It has developed a set of recommendations for action andsupport at an EU level.Heads of SMEs Section 2: Introduction72.2 Structure of the work undertakenThe work took the following pattern._ Review of literature_ Bringing together an expert team_ Survey of heads of SMEs in seven European regions_ Identification of heads of SMEs needs & demands_ Identification of suppliers in seven European regions_ Review of North American provision_ Selection of best practice cases for interview_ Interviews with providers_ Production of initial elements of good practice_ Feedback from heads of SMEs & providers on the elements of good practice_ RecommendationsA description of the methodology applied and examples of the information collectiontools are provided as appendices to this report.2.3 The contents of this reportThe main body of this report comprises the following sections:_ Expertise needs of heads of SMEs: a review of existing knowledge_ The Use of ICTBT: a review of the current position of ICTBT_ Research into Priorities of Heads of SMEs: findings of research into theuse of ICTBT and training preferences of heads of SMEs_ Identification of best practice providers: the methods and techniquesused to identify best practice and its providers. An analysis of EU and USpractices_ Conclusions: summary of good practice using both traditional and ICT

techniques and constraints in delivery._ RecommendationsHeads of SMEs Section 3 : Expertise Needs of heads ofSMEs.83 EXPERTISE NEEDS OF HEADS OF SMES: a review of existing knowledge3.1 ApproachThe first component of the study was an initial assessment of the current status in Europeand the US regarding:(a) Management training, with specific reference to training Heads of SMEs(b) Use of ICT in training, again with specific reference to training Heads of SMEs(c) The nature of SMEs and their developmentThis work took the form of a literature survey, making use of the following sources:_ Reviews of research reports and studies_ Reviews of reports relating to projects undertaken through LEONARDO DA VINCI, ADAPT,Framework IV_ Reviews of relevant EU policy documentation_ Web searches_ Informal discussions with training providers_ Attendance at conferencesInitial searches were updated throughout the lifetime of the project to ensure relevance ofmaterial.3.2 Characteristics of SMEsThe challenge in designing management training for SMEs is to gain an understanding of theneeds and difficulties they face and to design training which responds to these needs in terms ofboth content and means of delivery.There are over 19 million small and medium sized firms in the European Union. They amount toover 99 per cent of non-primary private enterprises and employ almost twice as many people (77million) as large firms. The notion of a 'typical' SME is misleading. The group of firms is veryheterogeneous.It is convenient to classify firms by size1.size no of enterprises average no of employees labour productivityvery small 18,040,000 2 30,000small 1,130,000 20 50,000medium 160,000 90 95,000While very small and small firms have a lower labour productivity than large firms (90,000),medium sized firms do better. Furthermore, profitability in small firms was the highest of all sizeclasses.

Beyond the simple size categories, SMEs display large differences in other ways. TheCEDEFOP report2 considered the views of a number of SME experts. Low managerial1 source The European Observatory for SMEs, Sixth Report, December 19992 “Improving SME access to training: strategies for success – A report on best practice in EC Member States” –European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (1994).Heads of SMEs Section 3 : Expertise Needs of heads ofSMEs.9qualifications, poor quality management, limited quality control, poor prospects and a negativeattitude to training were considered to exist in SMEs by 10 out of 12 experts.However the SME category also encompasses numbers of dynamic fims which have a highcapacity for growth. They exhibit characteristics, such as above average pay and a particularconcern with training3, the very high educational background of managers of New TechnologyBased Firms4, human resource managerial skills and a concern with quality5.As firms grow, they demand different skills of management. Firms may be classified intothree main types, in terms of the workload of the entrepreneur. These are:owner manager with a few assistants, who fits in administration on top of deliveringworkowner manager, who largely supervises staff, while undertaking both delivery andadministrative dutiesmanager, who delegates many tasks to responsible other members of staff6.Managers in the three positions are likely to have different training demands. The ability tonegotiate the transitions between such positions is seen as a crucial skill7. However, divisionssuch as stages are an inevitable simplification.Storey shows through the results of a number of studies that factors such as the nature of thefirm, chosen business strategy and the nature of the entrepreneur are all crucial for businessgrowth.8 The management training needs for SMEs in the same size bracket may still be verydifferent.Although the SME group is heterogeneous, SMEs do share a number of characteristics, whichmay be important, when looking at the need to develop expertise. The size of the firmensures that it functions in different way from larger firms. Informality and the performanceof multiple tasks characterise the management style of a SME. The pressures on the SME

have been characterised by Henri Mahé de Boislandelle9, as the effects of magnification,which itself can be broken down into three elements:l' effet papillon, (the butterfly effect), whereby small factors, such as the loss ofone member of staff, may disrupt business greatly. For many SMEs, the business situation isinherently unstable.l'effet de microcosme, (the effect of small scale), through which the unstablebusiness situation brings both short term flexibility and short term focus. Hence there is alack of planning.l'effet d' egotrophie, (the effect of one person focus) whereby the manager tendsto centralise all decision making in his or her own hands to cope with unstable situation.There is thus a barrier to growth beyond a point through an inability to delegate.3 http://www.eim.nl/docum/observat.htm4 European Innovation Monitoring System Publication 31, New Technology Based Firms in Europe, EuropeanCommission, 1997.5 ‘Europe’s 500: Dynamic Entrepreneurs: the job creators’ A preliminary summary of the major findings.Gent, Belgium, November 16-18, EFER (1995)6 The Entrepreneurial Middle Class, Scase, R., and Goffee, R., (1982), Croome Helme, London7 European Innovation Monitoring System Study 42, Review of studies on innovative fast growing SMEs, EuropeanCommission, 1997.8 ‘Understanding the Small Business Sector’ Storey, D.J. (1994), Routledge, London9 Gestion des resources humaines dans les PME, Economica 2e éd, 1998Heads of SMEs Section 3 : Expertise Needs of heads ofSMEs.10Although an 'ideal type' classification, the above picture represents challenges, which themanagers of small and medium sized firms must confront, and overcome in order to prosper.Thus delegation is an essential element in high growth firms10. However, Storey has pointedout that 4 per cent of new firm foundations will eventually provide 50 per cent of allemployment created by new firms. Therefore the number of firms overcoming these barriersmay be small.3.3 Characteristics of EntrepreneursEntrepreneurs vary as much as their firms. The main motivations for owner managementinvolve those of independence, desire for a secure family income, and the lack of analternative job opportunity. Most have no higher education, and have fewer management

qualifications than managers in larger firms. In this respect, the SME survey for this studydoes not present a ‘typical’ SME manager as 78% are educated to degree level or higher (seesection 5 figure 4).Most entrepreneurs never intend to run high growth firms. For many it is simply a means ofearning a living, and aggressive competition in the market place is something they wish toavoid. This is true of NTBFs as well as of more traditional sectors. Furthermore founders ofNTBFs have a tendency to concentrate on the technology, rather than the business, and suchan approach is consistent with their priorities. UK studies also indicate the managers arevery reluctant to lose control of the firms. This is not simply a European phenomenon,studies of Canadian owner managers also indicate a great reluctance to gain external capitalto grow, if this means losing complete control of the businesses11. The strong importanceplaced on independence in setting up a small firm is reflected in a reluctance to allow the firmto grow beyond the point, where such independence can be maintained.There have been a number of studies examining the characteristics of successfulentrepreneurs, i.e. those with high growth companies, or several successful businesses. Anarchetype innovative fast-growing SME is about 10-20 years old, employing about 100 peoplewith a turnover of about € 20 million.The SME Observatory indicates that managers of rapidly growing SMEs are open minded,value training, are market oriented and experienced, and can delegate responsibilities. Thispicture of a person with balanced skills is confirmed by the EIMS 42 and EFER studies.Studies do indicate the crucial importance of the personality of the entrepreneur in thedevelopment of the firm. Rae and Carswell indicate that the learning style and approach ofthe entrepreneur are key factors, rather than any formal learning of management or businesstechniques. Inculcating attitudes to openness and opportunity and techniques to achievethese may be more important than specific content in training programmes. Hence the needfor programmes to include entrepreneurial skills. It is suggested in EIMS 42 that innovative

entrepreneurship relies on building, nurturing and maintaining an extensive and diverse set ofnetwork relationships in order to gather intelligence, supplement internal resources andprovide moral support.10 Understanding entrepreneurial learning’ Rae & Carswell, ISBA, 199911 Feeney, L., Haines, G., Riding, A.., SME owners awareness and acceptance of equity capital, presented at Thesmall capital conference, Warwick, April 1999.Heads of SMEs Section 3 : Expertise Needs of heads ofSMEs.11SMEs of all sizes present a consistent picture of the conditions, under which they willundertake training. These involve: quality; timing; and location12. Quality is understood toinclude training, which is directly relevant to the business, as well as involving trainers, whocan understand, what it is like to run an SME.Many managers are self-taught and hold no management qualifications. Many may recognisethe value of training but have difficulty in identifying their specific needs. Thus self-diagnosisskills may be important. The Curren13 study shows that 47% of owner managers rely onthemselves and other members of the firm for training, supported by technical literature.Equipment suppliers, private sector companies and trade bodies were also used.Many SMEs are reluctant to take up outside training offers. The CEDEFOP experts' studyindicates causes such as : negative attitudes to training, poor and unqualified management,few staff, and the individualism of the manager. The difficulty of releasing staff is confirmedby Temple in firms with positive attitudes to training. This applies particularly to heads offirms, who face the heaviest cost in releasing themselves (COM(98)222).3.4 EU policy concerning SMEs and ICT developmentThis section looks at the EU policy that will determine the priorities for future training ofSMEs. A key policy document, which is central to many of the programmes and policy areasdiscussed in this section, is the European Commission Competitiveness White Paper. Amongstthe priorities cited within this document are promotion of the use of IT and development oftraining in new technologies.14 More specifically, the Paper points out not only that“Managers need specific training to make them aware of the potential of ICTs,” but also that

“insufficient attention has been given so far to the application of new technologies in trainingand education systems.”15 As such, this study has its basis within the Competitiveness WhitePaper. Of particular relevance to this work are the Multiannual Programme for Enterprise andEntrepreneurship (2001-2005)16, the eEurope17 initiative, and the BEST Report18. These policyareas are outlined in the following paragraphs.Multiannual Programme for Enterprise and EntrepreneurshipThe first of the policy areas listed above, the Multiannual Programme for Enterprise andEntrepreneurship, has five objectives:_ Promotion of entrepreneurship as a valuable and productive lifeskill, based on customerorientation and a stronger culture of service;12 Cost effectiveness of open learning for small firms’ Hilary Temple, DfEE, 1995, London13 Establishing small firms training practices, needs, difficulties and use of industry training organisations, Curran,J., Blackburn. R., Kitching, J., and North, J, 1997, DfEE, London.14 European Commission, Growth, Competitiveness, Employment, The Challenges and Ways Forward into the 21stCentury. White Paper, P24, Luxembourg 199415 Ibid P113.16 COM (2000) 256, Brussels 26.04.200017 eEurope An Information Society for All, Progress Report, Lisbon, March 200018 Report on the Business Environment Simplification Task Force, Volumes I & II, Office for Official Publications ofthe European Communities, 1998Heads of SMEs Section 3 : Expertise Needs of heads ofSMEs.12_ Encouraging a regulatory and business environment that takes account of sustainabledevelopment, and in which research, innovation and entrepreneurship can flourish;_ Improving the financial environment for SMEs;_ Enhance the competitiveness of SMEs in the knowledge-based economy;_ Ensure that business support networks and services to enterprises are provided and coordinated.This study has the potential to provide business support service providers with informationabout the needs and preferences of heads of SMEs.The eEurope InitiativeThe eEurope initiative (as described in “eEurope An Information Society for All”)19 has threekey objectives:_ It should bring every citizen, school, business and administration online and into thedigital age._ Create a digitally literate Europe_ Ensure that the whole process is socially inclusive.

This report presents information regarding current use of ICTs by SME managers, what theperceived barriers to use of ICTs are, and what would encourage managers to make more useof ICTs. This information may be useful in determining how these objectives can be realisedin the case of SME heads.The BEST ReportThe BEST Report presents a number of recommendations and findings that are related to thisstudy regarding SME support, education of training and the use of ICTs in training. Asummary of these findings and recommendations are provided below:1) Mentoring and Business Angels: BEST suggests the need for incentive schemes tocatalyse mentoring by experienced individuals. Introduction to business angels to raisefinance should be facilitated by organising easily accessible networks.2) The Education and Training of Entrepreneurs:- Training needs to take greater account of the special needs of SMEs.- Training for entrepreneurship needs to be developed.- There is a need for more emphasis on business management skills, including theapplication of business computer software.- It should be easier to find out about the content and structure of training measures forprofessional skills and business administration in other Member States.- Exchange of business experience between experienced entrepreneurs and youngentrepreneurs is to be commended.- There should be financial incentives for entrepreneurs to participate in further training- There should be promotion of training to assist women to become entrepreneurs.3) The use of ICTs in Education and Training:- The need to support tele and distance learning methods, reducing time spent intraining institutions.- These methods should supplement practical training- There is a need for a stronger integration of innovative technologies into the differenttraining methods.19 www.ispo.cec.be/basics/i_europe.htmlHeads of SMEs Section 3 : Expertise Needs of heads ofSMEs.134) The need to improve the quality and visibility of support services forbusinesses: The Action Plan to Promote Entrepreneurship and Competitiveness proposes

a dedicated Internet site for exchange of information to improve support services. Adirectory of web information services for small businesses called “Screen” is alsoproposed. There is a need to support businesses in the growth phase.These areas of the BEST Report have been considered in order to present recommendations,which complement previous EU policy and developments.The Business Education Network of Europe (BENE)Linked to the BEST recommendations and the Evaluation of the Third Multiannual Programmefor SMEs is the setting up of BENE, the business education network of Europe. This will linkup institutions specialised in entrepreneurial training to stimulate the exchange of bestpractice throughout Europe. BENE will be evaluating best practice from business traininginstitutions. There are clear links with Phase 2 of this study. BENE will be makingassessments in the following areas: quality of provision; how the Internet is used for training;use of training methods for entrepreneurs; mode of training; field of training; development ofpersonal skills.Summary of areas highlighted by policy documents regarding training for SMEsIn addition to the three policy areas highlighted above a number of policy documents andreports of research on ICTs and development of SMEs has been published in a number ofdocuments, including: COM (99) 319, evaluating the Third Multiannual Programme for SMEs;the European Commission Action Plan to Promote Entrepreneurship and Competitiveness,1999; COM (1999) 569 on concerted action in the field of enterprise policy; COM (2000) 2320;Multimedia Educational Software Observatory, 1998; the Prometeus Initiative.21From these reports and the three documents highlighted in the previous sub-sections, anumber of conclusions emerge about training for SMEs. They can be summarised as follows_ The need for tailor-made training. SMEs are highly heterogeneous. Training needs to besensitive to the different stages of development of a firm. There are different types ofenterprise depending on size, sector, management style, technology and growth potential.Training needs to have a high practical relevance. The priority areas for training are

business management skills including marketing, international business procedures,quality and control and application of business computer software._ The need for a client-oriented training. This means that there is a need for co-operationwith SMEs in setting up services and designing training. Better networks for SMEs areneeded. Exchange mechanisms for mentoring and business angels need to be set up.20 Designing Tomorrow’s Education Promoting Innovation with New Technologies, European Commission, 2000.21 ‘PROMETEUS promotes multimedia access,’ in CORDIS RTD-NEWS, European Commission 2000, The Prometeusinitiative was established under the European Commission’s Telematics Application Programme, to bridge the gapbetween research and use of learning technologies, content and services.Heads of SMEs Section 3 : Expertise Needs of heads ofSMEs.14_ Quality assurance and standards of training for SMEs. This is associated with the need forrationalisation of services. SMEs have difficulty finding out about training. This is partlybecause there are many providers and training programmes and a lack of consensus onwhat the core services should be and what training is the most useful._ Promoting entrepreneurship throughout a firm’s entire lifecycle. Globalisation,technological change and the new economy generate greater competition. This implies aneed for change in management strategy. Generating and encouraging entrepreneursrequires the generation of more sophisticated training measures._ The need to overcome the North/South divide in Europe in terms of penetration of ICTsand price differences. Need for more SMEs to incorporate the Internet throughout theirproduction and distribution chain to assist growth. General need to raise awareness of ICTtechniques for training, especially using Internet, electronic mail and videoconferencing3.5 General Usage of ICTs by SMEsThe use of ICT in management training may be able to overcome barriers such as cost, timingand location. However if usage of ICT is not at a sufficiently high level for managers, thenthere are further technology barriers which need to be overcome.The TELEMAN22 study investigated the use of ICT for training in SMEs surveyed 1000 firmswith between 10 and 250 employees. TELEMAN found that most companies have only one

terminal connected to the Internet and one email address. Overall 52% of firms had ISDNconnection and 77% had a modem.A recent study of the use of IT in the G7 nations23 examined the ‘connectivity’24 of firms bysize. Of firms employing up to 250 people, those in the size range of 1-9 employees showedthe lowest degree of connectivity. German firms showed the highest levels of usage in thissize range (28% of firms showing connectivity) and France and the UK the lowest (15% offirms in each country). The highest level of usage is seen in companies employing 100-250people, with the UK performing best (70% of firms). Whilst 88% of large companies25 usedemail in 1999, this percentage dropped to 66% for SMEs and 40% for micro-firms. The useof Electronic Data Interchange followed a similar trend, running at 49% for large companies,23% for SMEs and 10% for micro-firms. 25% of large companies used videoconferencing in1999 compared to 5% of SMEs and 2% of micros.Whilst this information is a snapshot of ICT usage in European SMEs, it indicates many ofthem, particularly micro-firms, do not have the prerequisites to take full advantage of ICTBT.22 Tele-Teaching and Training for Management of SMEs – Studies, TeleMan Consortium, September 1998. Theproject was carried out from June 1997 to August 1998.23 Moving into the Information Age – An International Benchmarking Study 1999The countries surveyed were: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK and USA.24 Connectivity was measured as the use of at least one of three technologies (a) websites, (b) frequent use ofexternal email and (c) frequent use of EDI (electronic data interchange)25 These figures consider all countries in the study: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, USA, UK and Canada. SinceICT usage is more widespread in the USA and Canada than in Europe (Massey, Jane: How Digital Learning Differsin Europe, March 2000, www.learningcircuits.org) it can safely be assumed that figures given in this section arehigher rather than lower.Heads of SMEs Section 3 : Expertise Needs of heads ofSMEs.153.6 Summary of current knowledge concerning heads of SMEsSection 3 has given an overview of the current literature relevant to this study.The nature of training demanded by heads of SMEs involves:_ Client-orientated design involving SMEs_ Need for tailor-made training for SMEs which responds to their heterogeneity_ Need for a problem-solving approach_ Need for quality assurance

However, heads of SMEs face constraints in the following:_ Cost and time_ ICT use and connectivity barriers_ Lack of understanding of ICTBTThe need for further investigationThere was a lack of information in crucial areas surrounding the needs of heads of SMEs interms of training and access to expertise. These are summarised below.About Heads of SMEs About Providers_ Requirements for training of heads ofSMEs_ Nature of training for heads ofSMEs_ Opinions of heads on availabletraining_ Constraints on providers_ Attitudes of providers_ Usage and expertise in ICT _ Use of ICT in training delivery forSMEs_ Experience of ICT supported training _ Constraints in ICT delivery_ Attitudes to ICT supported training _ Attitudes of providers to ICTdeliveryHeads of SMEs Section 4: Use of ICTBT164 THE USE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIESIN TRAININGThe rapid development of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)presents a real opportunity for the design and delivery of training material.26 Thishas an impact on policy making on a national, European and worldwide level.27 In1997, over one million pages were already registered on Internet search engines and200 million people are expected to be online by the end of this year,28 demonstratingthat web-based training plays a fundamental role in distance education.29304.1 What is ICT Based Training?To assess the relevance of Information and Communications Technology BasedTraining (ICTBT) for SME managers, it is necessary to define what we understand byICTBT. The following sub-section describes some of the technologies andterminologies used in this report. It is important to differentiate between ICTBT and‘distance learning’. ICTBT is a set of techniques based on ICT, sometimes usedtogether, sometimes singly. It may facilitate learning at a distance, for examplethrough an on-line course delivered using the Internet. It may also be used as a tool

to enhance training taking place at a training provider’s location. ‘Distance learning’is not necessarily ICT-based. For example the Open University in the UK, usesmainly paper-based text-books, work-books and learning guides to offer training at adistance. The learner works mainly from home.In Mainstreaming Learning Technologies, Mark Van Buren gives a detailedbreakdown of the technologies used in training presentation and delivery methods:31Presentation Methods Delivery Methods_ Electronic Text_ CBT_ Interactive Multimedia_ Interactive TV_ Teleconferencing_ GroupWare_ Virtual Reality_ Audio_ Video_ Electronic Performance Support System_ Cable TV_ CD-ROM_ Electronic mail (email)_ Extranet_ Internet_ Intranet_ Local Area Network (LAN)_ Satellite TV_ Simulator_ Wide area networks (WAN)_ World Wide Web (WWW)Using the categories proposed by Mark Van Buren a search for examples of howthese technologies are currently being used was carried out. The examples are notall concerned with management training but relate to the technology that might beused in the future to train SME managers.26 For an example see: Mudge, Stephen, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the Internet, inInnovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol. 36.1, P11.27 Examples are PROMETEUS – Promoting Multimedia Access to Education and Training in the EuropeanSociety, www.prometeus.org; and the IMS Global Learning Consortium, www.imsproject.org.28 Eberl, Ulrich, “Where the Web is Going,” Siemens Research and Innovation, 2/97, pp.9-1529 Khan, B.H. (ed.), Web-Based Instruction, Educational Technology Publications, 1997 (480 pp.).30 Bethoney, Herb, ‘Computer Based Training on the web,’ PCWeek, August 1998.31 Mainstreaming Learning Technologies - Mark Van Buren available at:http://www.astd.org/CMS/templates/index.html?template_id=1&articleid=11599Heads of SMEs Section 4: Use of ICTBT17Presentation Methods

Electronic Text – ISTUD, an Italian training provider, disseminates electronic text in managementtraining programmes. The distance learning courses are aimed at SME managers and cover traditionalmanagement areas such as sales strategy and marketing. The course materials and exercises are sentto participants via email.32CBT – The TRANSMETE project,33 created under the Telematics for Education and Training Programme,developed and delivered courses on telematic applications for SMEs. A CD-ROM was developed, used asa stand-alone training aid for SMEs. In the evaluation report, the CD-ROM, which (as stand-alone)equates to CBT, was generally positively received.Interactive Multimedia – The Telematics Centre at the School of Education, University of Exeter, hasdeveloped an Internet based multimedia training course for teachers ‘Telematics in Teacher Training.’This combines text, graphics, and video, and enables the user to control the sequence of the content.34Teleconferencing - Initially developed and most commonly used for communication within a businesssetting, videoconferencing has been identified by a number of educators as having strong potential ineducational settings. A recent project funded under SOCRATES is establishing videoconferencing as amechanism for training of SME managers.35GroupWare – The Metä Institute Silva36 uses a collaborative document sharing system to trainemployees during on-the-job apprenticeship periods. Senior co-ordinators set students written tasks.The student carries out the task and sends the answer back as an attachment for correction. Afterapproval, the student saves the answer into an online learning diary. A workplace-based mentor alsohas access to the diary to check technical details in the answer.Audio – The CLEAR project develops computer-supported environments, which facilitate co-operativeand distributed learning in organisations. As part of this project, the VITAL learning environmentprototype has been developed. This uses the metaphor of virtual rooms and integrates audioconferencing as well as email and chat tools to provide support for communication processes essentialfor co-operative learning.37Video - the use of video as a training aid forms an integral part of established distance learning coursessuch as those delivered by the Open University in the United Kingdom.38Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS) – The Benchmarking Forum of the AmericanSociety for Training and Development has been seeking best practice since 1994. One of theseexamples is the California State Automobile Association. The company improved customer service byusing an online guide holding information on products and services, made available to relevant staff.39This EPSS dramatically reduced time staff needed to access necessary information and is constantlyrevised and updated.Virtual Reality – A number of business simulations are beginning to emerge combining virtual realitysettings with traditional case method teaching. One example is the Business Navigator Methoddeveloped by CALT.40 Business Navigator develops a virtual interactive business environment (VIBE) in

a realistically simulated business context (e.g. a company) which the learner is invited to explore. It isalso likely more advanced packages incorporating pedagogical agents will become available, althoughthese are not currently part of mainstream provision.41 Such agents track progress through thesimulation.32 www.sviluppoimpresa.com33 www.eurocom.gr/EurPrj/transmete/transmete/uk/Index.html34 http://www.ex.ac.uk/education/frames/telematics.htm35 Carried out by TEMPO and partners: http://www.tempo-tc.com36 Experiences in Using Internet Based Learning Environment in Paper Industry. ICEE 2000 Conference,August 14-16, 2000, Grand Hotel, Taipei, August 17-18, 2000, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan.37 www.darmstadt.gmd.de/concert/activities/internal/clear.html38 http://www.open.ac.uk39 Lucadamo, Lisa and Cheney, Scott , Learning From the Best, www.astd.org40 Described in Anghern, A, and Nabeth, T: ‘Leveraging Emerging Technologies in ManagementEducation: Research and Experiences’ in European Management Journal, 1997, Vol. 15, No 3,pp275 – 285.41 Recent research at the ‘Centre for Advanced Research in Technology for Education’ – University ofSouthern Carolina, has developed two virtual instructors Steve and Adele for use in training:http://www.isi.edu/isd/carteHeads of SMEs Section 4: Use of ICTBT18Delivery MethodsCable/Satellite TV – the EuroPACE project, which is developing a virtual university for Europe,Uses satellite transmission on both a pre-recorded and live/interactive basis, for its Open Fora series andPh.D. programme.42 EuroPACE finds satellite TV a useful way of contacting people throughout Europe,but has progressed beyond using it as a sole means of communication, also employing Internettechnologies, ISDN-videoconferencing, and CD-ROM.CD-ROM – CD-ROM based training is common throughout Europe.43 The MASTRI ADAPT project, aimedat SMEs in the textile sector, produced a CD-ROM for management training.44 This focuses on topicssuch as Personal Development, Organisational Change and Culture and Strategic Management andPlanning. It uses multimedia to convey its message, combining video, audio, animations and text.Email – The YOUANDI Communication Network made use of email within its TIDE Learning OrganisationADAPT Project.45 This project developed, implemented and evaluated a training concept for SME staff.It found the best courses use a combination of delivery techniques. Email was used as an offlinetutoringtool together with other tools such as CD-ROM, videoconferencing, traditional media and faceto-face intensive workshops.E-mentoring – Use is widespread in USA, with a good example being provided by the Mentornet, whichpairs women studying engineering with mentors in large companies.46LAN/WAN – The Telematics Learning Project, conducted by Suffolk College, provides one example of aLAN used for training.47 Students in rural areas were given the opportunity to participate in a Local

History course. Four learning centres were established in rural Suffolk with ISDN links to the mainCollege server, enabling students to complete the course from a distance. They used the Internet,videoconferencing and email (including group email conferencing). However, the use of these latter twomethods was limited due to technological problems.Simulator - The Conglomerate virtual business game offered by Mbagames.com48 simulates acommercial environment in which managers run a small multi-national company and make realistic teamdecisions. Teams compete against one another, over a period of up to two months and decisions madeimpact upon one another. They are set certain decisions online, discuss the best response, and key intheir answer online.World Wide Web (WWW) including Internet Intranet/Extranet – There are an increasingnumber of internet-based training programmes available for SME managers including the ICM BusinessSchool by Internet.49 The ICM MBA is based on Action Learning and students use email and web-forumsto communicate with their tutor and one another. Intranet based training lends itself to academicprovision. The Human-Computer Interaction module at the University of Teeside50 makes extensive useof Intranet and Internet technologies. Course materials (including augmented online lectures and selfmanagedstudy assignments) are made available on the Intranet for students to access at a time of theirchoice.4.2 A Virtual Learning EnvironmentA Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) aims to overcome many of the problemsassociated with ICTBT. VLEs take the form of web based GroupWare for42 www.europace.be/info/ideas/telematics.html43 CD-ROM and Internet/Intranet based training are leading the Education and Training MultimediaMarket – Multimedia Educational Software Observatory (MESO) – European Overview 1998.44 CD-ROM entitled “Management: TC 2001, Achieving Business Growth in the Textile and ClothingIndustry through Training and Development.”45 YOUANDI Communication Network GmbH, The Tide Learning Organisation, January 2000.46 http://mentornet.net National electronic industrial mentoring network for women in engineering andscience (US). Pairing of students with industrial scientists. Mentoring relationships via e-mail. Non-profitsponsored by: AT&T and Intel Foundations, US Department of Education, IBM, Cisco Systems, FordMotor Company, Microsoft, Hewlett Packard, IEEE Foundation, SPIE, Texaco, SAP LABS and Los AlamosNational Laboratory47 Funnell, Peter: ‘Views From the Screen-Face: Issues Emerging From an Exploration of the Value ofTelematics-Supported Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.3,P177-184.48 www.mbagames.com49 http://www.internet-mba.com – MBA offered by BSN International entirely via the internet. BSNInternational has been accredited by several Accrediting Commissions such as the Distance Educationand Training Council and CEDEO.

50 Barker, Philip, University of Teeside, UK, ‘Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning,’ inInnovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.1, P3-9.Heads of SMEs Section 4: Use of ICTBT19collaborative learning.51 A VLE can provide a complete framework for online coursedelivery, including course management. One example is LearnLoop52 (currently stillin development). For access to LearnLoop, the user requires an Internet browserand the comprehensive manual offers user-friendly instructions. Users of LearnLoopmay participate in the following actions:_ Take part in and begin discussions, either sequential or threaded._ Participate in and construct Quizzes or surveys_ Peer Review of documents_ List private or course resources_ Use personal and course calendars_ Read and send emailLearnLoop aims to encourage user participation through allowing users to edit andadd to courses as well as course administrators.Whilst VLEs are currently largely used in the academic environment,53 their use in thebusiness environment is growing. One example is the Business Navigator method,54which combines the case study and business simulation methods. BusinessNavigator comprises a virtual interactive business environment (VIBE), in a simulatedbusiness context (e.g. a company) which the learner explores. Whilst VIBEs can beused on a stand-alone basis, the better option involves a multi-user dimension,allowing interaction with other learners and experts. For example the INSEADExecutive Education World55 allows virtual meetings and lectures to be conducted.4.3 Current Position of ICTBTICTBT is a set of techniques based on ICT, sometimes used together, sometimesused singly. Where the techniques are used together this may constitute a virtuallearning environment.Virtual Learning Environment Single Applications_ Use of GroupWare _ CD-ROM - multimedia resourcecombining video, audio, text_ on-line interaction, management andadministration_ e-mentoring_ student private resource area,document resource area

_ on-line Internet and Intranetbased courses_ assessments, group forums,document sharing, whiteboard,_ email as a tutoring tool_ bulletin board, chat-room, _ simulation/ virtual reality -decision-making games51 An description of a GroupWare solution (WebCT) as described by Marshall University (USA) is given inAppendix 2, together with a comparison of different GroupWare products by Arizona State University(USA).52 www.learnloop.org53 For examples see: www.hull.ac.uk/merlin; www.comentor.ac.uk54 Angehrn, Albert and Nabeth Thierry: ‘Leveraging Emerging Technologies in Management Education:Research and Experiences,’ in the European Management Journal, Vol 15, No 3, June 1997.55 http://www.insead.fr/CALT/VirtualWorlds/Heads of SMEs Section 4: Use of ICTBT20ICTBT offers many potential advantages in reaching heads of SMEs because of itsability to offer support at any time and place.However, there is currently a lack of literature, which gives a full picture of the viewsof SME heads on the issue of ICT Based Training (ICTBT). There is also evidence ofa disparity in the views of representatives of SMEs and the agencies that servethem56 57.ICTBT is an area which is changing very fast. There is a need for furtherinvestigation concerning the requirements and experience of heads of SMEs and thecurrent position of training providers. These areas are explored through this studyby interviewing heads of SMEs and training providers.56 ‘Training for entrepreneurship and new businesses’ Klofsten, M. (1999) Industry & HigherEducation, December 199957 ‘Building Business – Management Training for Small Firms’ Creagh, Barrow & Morrow, 1998,Cranfield University School of ManagementHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities ofHeads of SMEs215 RESEARCH INTO PRIORITIES OF HEADS OF SMESDesign of questionnaires - Interview questionnaireIn order to collect data regarding Heads of SMEs two questionnaires were designed,for delivery face-to-face. The first of these, an interview questionnaire wasdesigned to address the nature of SME heads, their business approach and their

attitude to and experience of training and ICT use. The areas presented in Table 1were included.The questionnaire was piloted in organisations in the UK. This resulted in someamendments to the wording of questions, inclusion of further questions to examinereasons for negative attitude towards use of ICT based techniques in managementtraining. A copy of the final interview questionnaire for SME heads is shown in full inAppendix 1.Main areas of inquiry with heads of SMEsDegree of ICT penetration _ Which ICTs are being used bymanagers and by the company as awhole?_ Which ICTs are being used indifferent management areas?_ Which ICT techniques are used togain expertise and managementtraining?Level of ICT proficiency _ Managers’ level of existing ICTexpertise_ Managers’ ICT training needsAttitudes to different managementtraining techniques_ How managers view current ICTbasedtraining from their experiences(benefits and barriers)_ Preferences for use of ICT versustraditional training delivery_ Reasons for not wanting ICTBTPractical issues _ Relationship between small businessproblems and management training_ How barriers to training can be overcome_ Who should provide training, when ismost suitable and whereDesign of questionnaires - Learning styles questionnaireA second questionnaire, a learning styles questionnaire (see Appendix 1), wasalso delivered to SME managers to determine whether there is an indication of apreferred learning style among SME managers. While there is no evidence that SMEmanagers, as a group, have particular learning preferences, there is some indicationthat some sub groups do so, e.g. those running New Technology Based Firms.Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities ofHeads of SMEs22

Furthermore, many authorities do assert that the personality of the entrepreneur isparamount in determining the success of the SME.Four styles of learning have been proposed based on Honey & Mumford (198658) toanalyse the preferences of people for learning in particular ways. These are:_ Activists, who learn by trying things out_ Reflectors, who learn by observing, collecting data and analysing it_ Theorists, who think logically, and follow logical rules._ Pragmatists, who learn by experimentation.Although people combine the above approaches, they do show distinct preferencesfor one or two of the approaches. To achieve optimum results, a training programmefor each of the above groups would be designed differently.An evaluation of the learning style preferences is relevant in determining, whattechniques of training might be most appropriate to the target group ofentrepreneurs. This is particularly appropriate given the opportunities offered by thenew media in training, which allow for interaction and virtual experimentation, aswell as on line evaluation.Sampling and DeliveryA total of 175 firms across seven EU countries were sought for interview. Firms weretargeted with regard to (i) size (ii) sector and (iii) Objective region. A sampling framewas drawn up as shown in Appendix 1. This was used to inform partners in theconstruction of a database of 1000 companies across the partner countries.The sample for interview mainly covered firms who had some previous contact withthe partner organisations delivering the project. Thus the firms are more likely toshow a positive attitude towards business support and management training thanthe general population of SMEs. It is also likely that they have a more positiveapproach to ICTs. They thus form a typical cross section of firms who are likely to beearly adopters of new training offers.Analysis of ResultsIn total, 168 completed interview questionnaires were received. Most weredelivered face-to-face apart from 18 Italian questionnaires which were delivered overthe telephone. Results were compiled and analysed using SPSS for Windows andExcel 97 to derive frequencies of responses and interrelationships. Responses to

questions were coded and inputted into a program created for this analysis. Theresults of analysis of the interview questionnaires are presented as Section 4 of thisreport.Completed learning styles questionnaires were received from four countries(Finland, France, Greece and the United Kingdom). Learning style preferences werecompiled for each manager based on their responses to the questionnaire using theframework presented in Appendix 1.58 The manual of learning styles, Honey, P., and Mumford, M., Maidenhead, 1986.Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities ofHeads of SMEs23Results of Research into Priorities of Heads of SMEsSections 5.1-5.6 present the findings from a survey of 168 SME managers fromseven different EU countries: Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal andUnited Kingdom. A copy of the questionnaire is provided in Annex 1 to this report.The findings are presented as follows:_ Composition of sample - composition of the sample according toseveral personal and company attributes_ General use of ICTs - overview of previous use of ICTs by managers_ Experience of ICT-based - overview of which ICTs have been used previouslytraining in training and views of this form of training_ Training preferences - how managers prefer training to be delivered andwhat they want to learn_ Effect of size - relationship between size of company and otherfactors_ Analysis of effect of sex of - - relationship between sex and other factorsrespondentSection 5.7 presents the results of a Learning Styles questionnaire in four of the MemberStates involved in this study: Finland, France, Greece and UK. This assesses the learningtypes of managers and as such can be useful in the design of appropriate training. Section5.8 provides a summary of the requirements of Heads of SMEs.Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Composition of Sample245.1 Composition of sampleResultsFactors such as industry, size (by number of employees and turnover) and level of educationof managers are important considerations when examining the data relating to this study.

The type of industry of a company could have an impact on the level of ICT used, previouseducational experiences of an SME head could inform their attitudes to training and size ofcompany could dictate the freedom to dedicate resources to training and the ability toimplement new technologies. As such, the sample group needs to be clearly defined to makeresults meaningful and to give them a context.Figure 1 Composition of Sample by IndustryIn the figure above, slices define the industry group to which companies belong: (a) manufacturing - manufacturing,(b) technical/business - technical/business services, (c) distribution - distribution, (d) other services - other servicesand (e) missing - missing data. Within the sample, 2 managers failed to provide data, this is equivalent to 1.2% ofthe total sample.SME heads were asked to classify their area of business as one of four categories:manufacturing, technical/business services, distribution and other services. The sampleexhibits a split roughly into thirds comprising one third manufacturing (32% [54 companies]);one third technical/business services (39% [66 companies]) and the remaining thirdcombining distribution and other services (15% and 13% [25 companies and 21 companies]respectively). There are certain differences within the sample between countries, for examplemanufacturing is highly represented in the UK (44%), whilst technical and business servicesare highly represented in Greece and Italy (48% and 52%).other ser vicesdistributiontechnical / bus inessmanufac turingMissingHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Composition of Sample25Figure 2 Composition of sample by size of company (number of employees)In the figure above slices represent the number of employees in the company of interviewees."Missing" relates to missing data. Two of the sample failed to provide a response to this question. Thisis equivalent to 1.2% of the total sample .The figure above illustrates the breakdown of sample according to size, as defined by numberof employees. Managers were asked to classify size of company as one of three categoriesaccording to number of employees (a) 10 and fewer (micro-businesses); (b) 11-50 (smallfirms) and (c) 51-249 (medium sized firms). As can be seen from the figure, the samplecomprises mainly companies employing up to 50 people (77%). Micro businesses comprise42% of companies, small businesses 36% and medium sized businesses 21%. Distributionamongst countries is subject to some variation, with France having 40% of its companies in

the 51-249 employees categories and Portugal having no companies in this size bracket.The composition of the sample has also been examined with regard to turnover. Companysize shows a positive correlation which is significant at the 0.01 level. The majority of firms(69%) have turnover of €2,500,000 or less. Again, there are differences in distributionbetween countries, with 84% of the Portuguese SMEs interviewed having a turnover of€250,000 or less compared with the French and German samples which comprised 52% and43% with turnovers exceeding €2,500,000.51 to 24911 to 5010 and fewerMissingHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Composition of Sample26Figure 3 Composition of sample by management positionIn the figure above, slices represent specific management roles.The majority of respondents identified themselves to be managers/directors (86% [144people]) with a few identifying specialised areas of management (marketing 7% [11], finance5% [8] and technical 3% [5]). There are no major differences in distribution betweencountries.A final factor used to define the sample is level of education of the manager. Intervieweeswere asked to describe their level of education as (a) school certificate, (b) university, (c)postgraduate education or (d) professional training. As can be seen in Figure 4, the majorityof managers have either a university level or higher education (78% [131 managers]), withthe most common level of education being a university first degree (42% [70 managers]).There are differences in levels of education, with Italy and UK exhibiting a high number ofmanagers with school certificates (44% [11 managers] and 32% [8], respectively). Whilst,Germany and Greece exhibit a high number of managers with a postgraduate education(48% [11 managers] and 40% [10], respectively). The countries exhibiting the highest levelsof professional training within the sample are UK and Finland (16% [4 managers] and 19%[4], respectively).technical managerfinance managermarketing managermanager/directorHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Composition of Sample27Figure 4 Composition of sample by level of educational qualification

In the figure above, slices represent different levels of education as follows: (a) school certificate -manager holds a school certificate, (b) university - manager is educated to first degree level, (c)postgraduate educati - manager holds a masters or doctoral degree, (d) professional education -manager holds a relevant professional qualification e.g. MBA and (e) Missing - manager has failed toprovide a response. Seven managers have failed to provide a response, this corresponds to 4% of thetotal sample.ConclusionsThe following conclusions can be drawn from the data regarding the nature of the samplegroup of SMEs:_ Firms are drawn mainly from the manufacturing and technical/business servicessectors._ A high proportion of the sample (approximately two thirds) have 50 or feweremployees_ The majority of managers do not associate their role with a specific managementtype (for example, financial manager). Differentiation between management types isgreater in larger companies within the sample.59_ The sample is also educated to a high level, with more than three-quarters possessing aminimum of a university education.59 Cross-tabulation of management position against size of company show that 7.1% of managers inmicro-firms and 8.3% of managers in small firms classify themselves as a "type" of manager, comparedwith 38.9% of managers in medium sized firms (data not shown).Missingprofessional traininpos tgraduate educatiuniv ersityschool certificateHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –General Use of ICT285.2 General Use of ICTsResultsThis subsection gives a baseline for managers' previous experience of using ICT. It providesan indication of what ICTs they have used, their levels of ICT competence, and in whichareas of management their companies use ICT. This provides a background regarding theICT skills level of managers, allowing a judgement of what ICTs managers are familiar with.Figure 5 ICTs used by managers in the workplaceThe figure above illustrates the number of managers using a variety of ICTs in the workplace. Of thequestionnaires gathered, there were 151 valid cases, with 17 managers not responding to thisquestion.As might be expected, the ICTs used by managers most frequently are those which areconsidered to be most established. The most commonly used ICTs are email (133 managers

[88%]), Internet (130 [86%]), CD-ROM (118 [78%]) and basic software packages (116[77%]). Similarly, more specialised packages with distinct applications are less well used, forexample CAD (26 managers [17%]), CAE (15 [10%]), and CIM (10 [7%]).Managers were also asked to identify the use of ICTs by different managers within theircompany. They were asked to identify whether ICTs were used routinely in: (a) Financialmanagement, (b) Strategic and production management, (c) Marketing and internationalmanagement and (d) Human resources management. Figure 6 shows the number ofcompanies in which ICT is routinely used by each role.Financial Management is the area in which ICT is most frequently used, with 131 of thecompanies using ICT in financial management (92%)59. Just under half the companiesinvolved in the survey use ICT for strategic and production management and marketing andinternational management (69 [49%] and 64 [45%] respectively).59 Percentage has been calculated as number of companies as a proportion of valid cases 1.e.as a percentage of 151 companies.020406080100120140EmailInternetCD ROMExcel/Word/AccessWebsitePresentationsIntranetStatisticsFirewallExtranetEcommerceInventoryStatistical ProcessControlCADVideo conferencingCAECIMType of ICTsNo. of ManagersHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –General Use of ICT29Figure 6 Use of ICTs within different management rolesThe figure above shows the number of companies, which make use of ICTs in four different areas ofmanagement (a) financial management, (b) strategic and production management, (c) marketing andinternational management and (d) human resources management. The data presented is based on 142valid cases, in 26 of the questionnaires, responses had not been given to this question.ICT uptake appears to be lowest in the area of human resources management, with only 52companies (37%) using ICT routinely in this role.Finally, managers were asked to identify what they felt to be their own level of ICT expertise,from a pre-set list of levels. Levels used were: (a) none, (b) occasional use, (c) regular use of

basic software packages (d) regular use of email, (e) regular use of the Internet, (f) specialistuse or (g) expert. Figure 7 shows the distribution of expertise. The most common responseswere "Regular use of email" (108 managers), "Regular use of basic packages" (107) and"Regular use of the Internet" (103). Only 7 managers responded that they had no ICTexperience, whilst 23 managers considered themselves to be experts. Within the sample,almost one quarter of managers are involved in specialist use of ICT (41 managers).020406080100120140Financial Management Strategic and ProductionManagementMarketing and InternationalManagementHuman ResourcesManagementManagement RoleNumber of CompaniesHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –General Use of ICT30Figure 7 Level of ICT expertise of managersThe figure above illustrates the level of ICT expertise of managers questioned in the survey. Thefrequency/type of usage are as follows: (a) none - no ICT expertise, (b) occasional - occasional use ofICTs, (c) Regular use of basic packages - regular use of basic packages, for example MS Officeapplications, (d) Email - regular use of email, (e) Internet - regular use of the Internet, (f) Specialistpackages - specialist packages such as CAD, CIM, CAE and (g) expert - expert in use of ICT.ConclusionsThe following conclusions can be drawn from the data presented in this section:_ There is a high usage of established ICTs, with a small number of managers usingspecialist packages._ The majority of managers use basic packages, email and Internet regularly._ Use of eCommerce by managers is low._ Differences between use of ICT in different management roles are apparent._ Highest use of ICT occurs in financial management and the lowest in humanresources management.020406080100120None Occasional Regular use ofbasic packagesE-mail Internet SpecialistPackagesExpertFrequency/Type of UsageNo of ManagersHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Experience of ICT-based training

315.3 Experience of ICT-based trainingIn discussing best practice in delivery of training to managers using ICT, it is essential to findout level of awareness of ICT, what previous experience managers have had of this type oftraining and what they thought of it. In order to do this, the questionnaire incorporatedquestions regarding (a) what ICTs have been used previously by managers for training, (b)the good and bad experiences of managers in using these ICTs, (c) reasons for managers nothaving used ICTs for training and (d) what factors would influence managers to use ICTbased training in the future.Figure 8 ICTs used by managers in previous trainingThe figure above shows the level of use of different ICTs by managers. Columns represent types ofICTs, with shading representing the frequency of use, from the following list: (a) never heard about -the respondent has never heard about the technology / its use for training, (b) never used -respondent has never used the technology for training, (c) tried a little - respondent has tried usingthe technology a few times, (d) used occasionally - the respondent uses ICTs for training on anoccasional basis, and (e) use a lot - respondent uses ICTs on a regular basis for training.From the figure above, awareness of existence of ICT-based training is high. In three of theICT technologies, CD ROM, Internet Searches and email, the combined figure for all thoseusing ICT - "tried a little", "used occasionally", "use a lot" - outweighs the number ofrespondents who have not heard of or used technologies. The distribution is as follows: CDROM - 54% of managers have used, Internet Search - 56% of managers have used, email -51% of managers have used. The use of each of the three technologies shows a positivecorrelation with managers' use of the same technologies in the workplace.6161 Correlation shows significance to the 0.01 level using a bivariate Pearson product-momentcorrelation.020406080100120140CD ROM InternetSearchesEmail InternetTrainingVideo fortrainingVideoconferencingVirtual Reality EmentoringType of ICTNumber of PeopleNever heard about Never used Tried a little Used occasionally Use a lotHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Experience of ICT-based training

32Managers were then asked about their experiences of using ICTs for training: both good andbad. The findings are presented in Figures 9, 10a and 10b.Figure 9 Good and bad aspects of using ICTs in training - OverviewThe figure above shows a breakdown of the good and bad aspects of ICT-based training defined bymanagers. The top chart shows good aspects of ICT-based training as a percentage of total responsesreceived. The categories were presented within the questionnaire: (a) up to date info - the ICT usedenables more up to date information to be used, (b) immediate - use of ICTs makes training moreimmediate (c) Own pace - use of ICTs allows learning at own pace, (d) relevant - training was relevantand (e) better retention - the manager felt that training resulted in better retention of information. Thebottom chart shows bad aspects as a percentage of total responses received, again categories werepresented in the questionnaire: (a) out of date information - information presented was out of date,(b) Lack of human support - lack of human support (c) Unreliable (tech.) - unreliability of thetechnology, (d) irrelevant - training was irrelevant, (e) time consuming - training is time consumingand (f) poor presentation - training material was poorly presented.From Figure 9, it can be seen that the most common aspects regarded as attributes of ICTbasedtraining are: the immediacy it offers, the flexibility for the learner to work at their ownpace, and that material is up to date. In terms of negative aspects, the lack of humansupport appears to be a major problem, along with poor presentation of information andGood Aspects23%18% 31%12%11%5%Up to date infoImmediateOwn PaceUser interactionRelevantBetter retentionBad Aspects13%39%13%7%11%17%Out of date infoLack of Human SupportUnreliable (tech.)IrrelevantTime consumingPoor Presentation

Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Experience of ICT-based training33concerns over reliability of technology. Out of date information was cited as problem. It ispossible, that this complaint draws on ICT-specific issues such as lack of updating of websitesand CD-ROMs.Figure 10a Good aspects of using ICTs in training

The figure above gives a breakdown of the good aspects of a number of different methods used for ICTtraining. Respondents were asked to pick responses to describe the good aspects of ICT based trainingthat they had used. Each bar represents a single technology and the divisions within these, the goodaspects. The categories were presented within the questionnaire: (a) up to date info - the ICT usedenables more up to date information to be used, (b) immediate - use of ICTs makes training moreimmediate (c) Own pace - use of ICTs allows learning at own pace, (d) relevant - training was relevantand (e) better retention - the manager felt that training resulted in better retention of information.From Figure 10a, it can be seen that the largest number of responses coincide with the mostcommonly used ICTs of email, Internet and CD-ROM. Although the distribution of goodaspects is fairly even within each type of technology, certain technologies appear to haveparticular advantages. Internet searches, email contact and e-mentoring are felt to have thegreatest potential for providing up to date information, with this good aspect accounting for33%, 33% and 32% of responses associated with the respective technologies. With respectto immediacy Internet searches, email contact and e-mentoring are strong performers (35%,38% and 36% respectively). Use of virtual reality and video-conferencing are felt to givegood user-interactivity (30% and 50% respectively) and to lead to good retention ofknowledge (23% and 19% respectively).0.020.040.060.080.0100.0120.0140.0internet searchesCD-Rom basedtraining/referenceemail contactsuse of internetbasedtraininguse of video fortrainingvirtual reality/gamescenario traininge-mentoringuse of videoconferencingfortrainingMethod of trainingNumber of citationsUp to date info Immediate Own Pace User interaction Relevant Better retentionHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Experience of ICT-based training34Figure 10b Bad aspects of using ICTs in trainingThe figure above gives a breakdown of the bad aspects of a number of different methods used for ICTtraining. Respondents were asked to pick responses to describe the bad aspects of ICT based trainingthat they had used. Each bar represents a single technology and the divisions within these, the badaspects. The categories were presented within the questionnaire: (a) out of date information -

information presented was out of date, (b) Lack of human support - lack of human support (c)Unreliable (tech.) - unreliability of the technology, (d) irrelevant - training was irrelevant, (e) timeconsuming - training is time consuming and (f) poor presentation - training material was poorlypresented.As with the good aspects, the frequently used technologies of CD-ROM and Internet searchesfeature heavily in the responses. However, the number of responses regarding email isreduced and the use of video for training features more heavily. Again responses tend toshow a similar distribution between categories, but there are some distinctions. Concernsover reliability of technology account for 57% of responses relating to video-conferencing,much higher (in terms of number and proportion) than for more established technologiessuch as CD-ROM and Internet searches (5% and 7% respectively).It was also felt important, given the fact that some had no experience, to examine managers'reasons for not making use of ICT based training. Managers were asked to identify reasonsfrom the following list: (a) lack of knowledge, (b) lack of quality assurance, (c) cost oftechnology, (d) not available in my language, (e) no suitable computer, (f) poortelecommunications infrastructure. The responses to this question are presented in Figure 11.0.0010.0020.0030.0040.0050.0060.0070.00internet searchesCD-Rom basedtraining/referenceemail contactsuse of internetbasedtraininguse of video fortrainingvirtual reality/gamescenario traininge-mentoringuse of videoconferencingfortrainingMethod of trainingNumber of citationsOut of date info Lack of Human Support Unreliable (tech.) Irrelevant Time consuming Poor PresentationHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Experience of ICT-based training35It can be seen that the most common barrier to use of ICT appears to be a lack ofknowledge. This to some extent contrasts with the results presented in Figure 9, whichappear to suggest that people are aware of the use of ICTs in training.62On further reflection, it appears that this question may have been interpreted in a number ofways. Lack of knowledge covers a range of areas including provision and personal knowledgein the use of ICT for training.Figure 11 Reasons for not using ICTs in training

The figure above shows reasons chosen by managers to explain why they had not previously used ICTbased training. Managers were asked to select as many responses from the following as wereappropriate: (a) lack of knowledge - lack of knowledge about ICT based training, (b) lack of qualityassurance - lack of quality assurance of ICT based training, (c) cost of technology - the cost of thetechnology required to use ICT based training, (d) not available in my language - a lack of ICT basedtraining material on offer in managers' first language, (e) no suitable computer - a lack of theequipment needed to take part in ICT based training, (f) poor telecommunications infrastructure -company/individual does not have a sufficiently developed telecommunications infrastructure.Managers suggested improvements that would increase their use of ICT for training in thefuture (Figure 12). Quality assurance was the most important factor (81 managers [48%]),followed by cheaper access (61 managers [36%]). However, these suggestions do notdirectly address the barriers of lack of knowledge, which suggests some uncertainty aboutwhat is wanted, but may also suggest that lack of knowledge has been interpreted as a lackof personal knowledge about ICT. Similarly, cost of technology was only identified by 10managers as a barrier to using ICT based training, yet 61 managers have identified the needfor a cheaper access. This may also refer to the cost of courses themselves.62 Responses indicate a very small number of people (total of 10 distributed across all technologies) hadnot heard of the ICT technologies presented. In some cases, for example email, no respondents statedchose the "never heard of " response.0102030405060Lack of Knowledge Lack of QualityAssuranceCost of Technology Not available in mylanguageNo SuitableComputerPoorTelecommunicationsInfrastructureReasonsNumber of peopleHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Experience of ICT-based training36Some managers identified additional factors, which have not been included in Figure 12. It isnot possible to predict accurately what level of response these factors would have attracted ifthey had been included, but it is likely that they would have been identified by moremanagers. Two managers identified greater flexibility and one manager identified the use ofdiscussion groups.Figure 12 Factors that would encourage managers to use ICT based trainingin the future.

The figure above shows factors that would encourage managers to use ICT based learning in thefuture.Managers were asked to select factors from the following: (a) Quality assurance – qualityassurance (b) Cheaper access - reduction in the cost of access, (c) Recommendation from other SMEs -recommendation from other SMEs, (d) Accreditation - better accreditation of courses, (e) Qualitywebsites - higher quality websites, and (f) Provision in language - provision in first language of themanager. Some managers identified additional factors, which are discussed in the text.ConclusionsFrom the results presented in this section, the following conclusions can be drawn regardingperception and experience of ICT-based training:_ There appears to be a good awareness of the technologies associated with ICT-basedlearning but a relatively low take-up._ Perceived advantages of ICT based learning are providing up-to-date information,flexibility and immediate training._ ICT also has a number of perceived disadvantages, in particular lack of human supportand poor presentation._ There is a concept of different ICTs having different advantages:CD-ROM based training is good for learning at mangers' own paceInternet searches are immediate and provide up-to-date information_ Specific ICTs are also associated with particular disadvantages:Internet based training is seen as lacking human supportUse of video-conferencing is seen as being technically unreliable0102030405060708090Quality Assurance Cheaper Access Recommendationfrom other SMEsAccreditation Quality Websites Provision inLanguageFactorsNumber of CitationsHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Experience of ICT-based training37_ The major barrier to take-up of ICT based learning is lack of knowledge. It is likelythat this factor combines a lack of personal ICT skills, particularly in areas such asInternet-based training and virtual reality which have low usage and a lack of knowledgeregarding available training._ The biggest factor that would influence managers to use ICT based training is greaterquality assurance, with cheaper access and recommendations from other SMEsalso being considerations.Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers

385.4 Training preferences of SME managersResultsIn order to define best practice and determine the most effective way to deliver training toSME managers, it is necessary to examine how managers prefer training to be delivered, forexample timing, location and by whom, and also what they wish to learn. Responses to thesequestions provide an indication of where resources and assistance should be focussed toserve SME managers' needs.Firstly managers were asked a series of questions regarding whom they preferred to receivetraining from, where they prefer to receive training and at what time they prefer to receivetraining. The responses are presented in Figures 13 - 18 respectively.Figure 13 Who managers prefer to receive training fromThe figure above shows the training providers preferred by SME managers. Managers were asked toselect their preferred training providers from the following: (a) private training providers - privatetraining providers, (b) universities - universities, (c) local public - local public training providers, (d)trade associations - trade associations and (e) networks - shared experience networks. In some cases,managers have indicated more than one training provider. Some managers identified other trainingproviders; these are discussed in the text below.It can be seen that the sample of managers interviewed showed a strong preference forprivate training provision (80 managers [48%]). This was followed by university-basedtraining provision (52 managers [31%]) and local public training providers (50 managers[30%]). In addition to the training providers shown above, managers identified other trainingproviders, but the low responses given may not reflect their actual importance and as suchthese responses are not shown in the figure above. Eight managers highlighted the need fortraining to be provided by people with SME Expertise, that is practical experience of running asmall business. Four managers indicated that a range of providers was preferable, and twomanagers indicated a preference for training organised by professional bodies. One managerhighlighted other managers as a preferred training source.0102030405060708090Private TrainingProvidersUniversities Local Public Trade Associations Networks

Training ProvidersNo of CitationsHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers39There appear to be differences in preferences between countries, as shown in Figure 14. Theoverall preference for private training providers does not reflect the preferences of a numberof the countries. In the cases of Germany, Greece, and Italy, there is a preference for thistype of training provider (17 managers, 19 managers and 12 managers respectively).However both France and the UK show a preference for local public providers (12 managersand 8 managers respectively). SME managers in Finland appear to favour university provision(12 managers) whilst Portugal shows an even split between private training providers anduniversity training (13 managers apiece).Figure 14 Preference for providers by countryThe figure above illustrates the preferences of managers for different training providers by country.Bars represent 100% responses from countries, with the divisions showing the % contribution thateach type of training provider makes to the whole response. Managers have selected preferences fromthe following: (a) private training providers - private training providers, (b) universities - universities,(c) local public - local public training providers, (d) trade associations - trade associations and (e)networks - shared experience networks. In some cases, managers have indicated more than onetraining provider.Figure 15 shows responses gathered from managers regarding their preferred location inwhich to receive training. It can be seen from the figure that the preferred location fortraining of the sample is in the company (79 managers [47%]), followed by a special location(74 managers [44%]). Under a quarter of managers expressed a preference for receivingtraining by computer (39 managers [24%]). Again, there are differences in preferences whenresponses are compared between countries. Training in a special location is preferred by SMEmanagers in France, Germany, Greece and the United Kingdom (18 managers, 10 managers,17 managers and 12 managers respectively). SME managers in Finland, Italy and Portugalshow a preference for training delivered in the company (9 managers, 14 managers and 17managers respectively).0%20%40%60%80%100%Finland France Germany Greece Italy Portugal United kingdomCountry

ContributionPrivate Training Providers Universities Local Public Trade Associations NetworksHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers40Figure 15 Where managers want trainingThe figure above shows the preferred location for receiving training. Managers were asked to chosetheir preferred location from the following: (a) in the company - training delivered on / to companypremises, (b) special location - training delivered at a special location, (c) on the computer - trainingdelivered using computers, (d) home - training delivered to the home, and (e) social location - trainingwhich is combined with a social event. Managers did not provider any other responses.Figure 16 Preferences for location of training broken down by countryThe figure above shows a breakdown of preferences regarding location of training by country. Barsrepresent 100% responses from countries, with the divisions showing the % contribution that eachlocation makes to the whole response. Managers were asked to chose their preferred location from thefollowing: (a) in the company - training delivered on / to company premises, (b) special location -training delivered at a special location, (c) on the computer - training delivered using computers, (d)0102030405060708090In the Company Special Location On the Computer Home Social LocationLocationNumber of Citations0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%Finland France Germany Greece Italy Portugal United kingdomCountryContributionIn the Company Home Special Location Social Location On the Computer

Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers41home - training delivered to the home, and (e) social location - training which is combined with asocial event.In addition to identifying preferred providers and locations, managers were asked to identifytheir preferred timing for training. Preferences are presented as an overview of the sampleand on a country-by-country basis in figures 17 and 18 respectively.Figure 17 When managers prefer to be trainedThe figure above shows the preferred timing for receiving training. Managers were asked to chosetheir preferred location from the following: (a) at my request - training delivered on request, (b)

evening sessions - training delivered through evening training sessions, (c) instant access - trainingwhich can be accessed instantaneously, (d) weekend sessions - training delivered through sessionsheld at the weekend, and (e) day sessions - delivered during the day. Managers did not provide anyother responses, some managers provided more than one response.It can be seen from the figure above that the most popular timing for training is at themanager's request (92 managers [55%]). This suggests that flexibility in timing of training isimportant to managers. There is a low preference for day sessions (8 managers [5%]).As with location and choice of training provider, there is a difference in preferences betweencountries, illustrated in Figure 18. In all countries except Portugal, the preference is fortraining delivered at the manager's request. SME managers in Portugal show a slightpreference for training to be carried out during evening sessions (10 managers [40%]).0102030405060708090100At My Request Evening Sessions Instant Access Weekend Sessions Day SessionsTiming of TrainingNumber of CitationsHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers42Figure 18 Managers' preference for timing of training by countryThe figure above illustrates the preferences of managers for timing of training by country. Barsrepresent 100% responses from countries, with the divisions showing the % contribution that eachtiming makes to the whole response. Managers were asked to chose their preferred location from thefollowing: (a) at my request - training delivered on request, (b) evening sessions - training deliveredthrough evening training sessions, (c) instant access - training which can be accessed instantaneously,(d) weekend sessions - training delivered through sessions held at the weekend, and (e) day sessions -delivered during the day. Managers did not provide any other responses, some managers providedmore than one response.In addition to identifying preferences for provider, location and timing, managers were askedto identify how they felt barriers to training could be overcome, the results are presented inFigure 19. The most popular method for overcoming barriers to training is improved access(100 managers [60%]), followed by the provision of grants for training (70 managers[42%]). Interestingly, despite identifying lack of knowledge as the main barrier to use of ICTbased training, lack of information does not appear to be such a large factor in training as a

whole.60When responses are considered on a country-by-country basis, some differences appear:SME managers from Finland, France Germany and Italy state that improved access to andflexibility of training is the best way of overcoming barriers to training (17 managers, 10managers, 17 managers and 11 managers respectively). Managers from the United Kingdomidentified provision of grants for training as the best way of overcoming barriers (16managers), whilst managers from Greece gave both access and grants equal importance (13managers apiece). Managers from Portugal also identified better access as an importantfactor, with provision of good information ranking as equally important (17 managers apiece).60 see Figure 11 for comparison0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%Finland France Germany Greece Italy Portugal United kingdomCountryContributionEvening Sessions Weekend Sessions Instant Access At My Request Day SessionsHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers43Figure 19 Suggested methods for overcoming barriers to trainingThe figure above shows the responses of managers concerning methods of overcoming barriers totraining. Managers were asked to identify responses from the following: (a) access - better access andflexibility, (b) grants - grants to undertake training, (c) information - an information guide on whattraining is available and where, (d) variety - better variety of relevant training, and (e) tradeassociations - provision from trade associations. Some managers identified additional factors, theseare discussed in the text.Figure 20 Methods of overcoming barriers to training by countryThe figure above shows the responses of managers concerning methods of overcoming barriers totraining, by country. Managers were asked to identify responses from the following: (a) access - betteraccess and flexibility, (b) grants - grants to undertake training, (c) information - an information guideon what training is available and where, (d) variety - better variety of relevant training, and (e) tradeassociations - provision from trade associations.020406080100120Access Grants Information Variety Trade AssociationsSuggested methodsNumber of People0%10%

20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%Finland France Germany Greece Italy Portugal United kingdomCountryContributionvariety trade associations grants information access

Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers44Figure 21 Rationale for making training choicesThe figure above shows the rationale between different training choices made by managers. Divisionswithin bars show the composition according to the benefits offered by the type of training: (a) problemsolving - the approach is good for problem solving, (b) immediate use - the method allows immediateaccess, (c) proceed at own pace - the approach allows the learner to proceed at their own pace, (d)tried and tested - the approach is tried and tested and (e) other. Value axis shows percentage ofrespondents.Managers were asked their rationale for making training choices. Problem solving was thepredominant reason for most areas of training, from the choice of short course to in companyexperimentation. Also important was ‘immediate use’, followed by ‘proceed at own pace’. Apreference for the ‘tried and tested’ was also shown by some managers. Responses onproblems with previous training were much fewer, ‘theoretical’ and ‘not relevant’ being thetwo most common responses.Managers were also asked to identify preferred methods of delivery in four major areas ofmanagement: financial management, strategic and production management, marketing andinternational management and human resources management. The questionnaire provided amixture of 'traditional' and ICT-based training methods and managers were asked to recordtheir first five choices for each kind of management. Figures 22-25 present the first andsecond choices for each type of management.0.0%10.0%20.0%30.0%40.0%50.0%60.0%70.0%80.0%90.0%Training CourseExperienceMentoringConsultancyBusiness AdvisorsText BooksNetworkingCopyingExperimentationOtherType of training

Percentage of managersProblem Solving Immediate Use Proceed at Own Pace Tried and Tested other

Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers45Figure 22 Preferred methods of delivery of management training in financialmanagementThe figure above shows the first and second preferences of managers for method of delivery oftraining in financial management. Each bar represents a single delivery method, with the divisionsrepresenting number of people identifying delivery method as their first or second choice. It should benoted that response rate was low: 46 managers failed to provide first choices and 58 did not providesecond choices.61

As can be seen from the figure above, the most preferred method of delivery is a shorttraining course, with 45 managers choosing this delivery as their first choice and 10managers choosing it as their second choice. There seems to be general preference fortraditional methods of delivery. The ICT-based methodology showing the highest combinedranking was on-line advice via email (first choice of five managers and second choice of sixmanagers). This was only the ninth most popular choice of managers.As with the case of training in financial management, short training courses are the preferredmethod of delivery for the sample for training in strategic and production management, with29 managers identifying it as their first choice of delivery and 10 managers identifying it astheir second choice. Again there is a preference for traditional methods of delivery, but withgroup workshops and consultancy featuring more highly (22 managers and 21 managersrespectively). Games scenarios / virtual reality is the eighth most popular delivery method(seven managers' first choice, three managers' second choice).61 Lack of response was of three kinds: (i) individuals failing to provide any choices, (ii) managersproviding a first choice but no second choice and (iii) responses which could not be counted due toerrors in recording (a number of choices were highlighted with no ranking or "tied choices" - forexample two first choices - were indicated)0102030405060short training courseone day seminarone-to-one sessionsgroup workshopsmentoringconsultancylonger training at college/universitytext books and manualson-line advice via emailbusiness exchange networksinteractive web-siteCD-ROM

use of game scenario/virtual realityvideo-conferencingvideo-cassettetelephone help-lineMethod of DeliveryNumber of ManagersFirst Choice Second ChoiceHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers46Figure 23 Preferred methods of delivery of management training in strategicand production managementThe figure above shows the first and second preferences of managers for method of delivery oftraining in strategic and production management. Each bar represents a single delivery method, withthe divisions representing number of people identifying delivery method as their first or second choice.Response rate was low - 61 managers failed to provide a first choice and 70 managers failed to providea second choice.Figure 24 Preferred methods of delivery of management training in marketingand international managementThe figure above shows the first and second preferences of managers for method delivery of training inmarketing and international management. Each bar represents a single delivery method, with thedivisions representing number of people identifying delivery method as their first or second choice.051015202530354045short training coursegroup workshopsconsultancymentoringone-to-one sessionsone day seminarlonger training at college/universityuse of game scenario/virtual realityCD-ROMon-line advice via emailbusiness exchange networksinteractive web-sitetext books and manualsvideo-cassettevideo-conferencingtelephone help-lineMethod of deliveryNumber of PeopleFirst Choice Second Choice05101520253035404550short training courseone day seminarone-to-one sessionsconsultancygroup workshopsmentoringlonger training at college/universityinteractive web-sitetext books and manuals

video-conferencingbusiness exchange networksCD-ROMon-line advice via emailuse of game scenario/virtual realityvideo-cassettetelephone help-lineMethod of DeliveryNumber of PeopleFirst Choice Second Choice

Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers47Response rate was low - 56 managers failed to provide a first choice and 67 managers failed to providea second choice.Once again, short training courses are favoured in delivery of human resources managementtraining (32 managers' first choice and nine managers' second choice). There is also a strongpreference for one-to-one sessions (19 managers' first choice and nine managers' secondchoice). The most popular form of ICT based delivery is CD-ROM delivery (seven managers).Figure 25 Preferred methods of delivery of management training in humanresources managementThe figure above shows the first and second preferences of managers for method of delivery oftraining in human resources management. Each bar represents a single delivery method, with thedivisions representing number of people identifying delivery method as their first or second choice.Response rate was low - 69 managers failed to provide a first choice and 77 managers failed to providea second choice.In summary, there is a preference for traditional methods of training delivery, regardless ofmanagement area. In all cases, short courses are the preferred method of delivery and thetop eight choices comprise: [short courses], one-day seminars, one-to-one sessions, groupworkshops, mentoring, consultancy and longer training. There are some differences betweenpreferences for each of these traditional delivery methods between management areas. Forexample, one-to-one sessions rank second in preference for human resources training, whilstthey only rank sixth for production management; group workshops and consultancy are feltto be more relevant to production management than the other types of management.With regard to ICT-based delivery, there appears to be low demand. Again, there aredifferences between preferences for training in each of the management areas. Although thenumbers involved are low, it is interesting to note both the contribution of ICT-based trainingto preferences for each management area and the differences in preference for ICT deliverytypes between management training areas. These differences are illustrated in Figure 26.0510

15202530354045short training courseone-to-one sessionsone day seminarconsultancymentoringgroup workshopslonger training at college/universityCD-ROMtext books and manualson-line advice via emailbusiness exchange networksvideo-conferencinguse of game scenario/virtual realityvideo-cassetteinteractive web-sitetelephone help-lineType of DeliveryNumber of PeopleFirst Choice Second Choice

Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers48Figure 26 Breakdown of preferences for ICT based delivery by area ofmanagement trainingThe figure above shows the preference for different types of ICT based training delivery by area ofmanagement training. Divisions within bars show the composition according to area of managementtraining: (a) financial management, (b) strategic and production management, (c) marketing andinternational management and (d) human resources management. Value axis shows relativecontribution, which is an adjusted figure that takes into account the different response rates betweendifferent areas of management.62

Across the board, there is a low preference for the use of ICT based training in humanresource management. It can be seen that the more established delivery methods of CD-ROMand on-line advice via email are the most preferred categories overall. However, with theexception of human resources management, the most preferred technology of differentmanagement types do not align with these overall preferences.The use of game scenario/ virtual reality is felt to be particularly appropriate to strategic andproduction management. Use of video-conferencing and interactive websites are felt to beparticularly appropriate to training in marketing and international management. In financialmanagement the first preference is for on-line advice, but the second is for use of aninteractive website.62 Relative contribution = (number of managers/total number of responses within management type)expressed as a %. For example 11 managers stated a preference for on-line advice, out of a totalresponse rate of 232, giving a relative contribution of 3%.0%2%4%6%8%10%12%14%

16%18%CD-ROM on-line advice viaemailinteractive web-site use of gamescenario/virtualrealityvideo-conference video-cassetteType of ICT DeliveryRelative ContributionFinancial Strategic and production Marketining and international Human ResourcesHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers49Figure 27 Priority areas for management trainingThe figure above shows the areas of training which managers identified as a priority for training.Managers were asked to select priorities for training from a list. Managers were able to select morethan one training priority. The priorities from the list were grouped into categories as follows to easecomparison of data: (a) human resources management - recruitment and development, timemanagement and delegation, employment legislation, (b) marketing - exporting andinternationalisation, networks and collaborative working, customer relations, languages, (c) financialmanagement - value analysis, financial planning, turnover ratio, (d) entrepreneurship - fosteringintrapreneurship and greater entrepreneurship, (e) organisational management - total qualitymanagement, (f) ICT - ICT based decision support (g) eCommerce - electronic data interchange , and(h) Production - production management . Managers identified additional areas of training; these arediscussed in the text.Figure 26 shows that managers of SMEs in this sample consider human resourcesmanagement as their major priority for training (114 managers [68%]). The second priorityof managers as shown above is marketing (94 managers [56%]), followed by financialmanagement (68 managers[41%]). Very few managers identified eCommerce as a priorityarea for training.Our results can be compared with the results of the TELEMAN63 study. This study surveyed1000 SMEs across Europe. In terms of delivery of training 76% preferred the modality of‘part attendance’ . This indicates the desire for some face-to-face interaction with the tutoror other participants. 64% of companies preferred tailor-made courses rather thanstandardised. Teleman comments on the need for specific courses for their special problemswhich are directly applicable to their practical cases. Content of a distance course has to bemore detailed as there is not the possibility of classroom explanations. In terms of delivery oftraining the following results were obtained:_ 65% of the companies prefer group training._ 93% of companies want trainer assistance._ 82% have a preference for an official certificate at the end of the course._ 65% want flexibility_ 70% want training on demand rather than scheduled training63 op.cit.02040

6080100120Human resources managementMarketingFinancial managementEntrepreneurshipOrganisational managementICTeCommerceProductionArea of trainingNumber of managersHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Training preferences of SME Managers50_ 91% want direct contact with experts to support the courseConclusionsFrom the results presented above we draw the following conclusions:_ Private training providers are the preferred deliverers of training. This is subject todifferences between countries._ The preferred location for training is either in the company or at a special location_ Managers prefer to receive training at their request._ Most popular methods for overcoming barriers to training are improvements in accessand grants for training._ There are some differences in preferences for method of training delivery betweenmanagement positions, but traditional methods of delivery are preferred over ICTbased methods._ Within the ICT based delivery methods investigated, the overall preference is for moreestablished technologies such as CD-ROM and on-line advice services by email._ There is also some evidence for the usefulness of less established technologies in specificmanagement roles. For example:Virtual reality may have a potential application in strategic and productionmanagementVideo-conferencing may have potential in marketing and internationalmanagement_ Priority areas for training are human resources management, marketing andfinancial management._ Entrepreneurship is also seen as a priority, whereas ICT and eCommerce do not ratehighly. The lack of emphasis on ICT training may be due to the fairly high current usageof ICTs by the sample group.Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –The effect of size515.5 The Effect of SizeMuch of the literature regarding SME development and management points to a specificdifference in the nature of firms employing 1-10 people (micro-firms) compared with those

within the small (11-50) and medium sized (51-249) categories. In order to examine theeffect of size on responses, a series of cross-tabulations have been performed. Thissubsection examines the relationship between size of company64 and:_ Use of ICT in training_ Suggested methods for overcoming barriers to management training_ Training preferencesIt has been suggested that investment in ICTs and levels of connectivity show a positiverelationship with size of company65. Three cross-tabulations have been performed to examinethis relationship within our sample. These are presented in Tables 1-3.Table 1 Use of ICT in different areas of managementSize of Company Total1-10 11-50 51-249FM 52 74% 50 83% 28 78% 130SPM 26 37% 28 47% 15 42% 69MIM 27 39% 23 38% 14 39% 64HRM 19 27% 21 35% 12 33% 52124 122 69 315The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of use of ICT in different areas of managementwith size of company: (a) FM - financial management, (b) SPM - strategic and productionmanagement, (c) MIM - marketing and international management and (d) HRM - human resourcesmanagement. In each case, the number of companies appears in the first column and the percentagethat this represents of the whole sample (number of companies/total number of companies in sizerange) is presented in the second column. It should be noted that the data includes two missing valuesfor size, thus the percentages quoted may include an error of up to 1%.From Table 1 it can be seen that all sizes of company show highest adoption of ICT byfinancial managers. In general, use of ICT is lowest in the micro firm bracket, as might beexpected. However, marketing and international management is an exception, where microfirmsshare highest usage with large firms. Difference in use in this area between sizebrackets is not large, but micro-firms showing a comparable usage to other categories,suggests that micro-firms appreciate the potential of ICT as a marketing tool.Small firms show the highest level of adoption in the other categories of management. Thehigher proportion of small firms operating in the technical and business services sector (40%)within our sample compared with medium firms (31%) may account for this.64 In the text references to micro, small and medium sized firms, should be taken to refer to"managers in…"65 For example "Moving into the Information Age - An International Benchmarking Study"1999.Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –The effect of size52Table 2 Managers' level of expertise in the use of ICTSize of Company Total1-10 11-50 51-249

NONE 3 4% 2 3% 2 6% 7OCC 10 14% 6 10% 6 17% 22REG 41 59% 42 70% 24 67% 107EMAIL 46 66% 37 62% 24 67% 107INT 41 59% 35 58% 26 72% 102SPE 15 21% 17 28% 9 25% 41EXP 13 19% 7 12% 3 8% 23169 146 94 406The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of level of ICT expertise of managers with sizeof company: (a) NONE - no experience of use of ICT, (b) OCC - occasional use of basic packages, (c)REG - regular use of basic packages, (d) EMAIL - regular use of email, (e) INT - regular use of theInternet, (f) SPE - use of specialist packages and (g) EXP - expert in use of ICT. In each case, thenumber of companies appears in the first column and the percentage that this represents of the wholesample (number of companies/total number of companies in size range) is presented in the secondcolumn. It should be noted that the data includes two missing values for size, thus the percentagesquoted may include an error of up to 1%.From the table above, it can be seen that most managers use ICT regularly in all sizes offirm. It can also be seen that use of the Internet is much higher in the larger companies inthe sample group, with medium sized companies having much higher use (72% of managers)compared with micro and small firms (59% and 58% respectively). This may reflect a lack oftechnology within these firms or a limitation of access. Interestingly, managers in micro-firmsappear more likely to classify themselves as "ICT experts" than those in small and mediumfirms. Within micro-firms it is possible that the manager's role is more "hands-on" and thisnecessitates a greater technical expertise.Table 3 ICTs used by managers in previous trainingSize of Company Total1-10 11-50 51-249INTS 29 41% 24 40% 16 44% 69CD-ROM 28 40% 20 33% 16 44% 64EMAIL 21 30% 24 40% 11 31% 56VID 16 23% 12 20% 10 28% 38INTT 12 17% 13 22% 8 22% 33VIRT 8 11% 9 15% 8 22% 25VC 8 11% 10 17% 6 17% 24EMENT 6 9% 8 13% 6 17% 20128 120 81 329The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of use of ICTs in previous training with size ofcompany: (a) INTS - Internet searches, (b) CD-ROM - CD-ROM, (c) EMAIL - email, (d) VID - use ofvideo, (e) INTT - Internet based training, (f) VIRT - virtual reality, (g) VC - video-conferencing and (h)EMENT - ementoring. In each case, the number of companies appears in the first column and thepercentage that this represents of the whole sample (number of companies/total number ofcompanies in size range) is presented in the second column. It should be noted that the data includestwo missing values for size, thus the percentages quoted may include an error of up to 1%.Table 3 illustrates the previous use of ICTs by managers in training. As expected from

previous studies, the use of ICTs for training is generally most frequent in medium sizedfirms. This is particularly striking in the case of newer and potentially more expensive orresource intensive approaches such as virtual reality and ementoring.Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –The effect of size53Table 4 Methods for overcoming barriers to management trainingSize of Company Total1-10 11-50 51-249ACC 44 63% 32 53% 23 64% 99GRANTS 29 41% 25 42% 16 44% 70INFO 28 40% 24 40% 11 31% 63VAR 19 27% 25 42% 13 36% 57TRADE 8 11% 14 23% 5 14% 27128 120 68 316The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of methods for overcoming barriers tomanagement training with size of company: (a) ACC - improved access, (b) GRANTS - grants to SMEsfor training, (c) - INFO - information, (d) VAR - variety of methods, and (e) TRADE - greaterinvolvement of trade associations. In each case, the number of companies appears in the first columnand the percentage that this represents of the whole sample (number of companies/total number ofcompanies in size range) is presented in the second column. It should be noted that the data includestwo missing values for size, thus the percentages quoted may include an error of up to 1%.The table above shows the differences in suggestions for overcoming barriers to training.Information appears to be more of a problem for small and micro firms than medium firms. Itis also interesting to note that small firms wish to see an increased presence of tradeassociations and greater variety in training providers.Table 5 When managers prefer to receive trainingSize of Company Total1-10 11-50 51-249REQ 32 46% 35 58% 23 64% 90EVE 23 33% 19 32% 7 19% 49INS 8 11% 12 20% 6 17% 26WEND 15 21% 4 7% 2 6% 21DAY 2 3% 2 3% 4 11% 880 72 42 194The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred timing of training with size ofcompany: a) REQ - at my request, (b) EVE - evening sessions, (c) INS - instant access, (d) WEND -weekend sessions, and (e) DAY - day sessions. In each case, the number of companies appears in thefirst column and the percentage that this represents of the whole sample (number of companies/totalnumber of companies in size range) is presented in the second column. It should be noted that thedata includes two missing values for size, thus the percentages quoted may include an error of up to1%.From Table 5, it can be seen that there is a strong preference for training provision atmanagers' request in all sizes of SME. It is interesting to note that micro and small firms showa higher preference for out of hours training in evenings (33% and 32% respectively), than

medium sized firms (19%) and that micro-firms also show a willingness to participate intraining at weekends (21%, compared with 7% and 6% for small and medium firmsrespectively). This may be in part due to the documented difficulties in providing cover forstaff attending training during working hours.Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –The effect of size54Table 6 Where managers prefer to receive trainingSize of Company Total1-10 11-50 51-249COMP 30 43% 31 52% 17 47% 78SPEC 30 43% 24 40% 19 53% 73COMPU 12 17% 17 28% 10 28% 39HOME 14 20% 7 12% 2 6% 23SOC 3 4% 3 5% 2 6% 889 82 50 221The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred location of training with size ofcompany: (a) COMP - in the company, (b) SPEC - special location, (c) COMPU - on the computer, (d)HOME -training delivered to the home, and (e) SOC - social location. In each case, the number ofcompanies appears in the first column and the percentage that this represents of the whole sample(number of companies/total number of companies in size range) is presented in the second column. Itshould be noted that the data includes two missing values for size, thus the percentages quoted mayinclude an error of up to 1%.From the table above, it can be seen that demand for training using a computer is not aspopular with micro-firms (17%) than small and medium sized firms (28% each). This may berelated to the lower level of use of ICT seen in management areas or in lower levels ofregular use of ICTs by micro-firm managers.Table 7 Who managers prefer to receive training fromSize of Company Total1-10 11-50 51-249PRIV 31 44% 30 50% 18 50% 79UNI 24 34% 17 28% 11 31% 52LOCPUB 25 36% 16 27% 9 25% 50TRADE 17 24% 17 28% 12 33% 46NET 21 30% 14 23% 9 25% 44118 94 59 271The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred training providers with size ofcompany: (a) PRIV - private training providers, (b) UNI - universities, (c) LOCPUB - local publictraining providers, (d) TRADE - trade associations, and (e) NET - networks. In each case, the number ofcompanies appears in the first column and the percentage that this represents of the whole sample(number of companies/total number of companies in size range) is presented in the second column. Itshould be noted that the data includes two missing values for size, thus the percentages quoted mayinclude an error of up to 1%.There also appear to be differences between size categories regarding preferred training

providers. There is a stronger preference for private training providers in small and mediumfirms (50% in each case) than micro firms (44%), although this is the top choice for all sizecategories. Micro firms appear to have a greater preference for university or local publicproviders than shown by small or medium firms. They also have a higher preference fornetwork-based training.With regard to encouraging managers to use ICT based training, the most prominent factoris quality assurance, regardless of size. However, there seem to be specific problems, whichaffect micro firms and small firms, which are less significant for medium sized firms. MicroHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –The effect of size55and small firms see reduction in cost of ICT based training and recommendation from otherSMEs as more significant factors than medium sized companies do.Table 8 Factors which would encourage managers to use ICT based trainingin the future.Size of Company Total1-10 11-50 51-249QUALASS 33 47% 30 50% 16 44% 79COST 28 40% 24 40% 8 22% 60REC 27 39% 21 35% 8 22% 56ACC 18 26% 13 22% 7 19% 38QUAL 13 19% 8 13% 3 8% 24LANG 9 13% 9 15% 5 14% 23127 105 47 283The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of factors encouraging use of ICTs with size ofcompany: (a) QUALASS - quality assurance (b) COST - cheaper access, (c) REC -Recommendation fromother SMEs, (d) ACC - Accreditation, (e) QUAL - Quality websites (f) LANG -provision in my language.In each case, the number of companies appears in the first column and the percentage that thisrepresents of the whole sample (number of companies/total number of companies in size range) ispresented in the second column. It should be noted that the data includes two missing values for size,thus the percentages quoted may include an error of up to 1%.Table 9 illustrate the priorities for management training identified by managers. Althoughpriorities are broadly similar between different management types, there appears to be adistinction between micro firms and the remainder of the sample. Entrepreneurship appearsto be of greater importance to managers in small or medium sized firms. This may reflect anumber of factors regarding the position of these size categories relative to firms' growthcycles and managers' stage in their employment. In the case of small firms, it is likely that

they will be reaching a stage where new product development is becoming increasinglynecessary to maintain growth, thus entrepreneurship training may be seen as a way ofincreasing innovation and stimulating new product development.Table 9 Priorities for management trainingSize of Company Total1-10 11-50 51-249HR 36 51% 42 70% 36 100% 114MAR 34 49% 38 63% 20 56% 92FIN 29 41% 19 32% 19 53% 67ENT 17 24% 33 55% 15 42% 65OM 11 16% 17 28% 5 14% 33ICT 8 11% 12 20% 10 28% 30ECOM 5 7% 9 15% 9 25% 23PROD 6 9% 8 13% 4 11% 18146 178 118 442The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of priorities for management training with sizeof company: (a) HR - human resources management, (b) MAR - marketing, (c) FIN - financialmanagement, (d) ENT - entrepreneurship, (e) OM - organisational management, (f) ICT - ICT (g) ECOM- eCommerce, and (h) PROD - production management. In each case, the number of companiesappears in the first column and the percentage that this represents of the whole sample (number ofcompanies/total number of companies in size range) is presented in the second column. It should benoted that the data includes two missing values for size, thus the percentages quoted may include anHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –The effect of size56error of up to 1%, such errors are evident for categories of MAR, FIN, ENT, ICT, ECOM, PROD whenfigures in Table 9 are compared with figures discussed in Section 5.4.ConclusionsThe following conclusions can be drawn about the effect of size, as revealed in the completedquestionnaires:_ In general micro firms show lower adoption of ICT in daily work of managers thansmall or medium sized firms, but the difference is not large._ Use of the Internet is higher in medium sized firms than other categories of firm._ The proportion of managers classifying themselves as experts is highest in micro firms._ Managers in medium sized firms are more likely to have used ICT-based training thanthose in micro or small firms._ More resource intensive approaches such as virtual reality and ementoring have beenused more frequently in medium sized firms than micro or small firms._ Lack of information is a greater barrier to training for micro and small firms thanmedium sized firms._ Managers prefer training to be on demand regardless of size although:_ There appears to be a greater willingness to participate in out of hours training in

small and micro firms._ Demand for computer based training is currently low in micro firms._ Private training provision is preferred by managers regardless of size of firm._ Micro firms show the greatest preference for receipt of training from universities,public training providers and through networks._ Micro and small firms view reduction in cost and recommendations from otherSMEs as important factors in influencing use of ICT based training._ The need for entrepreneurship training is greatest in small and medium sized firms.Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –The effect of Manager’s sex575.6 Analysis of effect of sex of respondentIn order to search for any preferences or results that could be affected by sex of therespondent, a series of cross-tabulations of responses against sex have been performed.These are presented in the tables below. In each case, the ratio of male to female responseshas been used as an indicator of differences in preference. The overall ratio of male to femaleresponses is roughly equivalent to 4:1 (20% female) and as such deviation from this ratio isconsidered below.Table 1 Managers' level of expertise in the use of ICTSex Total Male: FemaleratioMale FemaleNONE 7 0 7OCC 17 4 21 4:1REG 78 24 102 3:1EMAIL 78 23 101 3:1INT 76 22 98 3:1SPEC 35 3 38 11:1EXP 21 2 23 11:1390The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of level of ICT expertise of managers with sex:(a) NONE - no experience of use of ICT, (b) OCC - occasional use of basic packages, (c) REG - regularuse of basic packages, (d) EMAIL - regular use of email, (e) INT - regular use of the Internet, (f) SPEC -use of specialist packages and (g) EXP - expert in use of ICT. An additional column presents the male:female ratio. Overall, male to female ratio for respondents was 4:1. It should be noted that the dataincludes seven missing values for sex.Table 1 illustrates managers' level of ICT expertise. It can be seen that level of use isdistributed in a similar way between the sexes. More female managers appear to use email,Internet and basic packages than male managers. However, this may be linked to the factthat less female managers place themselves in the expert and specialist categories.Table 2 ICTs used by managers in previous trainingSex Total Male: FemaleratioMale FemaleINTS 54 11 65 5:1

CD-ROM 50 10 60 5:1INTT 25 5 30 5:1VIRT 18 2 20 9:1EMAIL 43 10 53 4:1EMENT 16 2 18 8:1VC 20 2 22 10:1VIDEO 30 4 34 8:1302The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of use of ICTs in previous training with sex: (a)INTS - Internet searches, (b) CD-ROM - CD-ROM, (c) EMAIL - email, (d) VIDEO - use of video, (e) INTT- Internet based training, (f) VIRT - virtual reality, (g) VC - video-conferencing and (h) EMENT -ementoring. An additional column presents the male: female ratio. Overall male to female ratio forrespondents was 4:1.It appears that there is some differentiation in the use of ICTs for training between the sexes.In general, ICT appears to be less well used by female members of the sample. In particular,Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –The effect of Manager’s sex58use of virtual reality, e-mentoring, video-conferencing and video by male managers, is muchhigher than use by female managers.Table 3 Methods for overcoming barriers to management trainingSex Total Male : FemaleRatioMale FemaleACC 75 20 95 4:1GRANTS 53 14 67 4:1INFO 45 15 60 3:1VAR 44 11 55 4:1TRADE 20 7 27 3:1304The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of methods for overcoming barriers tomanagement training with sex: (a) ACC - improved access, (b) GRANTS - grants to SMEs for training,(c) - INFO - information, (d) VAR - variety of methods, and (e) TRADE - greater involvement of tradeassociations. An additional column presents the male: female ratio. Overall male to female ratio forrespondents was 4:1.It can be seen from the table above that differences occur between male and femalemanagers regarding opinions on methods for overcoming barriers to management training.Whilst the broad picture is the same, female managers appear to rate better information as amore important method than provision of grants. The situation is reversed in the case of malemanagers.Table 4 When managers prefer to receive trainingSex Total Male: FemaleratioMale FemaleREQ 73 16 89 5:1EVE 37 10 47 4:1INS 21 3 24 7:1WEND 17 4 21 4:1DAY 6 2 8 3:1

189The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred timing of training with sex: a) REQ- at my request, (b) EVE - evening sessions, (c) INS - instant access, (d) WEND - weekend sessions,and (e) DAY - day sessions. An additional column presents the male: female ratio. Overall male tofemale ratio for respondents was 4:1.Again, the picture is broadly similar between male and female respondents. There are slightdifferences in the preferences, with female managers placing less importance on instantaccess than male managers. Also, the preference for training during the day is higher forfemale managers. This may be related to the social situation of female managers.Table 5 shows what may be an important difference between the training preferences ofmale and female managers. Female managers show a lower preference for receiving trainingby computer than male managers (as shown by the ratio of 11:1 compared with the overallmale:female ratio of approximately 4:1).Table 5 Where managers prefer to receive trainingHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –The effect of Manager’s sex59Sex Total Male: FemaleratioMale FemaleCOMP 59 18 77 3:1SPEC 60 13 73 5:1COMPU 33 3 36 10:1HOME 18 4 22 5:1SOC 7 1 8 7:1216The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred location of training with sex: (a)COMP - in the company, (b) SPEC - special location, (c) COMPU - on the computer, (d) HOME -trainingdelivered to the home, and (e) SOC - social location. An additional column presents the male: femaleratio. Overall male to female ratio for respondents was 4:1.Table 6 Who managers prefer to receive training fromSex Total Male : FemaleratioMale FemalePRIV 63 17 80 4:1LOCPUB 38 12 50 3:1UNI 37 10 47 4:1TRADE 40 7 47 4:1NET 33 11 44 3:1268The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred training providers with sex: (a)PRIV - private training providers, (b) LOCPUB - local public training providers, (c) UNI - universities,(d) TRADE - trade associations, and (e) NET - networks. An additional column presents the male:female ratio. Overall male to female ratio for respondents was 4:1.The table above illustrates that there are no large differences between male and female

managers. However, there is a slight preference for networking (as shown by the ratio of3:1) among female managers. Local public training providers also appear to be preferred.Table 7 Factors which would encourage managers to use ICT based trainingin the future.Sex Total Male : FemaleRatioMale FemaleQUALASS 64 12 76 5:1COST 47 11 58 4:1REC 45 11 56 4:1ACC 27 10 37 3:1QUAL 19 6 25 3:1LANG 21 2 23 10:1275The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of factors encouraging use of ICTs with sex:(a) QUALASS - quality assurance (b) COST - cheaper access, (c) REC -Recommendation from otherSMEs, (d) ACC - Accreditation, (e) QUAL - Quality websites (f) LANG -provision in my language. Anadditional column presents the male: female ratio. Overall male to female ratio for respondents was4:1.Table 7 illustrates the different suggestions made by male and female managers regardingimprovements which would influence them to use ICT based training. Although the ranking ofpreferences is the same between the sexes, female managers appear to place moreimportance on accreditation and quality of websites than their male counterparts. Provision inHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –The effect of Manager’s sex60the manager's native language also seems to be a greater factor for male managers thanfemale managers.Table 8 Priorities for management trainingSex Total Male : FemaleRatioMale FemaleHR 87 23 110 4:1MAR 80 12 92 4:1FIN 58 7 65 8:1ENT 57 7 64 8:1OM 29 2 31 10:1ICT 27 4 31 7:1ECOM 21 3 24 7:1PROD 18 1 19 18:1436The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of priorities for management training with sizeof company: (a) HR - human resources management, (b) MAR - marketing, (c) FIN - financialmanagement, (d) ENT - entrepreneurship, (e) OM - organisational management, (f) ICT - ICT (g) ECOM- eCommerce, and (h) PROD - production management. An additional column presents the male:female ratio. Overall male to female ratio for respondents was 4:1.From the table above, it appears that there are differences in priorities for management

training. This may in part be due to some differences in the management roles of the sexes(for example, there is only a single female technical manager included). However, it appearsthat certain areas of training for example organisational management, productionmanagement, entrepreneurship and financial management are lower priorities for femalemanagers than male managers.ConclusionsThe following conclusions can be drawn about the effect of sex, as revealed in the completedquestionnaires.66:_ In general, responses appear to be unaffected by sex of the respondent, but there aresome small differences_ Female managers currently appear to be less likely than male managers to wanttraining delivered by computer_ Female managers also appear less likely to take part in specialist use of ICTs_ Male managers are more likely to have used ICTs such as virtual reality and videoconferencingin training_ Networks appear to be more preferred by female managers than male managers,although private training providers are seen as the preferrec training provider by bothsexes_ Female managers also appear to place more importance on accreditation and qualitywebsites than male managers. Male managers place more importance on provisionin their own language._ There appears to be less demand for training in the areas of production management,organisational management, entrepreneurship and financial managementamongst female managers66 It should be noted that sample size of female managers is low, which may have an effect on theseresultsHeads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –Learning Styles615.7 Learning Styles of SME ManagersIn addition to the main questionnaire a learning styles questionnaire was also deliveredduring the interviews with SME managers in four countries, Finland, France, Greece and theUK (see Appendix 1 and Appendix 3). The questionnaires investigated four different types oflearners67:_ Activists - people who learn by trying things out_ Reflectors - people who learn by observing, collecting data andanalysing it_ Theorists - people who think logically, and follow logical rules.

_ Pragmatists - - people who learn by experimentation.The dominant preferred learning style for the managers was “Activist” (30managers), followed by “Pragmatist” (17 managers). This was the case for Finland,France and Greece. However, managers in the UK showed a stronger preference for“Pragmatist”.The strong preference for activist and pragmatist behaviour within the sample, wouldinfluence the type of learning which is likely to be most effective.According to Honey and Mumford68, Activists are most likely to learn from the following typeof activity:_ New experiences/problems/opportunities from which to learn_ Here and now activities, for example business games, competitive teamwork tasks androle-playing activities_ Exciting tasks with a range of activities to tackle_ Activities in which they are thrown in at the deep end_ Problem solving as a team_ Tasks involving practical participationPragmatists learn best from the following:_ Situations where clear links between subject matter and a "real" problem can be made_ Activities with obvious practice advantages, for example which save time_ Tasks involving practising techniques with feedback from an expert_ Models which can be emulated, for example a demonstration from someone with aproven track record_ Techniques which are directly applicable to their own job_ Learning which incorporates immediate opportunities to implement what they have learnt_ Tasks where they can concentrate on practical issuesThese findings link with the findings of the trainers survey and SME survey in this reportwhich highlight preferences for human interaction, practical problem-solving approaches,feedback, coaching and mentoring, and group work. The results of the learning styles surveystrengthen the idea that best practice in training for SME managers will require a variety oftechniques and that ICTBT would need to be supported by other face-to-face activities.67 Based on the work of Honey, P. and Mumford, M. "The Manual of Learning Styles" (1986)68 ibid.Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities -Requirements625.8 Requirements of Heads of SMEsThe survey of heads of SMEs has identified the following requirements:_ Demand from Heads of SMEsHeads of SMEs are different from employees. They exhibit activist and pragmatistlearning styles, prefer learning by doing and favour problem-centred approaches thatoffer flexibility.

_ Preferences of Heads of SMEsManagers prefer short courses, with an even split between delivery in and out ofcompany.Private sector providers are favoured, with approximately a quarter of heads would liketraining delivered by computer.Size of company is a factor in preferences._ Use of ICBT by Heads of SMEsAbout a quarter of managers have used ICTBT, with most common forms being CDROM,email and Internet search.They like the potential for immediacy, up-to-date material and learning at own paceoffered by ICTBT.Managers find problems with ICTBT regarding lack of human support, poor presentationand unreliability of technology.Heads of SMEs see a need to develop quality assurance and reduce the cost of access.Recommendation from other SMEs is a factor in use of ICTBT._ Take up of Management TrainingConstraints to take up of training include: time and place, cost and quality.Suggested mechanisms for overcoming constraints include: better access and flexibility,grants and information on the nature and quality of training.Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU636. ANALYSIS OF BEST PRACTICE IN THE EUROPEAN UNION6.1 Interviews with Training Providers16 training providers were interviewed face-to-face in their native language. Ofthese, 7 were universities, 5 were private sector companies and 4 were public ornon-profit organisations. The training providers are listed below:Universidade Catolica, PortugalUniversidade Nova de Lisboa, N0VA-FORUM Institute for Executive Training, PortugalUniversity of Durham Foundation for SME Development, UKBolton Business School Centre for Enterprise and Management, UKBusiness Focus & Associates, UKFinnVera and Ministry of Trade and Industry, FinlandPella, FinlandTampere Technology Centre, FinlandHellenic Management Association, GreeceUniversity of Macedonia, GreeceISTUD (Istituto Studi Direzionali), ItalyPoliedra Progetti Integrati, ItalyEmedi@, FranceCNAM, FranceWHU Koblenz, GermanySchickler Personalentwicklung und Training GmbH, GermanySummaries of the interviews are presented in Appendix 2.6.2 Evidence of Size Differentiation

Only 4 of the 16 providers did not have provision designed specifically for SMEs.These were all universities. However the provision selected from these organisationsfor good practice was well attended by heads of SMEs.6 training providers were providing training specifically for micro firms. 3 of theseproviders were in Finland, 1 was in France, 1 in Germany and 1 in the UK. Most ofthese providers were private sector companies offering a combination of consultancyand training. In two cases this was receiving public support. In Finland this wasfrom the Ministry of Trade and Industry with a nationwide programme calledTraining for Growth-orientated SMEs. In the UK the support was being subsidised byBusiness Link, which is a national network providing training and business services toSMEs.Tampere Technology Centre was the only University offering training specifically forMicro firms.Only one provider had a definite division between provision for small firms andprovision for medium firms, with different programme for each. This was theUniversity of Durham Foundation for SME Development.6.3 What training programmes are being offered?The training programmes fall into three main categories:_ Short coursesHeads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU64_ 1 day seminars_ Masters degree programmesThe main themes covered by these programmes are:_ General management_ Information management_ Change management_ E-commerce_ Finance_ Marketing_ Business strategy_ ICT based decision support_ TQM_ Entrepreneurship10 of the providers said that their training included entrepreneurship. The programme atFinn Vera specifically covered entrepreneurship. The University of Durham has an MA inEntrepreneurship but this is not specifically for SMEs.The MBA and Executive MBA seem to be more popular with Greek SMEs than SMEs

in the other countries. Bolton Business School was the only provider, which haddesigned an MBA specifically for small business.10 of the providers were providing self-diagnosis skills for SME managers.Generally the provision was not targeting women specifically, with the exception ofone provider, ISTUD, which has a web-site for women, www.mentoreimpresa.it6.4 Evidence of Quality and Involvement of SMEsThere were a number of areas where quality was demonstrated. These can be summarisedas follows:_ On-going research_ Specific market surveys_ Evaluation of programmes_ Piloting of programmes_ Database on profiles of participants including company size_ Generation of SME case study portfolio_ Sectoral differentiation of materials_ Pre-course assessment of training needs_ Meetings with SME focus groups to discuss design and needs_ Trainers with experience in SMEs_ Use of data from participant companies in training_ Involvement of training provider in a large network_ Building close relationships with SMEs_ Having a known reputation for quality_ Involvement in entrepreneur networks or clubs_ Being an organisation with a large number of members_ Provision of tailor-made training where SMEs assist in the design of their owntrainingHeads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU65Evaluation of training provision is being carried out in a number of ways. Thisincludes: annual evaluation of programmes; on-going discussions with managers;post course questionnaires; follow up appraisals with firms.6.5 What networks do the training providers belong to?Most training providers belonged to networks or had a range of contacts. Theuniversity providers had the most extensive networks and had connections with anumber of other business schools and organisations some of which wereinternational. Included among these are:_ European Foundation for Management Development_ The European Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development Committee_ International Association of Science Parks_ Finnish Science Park Association_ Association of Business Schools, MBA Networks_ Partnerships with various other business schools

Some universities had contacts with business networks, for example, ‘Association ofIndustries in Northern Greece’, trade associations such as Federlombardia,Confindustria Marche, Confidustria Sardegna (Italy), Business Links (UK).Some universities had partnership with large industry for development and financingof management programmes (Bolton Business School, Universade CatolicaPortuguesa).Non-university training providers tended to have networks that were more related toSMEs. These were often not formalised. Networks included:_ Local networks for ICT training_ Bund Deutscher Verkaufsförderer und Trainer (German Association of Sales Promotersand Trainers)_ Network of CNAM training centres_ Chartered Institute Marketing_ European Marketing Confederation_ Chambers of Commerce_ Northern Association of Management ConsultantsOnly one of the providers mentioned a women’s network, MOSAIC (Women’sinstitute of managers). Generally there seemed to be a weakness in links toorganisations promoting opportunities for women. There would also seem to be alack of training specifically for women entrepreneurs. There is provision for start-uptraining but very little for women's businesses in the growth phase.An analysis of projects funded by the NOW programme reveals a high proportion ofprojects supporting women entrepreneurs in the start-up phase. A good example ofsuch provision is ‘Frauen Am Markt.’ This consists of four networked projectsproviding information, counselling, training and on-going support to womenentrepreneurs, with particular emphasis on the creation or adaptation of businessincubators tailored to the needs of female entrepreneurs. Other projects such as‘Step Up NOW’69 cater for women in management positions, but without emphasis on69 A German project aiming to help highly qualified women step up into higher management positions.Participating firms include Volkswagen.Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU66SMEs. However, the NOW programme has not catered sufficiently for the growthphase of SMEs run by women.Whilst there is still a concentration on the start-up phase, such as evidenced by the‘Women’s Enterprise Development’ project,70 which is setting up a mentoring

network to encourage women to start businesses, other projects focus on the growthphase. One example is the ‘Cross-border training: ‘Euroadvisers and womenentrepreneurs,’ project.71 This is establishing a network of Euroadvisers to providewomen running small businesses with training and information on all aspects ofbusiness management. Whilst these pilot projects are moving in the right direction,their influence is still very limited.This lack of provision for female SME managers is supported by the Fourth AnnualReport of the European Observatory for SMEs, which finds women make less use ofinformation and advisory services. This is partly due to their lack of knowledgeabout relevant services, and partly because of “inadequate or non-existingprovision.”72 There is a need for provision catering for the growth phase of SMEs runby women, as well as for awareness raising of training opportunities amongst them.6.6 Evidence of Best Practice in Delivery – Traditional TechniquesIt would appear that training for heads of SMEs needs to include a lot of interactive activities,which means a variety of mechanisms are used for delivery. The following are examples ofwhat the providers are using._ Group work on cases to solve problems and presentation of solutions to otherparticipants._ Use of special guest lecturers from industry_ Use of 22 known problems of survival_ Coaching_ Action learning sets_ Group games and workshops_ Mentoring_ On-site consultancy_ Self-help discussions_ Use of SME case studies as examples to solve problems_ LecturesTiming is flexible and includes 1 day per month, 1 week per month, weekends, short3-day courses and evenings. There are cultural differences in this area. Portuguesetraining providers felt that weekend work was not as effective because managers aretired and have family commitments.It was generally considered useful for managers to be out of the work place for partof the training so that they can focus completely on the training. In the workplace

the manager has little time to reflect. Mentoring is a process, which helps themanager to reflect and stand back from the immediate short-term problems of thefirm.70 http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/dg23/craft/craft-women/craft-women.html71 Ibid.72 http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/dg23/craft/craft-women/craft-obswomen.htmlHeads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU67All providers are offering a variety of techniques. Group work and problem solvingare important. It would seem that some one-to-one individual attention is alsoimportant.6.7 Evidence of Best Practice in Delivery – ICT TechniquesAll providers, except one, were making use of ICT for delivery of training. The providerswere asked a number of questions about their use of ICT. This included:_ How ICT is being used_ What advantages ICT offers for training SME managers_ What problems have been faced in using ICT for training_ What would make it easier to use ICT for training6.7.1 How is ICT being used?Provider Use of ICT for TrainingNOVA-FORUM Currently developing an electronic framework for teaching management,including a number of software products.Have a management simulation game to assist decision making whichsimulates market circumstances.Plans for distance operation, where each lecturer has his or her own websitethrough which training will be delivered.UniversidadeCatolicaICT is used to support training. Distance delivery is not used.Course participants make use of multimedia training rooms. They aregiven the option of creating a personal web-site. The Internet and mobilephones are used during e-business training sessions. SME case studydata is also presented on the computer and participants learn how IT canbe a support tool for decision-making. On-line advice is given via email.Bolton BusinessSchoolICT is used as a support tool for management training. There are plansfor future delivery of a virtual MBA for SMEs.ICT is used for distance learning via CD-ROMs developed with ADAPTfunding. A CDROM called “Your future Business with E-commerce” isavailable on-line at www.pegasus.org.ukA virtual centre is currently being set up (www.virtual-centre.org.uk) toprovide Internet access to a wide range management training material.(See Appendix 2.2)University ofDurham,Foundations forSMEDevelopmentICT is mainly being used as a support tool, rather than for direct delivery.

‘Biz-Kit’ is delivered completely on-line but the focus of this is ICT trainingrather than management training. CD-ROMs are used during workshops.The MA in Entrepreneurship is supported by a virtual learning centre.This includes information, on-line support and chat rooms but is notdedicated only to SMEs.Business Focus &AssociatesOn-line advice via email is given. CD-ROMs are used to supporttraditional training.Finn Vera ICT is not used as part of training delivery.Pella CD-ROMs are used for information to support the training.TampereTechnologyCentreA wide variety of ICT is used to support management training. Thisincludes CDROM, virtual reality simulations and on-line advice via email.HellenicManagementCentreOn-line advice is given via email. Internet is used for gaining information.CD-ROMs are also used to support training.University ofMacedoniaOn-line advice is given via email. Internet is used for information. Videoconferencingis used to carry out seminars at a distance.Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU68Provider Use of ICT for TrainingISTUD On-line advice via e-mail is given. The web site has interactive aspectswhere managers are able to talk and share information with othermanagers. (www.sviluppoimpresa.com) There is also a site dedicated towomen (www.mentoreimpresa.it) ISTUD are currently carrying outresearch on the use of simulation and virtual reality.POLIEDRA A CDROM is being used to assist self-diagnosis for SME managers. Onlineadvice is given by email. There are some interactive aspects on theweb-site www.poliedra.itWHU Koblenz ICT is not used as part of training delivery to SMEs. However theuniversity is making use of e-learning for students through LearnLoopwhich is a Groupware facility. (www.whu-Koblenz.de/eindex.htm)Emedi@ Emedia’s activities are tailor-made to the needs of the firm. An intranetcan be set up in the firm to be used as a tool for decision-making. Onlineinteractive training is used. Video-conferencing and web-cams areused for interaction between group members. A virtual reality firm isused for training in quality management.CNAM Training is mainly delivered by ICT. This includes use of on-line advice viaemail, an interactive web-site and discussion forum. The chat room isused for on-line and real-time discussion by the virtual group. Thediscussion forum is managed by the trainer who provides a subject or aquestion the group members should answer. Training is delivered at theparticipant’s computer or at a local learning centre.6.7.2 What advantages does ICT offer for training SME managers?The bullet points below show the open responses from the trainers in our study:_ Time saving_ Easier to give individual advice_ Easier access to course material

_ Learning at a distance_ The participant is able to organise him/her self to suit his/her needs_ ICT offers a good way of getting information_ On-line advice means day-to-day support can be given_ Trainees become more familiar with the technologies that are now important fore-commerce_ Managers are able to select specific modules_ Personalising of training_ Increase learning through the possibility of learning at any time_ The ability to repeat a session, thus enabling easier assimilation of knowledge_ Breaks down barriers to learningWe can compare this information with the responses of SME managers from thePhase 1 survey (see Section 5.3 Fig.10a). The main advantages expressed by themanagers are immediacy and up-to-date information. ‘Immediacy’ generally impliesthe flexibility to access learning when and where they want it, and to find what theywant quickly. The SME managers felt that Internet searches, email contact and ementoringoffered the greatest potential for providing up-to-date information. Use ofvirtual reality and video-conferencing were felt to give good user-interactivity and tolead to good retention of knowledge. However these had been used by less than20% of the sample, a small number of managers. The best feature of CD-ROMs wasthough to be the ability to proceed at one’s own pace.Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU69There are many potential advantages associated with ICTBT, which are mainlypedagogical in nature. A number of other studies have been consulted to comparethese advantages.Pedagogical Advantages of ICTBT_ Access: Learning materials and resources can be accessed at all times and fromremote locations, for example through the Internet or CD-ROM based training.There is no tie to a geographical location or a specific time as is inherent intraditional face-to-face courses. Research on online courses in educationsupports this statement; students identified convenience of access as one of thelearning benefits provided by ICTBT.73 This is potentially of great benefit to SMEmanagers. Data collected under Phase 1 of this study reveals SME managers

rate training in the workplace and at a time of their own choosing highly.Furthermore, the TeleMan Report categorises flexibility in time and place, (asprovided by ICTBT), as an element of optimal course combination.74_ Individual Tempo: Whilst learning within a traditional face-to-faceenvironment, students are required to fit in with the teacher’s schedule and classprogress. ICTBT adds flexibility. Students may choose to review learningmaterials on several occasions; ICTBT makes repeat usage possible75 and thusfacilitates self-paced learning.76 For example, if students fail to keep pace with aparticular face-to-face class, it is difficult for them to reattend; if they are viewingan online lecture they may re-run it as necessary. This individual tempo allowsmulti-level entry onto a programme, such as that taking place on the TelematicsLearning Project undertaken by Suffolk College.77_ Variety: Multimedia can be used with modern software (video, animations,pictures, diagrams, text, sound) to ensure variety in presentation of learningmaterials. Traditional face-to-face teaching usually uses the ‘chalk and talk’method, which can become repetitive. ICTBT, however, offers the possibility ofaugmenting learning material. For example, at the University of Teeside, lecturesare recorded and added to by digital audio narratives, pop-up notes and lecturetranscripts.78_ Interactivity: ICTBT can be interactive and maximise learner control.79 Forexample, CD-ROM based training may include exercises and allow the learner to‘jump’ to relevant options through menus.80 This encourages retention ofstudent interest; they feel they are participating in the learning process rather73 S.English and M.Yazdani, ‘Computer Supported Co-operative Learning in a Virtual University,’ in the Journal ofComputer Assisted Learning (1999) 15, 2-13, P5.74 Tele-Teaching and Training for Management of SMEs – Studies, TeleMan Consortium, September 1998, P56.75 Mudge, Stephen M, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the Internet,’ in Innovation and EducationalTechnologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp11-1676 Engineering College of the University of Idaho: Distance Education at a Glance, October 1995.77 Funnell, Peter: ‘Views From the Screen-Face: Issues Emerging From an Exploration of the Value of Telematics-Supported Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.3, P177-184. On thisproject, students with differing educational backgrounds entered the telematics-supported ‘Introduction to LocalHistory’ course.78 Barker, Philip, Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning, in Innovation and Educational TechnologiesInternational 1999, Vol 36.1 pp3-9.79 Engineering College of the University of Idaho: Distance Education at a Glance, October 1995.80 For example see: CD-ROM entitled “Management: TC 2001, Achieving Business Growth in the Textile and Clothing

Industry through Training and Development.”Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU70than passively receiving information.81 This is supported by the fact thatstudents have cited increased interaction, quantity and intensity as an advantageof online education.82 The TRANSMETE Project Evaluation Report emphasisesthe importance of “learning by doing” and recommends including moreexercises.83_ Teacher Contact: ICT provides excellent facilities for student-teacher contact. Studentsand tutors can stay in constant contact via telephone, email, fax, chat rooms, video andaudio conferencing. For example, the Internet based learning environment developedby the Metä Institute Silva allows students (at the workplace) and senior co-ordinators (atthe training institution) to communicate through online learning diaries and email.84_ Instant Response: ICTBT makes instant response and/or feedback possible.This can take place through synchronous technology (for example videoconferencing).85 Synchronous study is used at the University of Teeside; anacademic helpline is available at a fixed time, when students can email staff andparticipate in electronic discussions with them, gaining instant responses.86Instant response also occurs through exercises, which students attempt andsubmit interactively via courseware, generating an automatic instant response.87_ Relevance: It is easy to update and correct ICTBT material. Material is simplyedited electronically and then made available on the Internet. This is moredifficult with traditional printed learning materials, which are less flexible andimply expensive reprinting costs. Updating of training materials is important, ashighlighted in the TRANSMETE Evaluation Report88 and by the American Societyfor Training and Development.89 Using techniques such as LearnLoop (describedin section 4) trainees may also add their own examples to course materials.6.7.3 What are the Problems in using ICT for Training?The bullet points below are taken from the interviews with training providers in ourstudy._ Confidentiality_ Equipment too slow, network connections too slow_ The telecommunications infrastructure is not suitable (France, Greece)_ No time to learn how to use the ICT, therefore it must be simple_ Equipment failure_ Preparation of material is time consuming and expensive_ The trainer has to have a high level of IT skills_ Managers lack the skills to fully utilise an ICT based training system

_ Need training for trainers81 Mudge, Stephen M, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the Internet,’ in Innovation and EducationalTechnologies International 1999, Vol 36.1 PP11-16.82 S.English and M.Yazdani, ‘Computer Supported Co-operative Learning in a Virtual University,’ in the Journal ofComputer Assisted Learning (1999) 15, 2-13, P5.83 www.eurocom.gr/EurPrj/transmete/docs/public/d83.htm84 Experiences in Using Internet Based Learning Environment in Paper Industry. ICEE 2000 Conference, August 14-16, 2000, Grand Hotel, Taipei, August 17-18, 2000, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan.85 Tele-Teaching and Training for Management of SMEs – Studies, TeleMan Consortium, September 1998.86 Barker, Philip, Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning, in Innovation and Educational TechnologiesInternational 1999 Vol 36.1 pp3-9.87 Marshall, David, ‘Developing Interactive Courseware on the World Wide Web,’ in Innovation and EducationalTechnologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp34-43.88 www.eurocom.gr/EurPrj/transmete/docs/public/d83.htm89 Cornelia C. Weggen, American Society for Training and Development.www.learningcircuits.org/sep2000/weggen.html.Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU71_ It is important that the ICT component does not become more important thanthe management content_ Lack of human interaction_ Often SMEs do not trust computerised learning because programmes are toostandardised and therefore too far from their problems_ SMEs prefer oral explanations rather than written on-line communication_ SME managers need to be out of the company to get the time and peace to learn_ Participants have a wide range of requirements_ Universities do not have adequate resources to develop appropriate services andinternal take-up of new technology is slow (UK response only)_ There is a lack of motivation in SMEs to use ICT_ Lack of motivation from the participant due to less obligationThe interviews with SME managers in our study (see Section 5.3 Figs. 9 and 10b)show that the bad aspects of ICTBT are considered to be the lack of human support,poor presentation of information and problems with reliability of technology.Technology concerns are particularly the case with video-conferencing.A number of studies have been consulted to compare the results of our study withother identified disadvantages. Whilst some of these fall into the pedagogicalcategory, technical and commercial difficulties must also be taken into consideration.Pedagogical Disadvantages_ Rigidity/Navigation: Most CAL modules require students to access information

in a structured manner, which may not be the best route for them,90 who need tocover topics in more or less depth as appropriate. Equally, web-based coursesmay be too open; Laurillard points out that there may be too many distractionsand too little guidance,91 which may result in time wasting._ Lack of human interaction: Traditional face-to-face teaching involves a highdegree of contact with tutors and other students. ICTBT implies less of suchcontact. Research conducted by YOUANDI Communication Network GmbHsupports this, finding Computer Based Training using self-study modules isunsuccessful and students prefer interaction with other students and tutors.92Technical Disadvantages_ Prior Knowledge/Infrastructure: ICTBT courses often assume a priorknowledge of ICT tools (for example email and Internet usage)93 as well asassuming necessary infrastructure is in place. However, as already seen, SMEmanagers often have little ICT knowledge outside of what they require toperform their daily tasks and European SMEs do not possess the most up-to-datehardware. Funnell provides one example of lack of ICT knowledge hindering90 Mudge, Stephen M, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the Internet,’ in Innovation and EducationalTechnologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp11-16.91 Laurillard, D (1993) Rethinking University Teaching, Routledge, London.92 YOUANDI Communication Network GmbH: Trends in the development of competence in the field of IT in SMEs –Territorial Approach, January 2000.93 Mudge, Stephen M, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the Internet,’ in Innovation and EducationalTechnologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp11-16.Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU72training.94 His study highlights the difficulty of those with little ICT experienceengaging in telematics-supported learning, even after an ICT induction session._ Delivery Speed: Philip Barker95 highlights the restrictions placed on the use of soundand motion video. He points out that both mediums imply large file sizes and hencesignificant bandwidth to transmit them. The difference between intranets and theInternet is important here; Barker states sound files can be moved over a fast intranetlink fairly easily, whereas transmitting them over the Internet can involve anunacceptable wait._ Security: Internet usage involves a security risk to published materials as wellas raising the possibility of viral attack.96 This may cause significant problems forusers by hindering access. SMEs may also have concerns about using softwarewhich makes use of their own data, due to confidentiality.Commercial Disadvantages_ Cost: Creating and updating teaching materials entails a significant workload.

Creating and presenting information involves the investment of time and acombination of skills (authoring via computer and graphic design),97 which arenot yet freely available. A recent study98 reveals preparation and productioncosts of multimedia are significantly higher than for face-to-face teaching.Multimedia implies 50-100 units compared with 1 unit for an hour of face-to-faceteaching, and the more hypermedia used, the higher the cost of the learningmaterials.99 This high cost means while it may be cost-effective to develop ECDmaterials for courses likely to have a large uptake, it may not be economical forthose with only a minority interest. 100 This has a direct implication for SMEs, astheir training needs are often very specific.6.7.4 What would make it easier to deliver ICT based training?The graph overleaf shows what the training providers think would make it easier todeliver ICT based training. It would appear that training providers are concernedabout the lack of information about ICT based training. There are also concernsabout firms possessing appropriate equipment and fast enough computers.This corresponds with the results of the SME survey (Section 5.3 Figure 11). Thisshows that the main reasons for SME managers not using ICT for training are lack ofknowledge (56 managers) and lack of quality assurance (14 managers). Whenmanagers were asked what would encourage them to use ICTBT in the future(Figure 12), the biggest factors were quality assurance, cheaper access andrecommendations from other SMEs.94 Funnell, Peter: ‘Views From the Screen-Face: Issues Emerging From an Exploration of the Value of Telematics-Supported Learning, in Innovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.3, P177-184.95 Barker, Philip: ‘Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational TechnologiesInternational 1999, Vol 36.1 pp3-9.96 Mudge, Stephen M, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the Internet,’ in Innovation and EducationalTechnologies International 1999, Vol 36.1 pp11-16.97 Ibid.98 European Commission, IRDAC report: Quality and Relevance, March 1994.99 Barker, Philip: ‘Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational TechnologiesInternational 1999, Vol 36.1 pp3-9.100 Ibid.Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU73What would make it easier to deliver ICT based training?02468101214Information onavailabilityICT a t firm s'premises

Quality standards Own ICTinfrastructu reFinancial support ICT in theCommunityProviders

How might the disadvantages associated with ICTBT be overcome?In addition to the training providers interviewed in our study, a search has beenundertaken specifically for providers using ICTBT to give examples of how some ofthe difficulties might be overcome. In addition to the 82 providers identified fromdatabases, bodies were identified through regional networks. Information wasgathered from publications and reports of providers, their websites, and in telephoneand face to face interviews. 101Overcoming Pedagogical Disadvantages_ Rigidity/Navigation: To overcome the problem of rigidity, students must be givencontrol over the way they learn. One way of doing this is to provide suitable menus andloops (hypermedia or hypertext links) so they can jump to the item they want,102 such asprovided by the Management training CD-ROM produced under the MASTRI ADAPTproject. To minimise navigational problems, easy to use web pages should be provided.103 The learning materials developed by Cardiff University guide the learner by providinga consistent set of navigation tools providing hints on where to go next.104 Fromexperience in evaluating distance learning materials105 it would seem that an index andnavigational map are needed to assist learners to use the material. From a trainer’sperspective, the ability of Intranet and Internet servers to accept data entered bystudents and post this to relevant online databases is important. Such facilities can beused to create monitoring programmes to analyse student progress. 106101 The sources for such information were identified through background research (Appendix 5.1 Phase 1a) andthrough consultation of databases of training providers (Appendix 5.2). The search was for best practice, andfollowed leads to such providers.102 Mudge, Stephen M, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the Internet,’ in Innovation and EducationalTechnologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp11-16.103 Marshall, David, Cardiff University, ‘Developing Interactive Courseware on the World Wide Web,’ in Innovationand Educational Technologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp 34-43.104 This courseware allows for different paths, for example finding additional reading material, or looking for furtherassistance. Marshall, AD and Hurley, S, (1997) Courseware development for parallel computing and C programming,in Proceedings of ED-MEDIA ’97 – World Conference on Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, Calgary, Canada,AACE, Virginia, USA 689-97.105 Business Support Micromodules for High Technology SMEs, ADAPT I and II, 1995-2000, NJM Ltd.106 Barker, Philip: ‘Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational TechnologiesInternational 1999, Vol 36.1 pp3-9.Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU74

_ Lack of human interaction: Several methods may be used to overcome this. One is toprovide feedback through the courseware itself. For example, courseware developed bythe University of Cardiff provides feedback including automated assessment ofexercises.107 Furthermore, it is possible to incorporate email and even voice links fromWWW pages to facilitate two-way exchanges between students and tutors.108 As outlinedabove, the HCI Course at the University of Teeside uses a combination of synchronousand asynchronous study to ease this problem.109 Combining distance learning withtraditional face-to-face teaching is also a good option.Overcoming Technical Disadvantages_ Prior Knowledge/Infrastructure: Course participants should have an inductionsession to help them develop the necessary ICT capability, such as provided at SuffolkCollege.110 The HCI course at the University of Teeside also provides technical help inboth synchronous and asynchronous modes, alleviating technical problems.111 However,providing technical help on a university campus is a different matter to catering fordispersed SMEs, emphasising the need for local technical support. Regardinginfrastructure, awareness raising should encourage SMEs to invest in ICT._ Delivery Speed: Whilst delivery speed over the Internet is a problem,technological developments such as ADSL and cable modems are expected topermit faster data transmission rates.112 Other developments include fractalencoding which allows compression of video data,113 speeding up transmission.Whilst the use of Intranets for training SMEs is limited, networks covering widergeographical areas (such as WAN/LAN) may be a possibility and would allowfaster data exchange than via Internet. Furthermore CD-ROM based trainingreduces time spent waiting for data._ Security: Technology is available to reduce security risks. Web sites can beprotected by the use of firewalls. 114 Reducing access to the website throughunique logon scripts and passwords will help to minimise security risks. 115Overcoming Commercial Disadvantages_ Cost:116 Good online training materials are expensive to develop and are likely toremain so for the foreseeable future. However, there are some potential savings.Evidence shows once ICTBT has been developed and the initial outlay has beenrecouped, costs for the training provider fall, which will benefit the trainees. ForSMEs, ICTBT is particularly relevant if they have the necessary infrastructure. Itwill dispense with the need to release staff for training, always an issue for small107 Marshall, David, ‘Developing Interactive Courseware on the World Wide Web,’ in Innovation and EducationalTechnologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp34-43.

108 Mudge, Stephen M, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the Internet,’ in Innovation and EducationalTechnologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp11-16.109 Barker, Philip ‘Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational TechnologiesInternational 1999, Vol 36.1 pp3-9.110 Funnell, Peter: ‘Views from the Screen-Face: Issues Emerging From an Exploration of the Value of TelematicssupportedLearning,’ in Innovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.3, pp176-184. However,one student (with little prior ICT experience) criticised the session as too short.111 Barker, Philip: ‘Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational TechnologiesInternational 1999, Vol 36.1 pp3-9.112 ‘Ferreira, Martins, MacKinnon, Lachlan, Desmulliez, Marc and Foulk, Patrick. A multimedia telematics network foron-the-job training, tutoring and assessment.113 Mudge, Stephen M, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the Internet,’ in Innovation and EducationalTechnologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp11-16114 Ibid.115 Ibid.116 Hunt, Malcolm and Clarke, Alan, A Guide to the Cost Effectiveness of Technology Based Training, January 1997.Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU75firms. ICTBT would also reduce travel costs for the company. Internet access isbecoming cheaper, which will ease SME access to ICTBT. ICTBT has varying costeffectiveness, and the financial aspect must be carefully considered before firmsinvest in training.6.8 Identifying Best Practice: Focus Group ResultsA set of recommendations was produced after considering SME preferences, theinterviews with training providers, information from background research andEuropean policy (see Appendix 1.6). These were tested on focus groups, whichcombined trainers, business support services and SMEs. Listed below are therecommendations that were highly rated in at least four out of the seven countriestaking part in this study.To make training more specific to the business needs of SMEs1. Specific training for firms employing less than 10 employees2. Training needs to respond to the life-cycle position of the firm3. Training needs to be sector specific4. Practical examples using case studies from other SMEs5. Initial visit by training provider to SME to assess needs and problems6. Training should be delivered by trainers who have some experience in SMEsTo respond to the manager’s learning priorities7. Coaching, mentoring and one-to-one support to deal with individual problems8. Training that is open to requests for seminars from course participants9. Training should include the generation of business clubs for participants toencourage networking

10. The need for flexibility in timingTo ensure provision of information on content and quality11. Training providers to provide more information about content of training forSMEs12. Training providers should show rating of training by previous SMEparticipants.13. Training should include evaluation feedback from SMEs themselves.To enable SMEs to afford training14. Subsidies or grants to undertake trainingTo promote ICT15. ICT should be used as a support tool for training16. Set up an e-Learning Centre to raise awareness of use of ICT trainingtechniques and assess quality17. Training that is delivered in bite-sized pieces to facilitate a building blockeffect with clear outcomes18. Concerning training content: Information Management, E-commerce, ICT forManagement Decision Making and Entrepreneurship were rated highly19. Interest in the UK, Greece and Finland for a Virtual MBA for Small Business20. ICT should include on-line advice from tutors and virtual learning centres.Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU76Although on-line tutor support was favoured, generally the concept of a virtuallearning centre was only popular in Italy, Greece and the UK. Managementsimulation games were generally not popular. Again, with respect to ICT, theresponse favours the more known and accepted methods such as on-line tutorsupport.What is the Role of an On-line Tutor?There is evidence117 that authors of ICTBT are lacking specific skills because issuessuch as ‘how people learn’ and how to train on-line have not been fully addressed.There is too much focus on the technology and not on the quality of the learningexperience.The role of an on-line tutor is identified as follows118:_ Administrator- registration- student groups- group events- recording progress_ Subject expert- FAQs, on-line support, on-line group sessions- Referring people to resources_ Coach- falling behind

- encouraging learners and recognising success- counselling learners- initiating activities_ Assessor- Is the person doing the training who they say they are?- judging assignments- observing actions of learnerThe skills needed for on-line tutoring are different from the skills of a classroom tutor.The support needed is more intensive and the cost for training institutions to getquality on-line tutors may be high.Although many of the providers are using on-line tutor support the actual timeswhen this support was available was not investigated. If provision is only availableduring working day hours, then it is not meeting the needs of SMEs for flexiblesupport. One provider had addressed this issue but said that the problem of on-linetutor support out of normal working hours had not been solved. A problem fortraining providers is the difficulty in monitoring working hours for on-line tutors.117 see, for example, Adults Learning, November 1999, report on research led by Dr JanSeabrook for DfEE, UK118 IT Training Conference, July 2000, BirminghamHeads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU776.9 Conclusions Best Practice from the European UnionDesignThere is evidence in quality and relevance to SMEs in design of training. Many of theprogrammes selected are designed specifically for SMEs. Particular examples of best practiceinclude: regular meetings with SME focus groups to discuss needs and training programmes;building close relationships with SMEs such as Tampere Technology Centre; providing tailormadetraining for groups of firms; provision of sector specific material; differentiation inprovision between small and medium firms. There may also be a need for more provision formicro firms and for provision, which takes into account the life-cycle position of the firm.Programmes should include an initial visit by the training provider to assess needs andproblems.There is evidence of effective evaluation procedures among providers, leading to annualcourse revision. In one case this included follow-up appraisals with SMEs.ContentIn addition to traditional management areas, a number of new themes are emergingin management training for SMEs. These include ICT-based decision support, ecommerce,change management, entrepreneurship and self-diagnosis skills.

DeliveryThere is a focus on flexible delivery in timing and a variety of delivery mechanisms,which include groupwork, coaching/ mentoring and problem solving, often with theuse of SME case studies as examples. The focus groups suggest that delivery shouldfacilitate networking and that trainers need to have experience in SMEs. The trainingproviders show a preference for short courses delivered by traditional techniques.The focus groups show that training is favoured in bite-sized pieces to facilitate abuilding block effect.ICT is mainly being used as a support tool. The main technique for this is theprovision of on-line advice via email and use of CD-ROMs. Internet searches are alsoused during the process of training. This corresponds with the techniques, whichhave been used most frequently by managers in our survey (see section 5.3, figure8).Some providers were making more extensive use of ICTBT. Nova Forum, TampereTechnology Centre and Emedia are using management simulation games. BoltonBusiness School and ISTUD are investigating the use of virtual reality.PublicityPublicity may need to provide more information on how the content is relevant to SMEs andshow recommendations from SMEs.Advantages of ICTBT‘Better access and flexibility’ is recommended in our SMEs survey as a way ofovercoming the barriers to training (see section 5.4 figure 19). ICTBT can offer theadvantage of flexible access at a distance at a time to suit the learner. Anotheradvantage is that the learner can proceed at their own pace and repeat sessionswhere necessary, thus enabling better assimilation of knowledge. ICTBT canenhance the learning experience by offering variety. ICTBT can be interactivewhich maximises learner control and encourages active learning. Where a trainee isable to select what they want, interactivity also allows for personalisation ofHeads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU78training. ICTBT can provide enhanced tutor contact with more individual support

and instant response techniques. Finally, materials are easier to update thantextbooks, offering more up-to-date relevant information.Problems Associated with ICTBTThere are a number of problems with ICTBT which need to be overcome if it is tobecome a useful tool for training SME managers. There is an overall problem of lackof awareness of ICTBT. Presentation can be a difficulty, making navigation ofmaterials awkward and obscuring learner objectives. There is often a lack ofhuman interaction. This may result in a lack of motivation. There are somedifficulties with telecommunications infrastructures and the slow speed ofusing the Internet. Managers may also lack the necessary equipment and ICTskills to fully utilise the materials. Tutors may need training to use ICTBTtechniques. A major disadvantage for training providers is the high cost ofdeveloping materials and SMEs are seen as a minority market who may notproduce a good return on investment. The on-going cost of providing on-linetutors may also be high and administratively difficult. There is also evidence thatthe role of on-line tutors is not clear and that specific training may be needed inon-line tutoring. Authors of ICTBT may also be lacking specific skills and mayrequire training.Heads of SMEs Section 7 : Best Practice in USA797. IDENTIFYING BEST PRACTICE IN THE UNITED STATESThe Office of Advocacy within the U.S. Small Business Administration was established in 1976to represent and advance small business interests before Congress and federal agencies.119The Office’s mission is to "counsel, assist, and protect small business, " and to fulfil this aim,the Office works with small businesses and small business organisations, Congress,Administration, and trade associations.120 The White House Conference on Small Business121involves shaping policy through the active participation of small business owners who assistin the drawing up of recommendations.The US leads the world in terms of ICT usage and ownership. The country has high ICTinfrastructure penetration rates in homes and businesses, high usage levels and welldevelopedtelecommunications, IT and content industries.122 ICT penetration in the US is farhigher than in Europe. For example, US micro-businesses are almost three times as likely tohave a website as their UK counterparts.123 There is greater ICTBT development in the USA.

7.1 E-learningThe e-learning environment is more developed in the USA than in the EU. Howeverapplication of best practice is focussed on large corporations and universities. The elearningconcept has been developed to encompass the pedagogical changes resulting fromopportunities using ICT. It encompasses a variety of learning events. Training is divided intomodules, which have a flexible structure and use diverse media. A typical module cancontain between two and seven Learning Events. An event can be an instructionalsegment, a seminar, a simulation or a collaborative event such as a workshop.SmartSeminars are live interactive on-line presentations. A learning event can be brokendown into Learning Objects. For example, the learning event, “Accessing BusinessResources on the Web” contains four objects: Advanced Searching; Market Intelligence;Financial Resources; Research Resources.E-learning has a number of features:_ Access to new events and materials, which are updated each week._ Different learning events designed to serve different kinds of requirements withnavigation to assist the user to get what they want when they want it._ A self-diagnosis tool which matches the interest and characteristics of the individual user,to the material that is the most relevant in any one given moment._ Orientation towards problem solving._ Aid to establishment of a culture of learning within a company, including specificcompany learning events and resources.Companies have developed specialising in e-learning. SmartForce124 is a pioneer, which hasdeveloped an e-business programme to allow companies to address their specific trainingneeds through e-learning. Companies get access to services through a flexible rental system.SmartForce is delivering a number of e-learning workshops, which are described in moredetail in Appendix 2.119 http://www.sba.gov/advo/aboutus.html#THE OFFICE120 Ibid.121 http://www.whcsb.org/122 Moving into the Information Age, An International Benchmarking Study, 1999.http://www.isi.gov.uk/isi/isi/bench/1999/International99.html.123 Ibid.124 www.smartforce.comHeads of SMEs Section 7 : Best Practice in USA80E-learning seems to operate within large companies. The best practice has beenincluded here to demonstrate the concept of e-learning, which might work withgroups of SMEs, for example of the same size or sector.7.2 US Small Business Administration (www.sba.gov/classroom)The US Small Business Administration (SBA) is the main public service for smallbusinesses in the US. It provides service programmes and information to small

businesses across the US. Many of SBA's resources around the US, specificallyBusiness Information Centres, One-Stop Capital Shops and others, offer access tocomputers, the Internet and other emerging technologies. SBA is also partneringwith other federal agencies and organisations to help provide greater technologyaccess.In partnership with universities and private companies, the SBA now providescourses and information on the Internet, free of charge. The Small BusinessClassroom is an on-line resource for training and informing entrepreneurs and otherstudents of enterprise.At the Classroom site, articles can be read, courses can be studied, or areas of smallbusiness development can be researched. Through a SCORE125 Cyber-Chapter,access to confidential business advice on an issue via E-mail is available. There isalso a facility to send comments about additional information and further links thatcould be added to the site.126Linked to the SBA is SCORE127. SCORE offers email counselling. Dedicated to aidingthe formation, growth and success of small businesses in the US, the organisationhas 13,000 members with experts in virtually every area of business management.Retired professionals with small business experience counsel current ownermanagers via email. The counsellor is carefully chosen according to the client’sneeds, which ensures a well-matched service and indicates best practice.Alternatively, the client is able to input a business problem and this will be answeredby the most appropriate counsellor.The SCORE website also offers email newsletters and magazines, interactive quizzesand business resources and hotlinks. SCORE also advertises workshops on thewebsite, conducted at local level, covering topics such as ‘Developing Your BusinessPlan’ and ‘Marketing.’ SCORE is innovative in combining a national website with localhelp, providing busy owner managers with a dedicated support system.7.3 The Virtual University ConceptThe academic take up of ICTBT in the US illustrates the widespread use of newtechnologies in education and training. At the US college and university level,

Internet connection is ‘virtually universal’ and many institutions offer Internet baseddistance learning courses.128 Some of these courses are limited either due to theircontent concentration on technical information, or through ‘dressing up’ existing125 Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE)126 The on-line classroom is described in more detail in Appendix 2.127 www.score.org.128 Molenda, Michela, Russell, James and Smaldino, Sharon: ‘Trends in Media and Technology inEducation and Training,’ in Educational Media and Technology Yearbook, 1998, Volume 23.Heads of SMEs Section 7 : Best Practice in USA81courses by simply adding online resources to the existing programmes.129 Othersmerely function as portal sites for distance learning providers.130 The majority ofmanagement programmes offered by American virtual universities are MBAs.However, they are being delivered to an audience, which is more familiar with ICTsystems than in Europe. A good example is provided by Ohio University, which hasan award winning virtual MBA.131 Many virtual MBAs make use of GroupWarelearning platforms to facilitate student interaction. Further information is provided inAppendix 2.3.7.4 Best Practice from EU-US CollaborationThe Co-operation Programme in Higher Education and Vocational Education and Trainingbetween the European Community and the United States132 has fostered projects usingICTBT. The programme aims to add a new EC/US dimension to student-centred co-operationand to benefit the EC and the US. These aims are achieved by promoting an innovativerange of student-centred, higher education and training co-operative activities.The first phase of the programme covered 1995-2000. Projects from 1998 and 1999 wereanalysed with regard to their use of ICT and relevance for SME management training.Nothing could be found specifically for training SMEs. Most projects focused on highereducation for under-graduates.Projects applied ICT in different ways, but there was a high incidence of Internet basedprojects, which included discussion forums, the development of joint EU-US papers, businessteam games and technical project development.133 The NEURUS partnership134 usesInternet-based distance learning modules including asynchronous discussion groups amongstudents and between students and faculty.135 The Transatlantic Business School Alliance(TABSA), which aims to develop a common international curriculum for business schools,

uses a combination of video conferences, taped lectures, and classes over the Internet.136However, the emphasis is on the training of students not SMEs. The goal of the EarthImaging Project is to develop an international curriculum in Earth Imaging.137 This courseuses a combination of face-to-face teaching and Internet based distance learning. Eachcourse is preceded by a four week preparation period when students are encouraged tointeract via the Internet to create a sense of community. The Internet-based multilingualcurriculum includes class texts and laboratory exercises, implying student interaction, andthere is a consolidation period at the end of the course. The course also uses Internet basedassessment, as students deliver their final report over the Internet.Email was by far the most common ICT element employed. This is clearly illustrated by thefollowing table:129 Examples include the University of British Columbia and UWired at the University of Washington.130 One example is the California Virtual University.131 www.mbawb.ohiou.edu/intranet132 http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/ec-usa/sele99.html133 Circa Group Europe Ltd, (August 1999), The Evaluation of the Co-Operation Programme in HigherEducation and Vocational and Educational Training between the European Community and the UnitedStates.134 Network of European and US regional and urban studies, aiming to help students develop a globalperspective on regional development. URL: http://www.seweb.uci.edu/neurus.html135 http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/education/ec-usa/sele98.html136 Ibid.137 Ibid.Heads of SMEs Section 7 : Best Practice in USA82Table: Usage of New Technology Transfer138Technology Usage LevelEmail 100Video-conferencing 24Joint Net-based Projects 21Internet phone/Internetvideo4Projects developed under the EU-US collaboration programme, therefore, still “have a longway to go to fully exploit new technology.”139 The evaluation report makes certainrecommendations, which might have implications for future ICTBT projects for SMEs. Theseinclude:_ The financing of a service project in ‘new technology/virtual mobility’ to monitor andsupport transatlantic projects should be considered.Whilst projects financed under the first phase of the programme concentrated largely on HE,

the evaluation report recommends that the vocational training element must be fostered inthe next phase. Most projects were HE collaborations for the development of undergraduateprogrammes. ICTBT is being used, but mainly involves email and not the more advancedtechnologies. No evidence of management training for SMEs for projects carried out in 1998and 1999 could be found.7.5 Best Practice in traditional techniquesThe leading institutions delivering entrepreneurial training employ traditional deliverytechniques, which they attest maintain advantages over what ICTBT has proven itcan deliver.Traditional techniques in the USA are demonstrated by Harvard Business Schooland Babson College (see Appendix 2). These programmes are targeted at smallerfirms but not micro firms. The average turnover of firms on the Owner ManagerProgram at Harvard is $15m.FastTrac (see Appendix 2) is an award winning example of innovation in traditionaldelivery. FastTrac is a non-profit organisation which is sponsored by the KauffmanCentre for Entrepreneurial Leadership in Kansas. FastTrac operates programmes in36 States. It is designed and delivered by entrepreneurs locally in the communityand focuses on planning for growing small enterprises. There is a strong practicalorientation and participants use their own company for case study.A variety of training techniques are used but there is an emphasis oninteraction with other entrepreneurs, case study, analysis of problems andgroupwork. ICT is not used as distance learning but there is a web-site forresources and use of tools such as computer simulations.Generally participants stay in residence at the college for a number of days or weeksper year.Content is highly practical, exploring the tools and techniques needed to identifyopportunities and successfully manage an enterprise.138 Circa Group Europe Ltd, (August 1999), The Evaluation of the Co-Operation Programme in HigherEducation and Vocational and Educational Training between the European Community and the UnitedStates.139 Ibid.Heads of SMEs Section 7 : Best Practice in USA837.6 Conclusions - Best Practice from the United States

The concept of E-learning is more advanced in the US. However, it is orientatedtowards large firms. Similarly, the Virtual University concept is more advanced in theUnited States than the EU. Although providing a distance learning framework,training provision tends to be MBAs rather than shorter courses.The US Small Business Administration is the main public service for SMEs in the USA.Currently they are operating a series of on-line classrooms providing a range of shortcourses on-line for small businesses. This is linked to a mentoring service calledSCORE, which consists of retired professionals with small business experience.There is no strong evidence that managers of SMEs are benefiting from ICTBTtraining in the USA. However, there are a number of good practices in traditionaltechniques in developing entrepreneurship and small firm management, which arewidespread. These use SME case studies, problem solving and group work. Forexample FastTrac is offered in 36 States.The lessons from the USA involve good practices in stimulating entrepreneurshipusing traditional techniques, and the potential to apply ICTBT techniques used byother audiences for the benefit of the heads of SMEs. However the practicability ofusing ICTBT with heads of SMEs needs to be considered. A search of key web-sitesand providers was carried out (See Appendix 5.1, Phase 4). This identified very littlein the area of management training for SMEs using ICTBT. Harvard Business Schooland Babson College were asked why they are not delivering training to small firmsusing ICTBT. Harvard responded that they are developing e-learning but only as anadditional support tool to their mainly traditional delivery techniques. BabsonCollege had no plans to become involved with ICTBT for small firms but thought thatthere might be a market for it as a time-saving device. Babson’s content oftenrevolves around case studies, and group interaction is a vital element of theirtechnique.The North American experience offers a number of lessons for European practice.By being first, North Americans can make most of the initial mistakes and the rest of

the world can learn from them. The hurdles to be overcome are those of content,interaction and cost, which are themselves interrelated.E-learning and virtual universities are developing fairly rapidly in North America.Virtual universities mainly offer MBA type courses which have a tried and testedmarket. Delivery usually makes use of GroupWare learning platforms. E-learning ismore broad in content but tends to be targeted at large corporations. E-learningportals provide access to learning from multiple sources by aggregating, hosting anddistributing content. Corporate customers can pick and choose courses from amultitude of vendors to create customised programmes for their employees.Planning and executing a successful e-learning strategy in this way requires time andinvestment. The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) hasexpressed concerns about the quality of contents of e-learning portals.The private sector is developing e learning as an industry. There are three mainsegments:_ The content providers, for whom the demand is very high, because of thevariety of content neededHeads of SMEs Section 7 : Best Practice in USA84_ Learning services firms, who provide programme building components,content design, development and programming_ Delivery solutions companies, which sell the technologies associated withe-learning.The structure of the market is predicted to change from high demand in the lastsegment to high demand in the first, as technical solutions become standard andcosts are driven down in this area140. A number of firms integrate all threesegments.SmartForce is an example of an e-learning company. It produces its own coursesdelivered via the Internet with mentoring support and has a large content repository.It recommends the setting up of a supportive framework and technical assistancewithin companies seeking to operate e-learning. The set up charge is $20,000 andthe cost per year per employee would be about €900. Currently it would appear thate-learning structures are more appropriate for large companies.The North Americans have not yet overcome the three hurdles for SMEs, but it may

be possible to learn from their longer development experience in the latter twosegments. In technology, costs are being driven and learning service firms areidentifying techniques, such as mentoring, which do work. Setting up a GroupWarelearning platform is relatively easy and is currently being used by various projectssupporting SMEs in Europe. However, quality and variety of media in ICTBT variesenormously and it is therefore difficult to estimate the cost in its production. Theratio of production time to one hour of instruction time has varied from 30 to asmuch as 1,000 hours.141 The instruction time with ICTBT has been shown to reduceby around one-third. This might seem less of a reduction than expected. The trendis downward, but will reach a minimum for optimum human support.The principle of e-learning based on a content repository which SMEs could accessvia the Internet has potential. In particular the ability to search the content to findsolutions to specific problems would appeal to SMEs. Also the use of the content ina personalised way could facilitate individualised learning which is favoured by SMEs.The main issue again would be the design of the content such that it is relevant to SMEs.There are problems in transferring the widescale ICTBT practices from the USA. The marketfor ICTBT specifically for SMEs is untested and there are no standards. Training providers inthe USA do not appear to have considered this a desirable area for development. The mainbest practice to emerge from the USA for SMEs has been delivered by mainly traditionaltechniques.To bring ICTBT techniques such as virtual universities and e-learning into widespread usewith European SMEs can build on a good base of knowledge in technology and learningtechniques. It could also use some North American content (which would have to be paidfor), but would require the identification of a sufficient level of quality content for theEuropean market. This would require the establishment of quality standards and thebenchmarking of provision against such quality standards in each Member State. Theseareas are discussed in Section 9.140 E learning strategies for executive education and corporate training, 27/11/2000,http://www.fortune.com/fortune/sections/onlinelearn/onlinelearn.htm141 J.A. Athanasou Industrial and Commercial Training Vol 30 No 3 1998 pp. 96-103Heads of SMEs Section 8: Conclusions

858. CONCLUSIONS8.1 Demand from Heads of SMEsWhile there is a very large variation in the nature of SMEs and their managers, it ispossible to determine certain common characteristics, which impinge on the roles ofthe heads of firms.As the chief decision maker, the head has to be able to respond quickly to changesin all areas of business. To survive, it is essential to focus on the immediate andshort term situations. Although many small firms do have long term strategies, thehead finds it difficult to plan his or her time beyond the short term (see Section 3.2).Small size in a large market place, and the crucial role of one (or a very few)managers in the firm entail a focus on problem solving across all business areas andmanaging time in the short term. The demand for training from heads of SMEsreflects these considerations. A major priority area for training is Time Managementand Delegation (Section 5 Fig. 27).Heads of SMEs are different from employees. An examination of the learning stylesof heads of SMEs shows them to be mainly either ‘activists’ or ‘pragmatists’ (Section5.7). In the former category, preferences for learning include problem solving,dealing with immediate tasks and group work. For the latter, links between thesubject matter and ‘real’ problems, feedback from experts, and immediateimplementation of learnt material are important. Both styles favour learning bydoing.The ‘activist’ and ‘pragmatist’ approach was reflected in the managers’ desire forflexibility. Most wanted training at their request (Section 5 Fig. 17).8.2 Preferences of Heads of SMEsManagers of SMEs differentiate themselves from employees. On-site training intechnical areas is a very strong preference for employee training. However, thepreference from heads of SMEs is evenly divided between in and out of company(Section 5 Fig.15). This may involve time for reflection or networking.Due to time constraints, managers want training which is short (Section 5 Figs.22-25). The top five preferences indicated are:1. Short courses

2. One day seminars3. One to one sessions4. Group workshops5. Mentoring.There is little difference in the areas of management for preferences in thesetechniques. 23% expressed an interest in receiving training on the computer(Section 5 Fig.15).Heads of SMEs Section 8: Conclusions86There is a preference for private sector delivery (48%), followed by universities(31%). (Section 5 Fig.13)There is some size differentiation in preferences. Managers in micro and smallfirms show a higher preference for out of working hours training (33%) than mediumfirms (19%). Micro firms show a much greater willingness to participate in trainingat weekends than small or medium firms (Section 5.5 Table 5). Training using thecomputer is less popular with micro firms (Section 5.5 Table 6). The desire forentrepreneurship training varies with size (Section 5.5 Table 8). Entrepreneurshipappears to be of more importance to managers of small and medium firms (55% and42% respectively) than micro firms (24%). Other studies have shown that in microfirms, survival and autonomy is often more important than growth and innovation(Section 3.3).Women managers have similar preferences to men, except in four areas (Section5.6). They have a lower demand for computer- based training, and a higher demandfor day time training, qualifications and e-mentoring than men.8.3 Use of ICTBT by Heads of SMEsGeneral use of ICTs is high in this sample with nearly 90% of managers using emailand Internet (Section 5.2). 92% are using ICT for financial management and 40-50% are using it for other types of management. 25% have used e-commerce. Thesample are therefore likely to be early adopters of ICT solutions.Around 25% of managers have used ICTBT. This is fairly high. In the TeleMan142study only 11% of managers had used any type of distance learning. Internetsearch, CDROM and email are the most common forms used. Managers identified anumber of good and bad aspects concerning ICTBT (Section 5.3 Fig. 9).Good Aspects Bad Aspects

_ Immediacy _ Lack of human support_ Up-to-date material _ Poor presentation_ Own pace _ Unreliable technology8.4 Provision of Management TrainingAll Member States have systems for providing support to SMEs which are statefunded. Partners in the project were consulted about such provision. Features ofthese systems include the following:_ Information and advice_ Training_ Financing schemesSpecialist services such as technology, product design, exporting, promoting forms ofco-operation among SMEs, are also available.142 Tele-Teaching and Training for Management of SMEs – Studies, TeleMan Consortium, September1998.Heads of SMEs Section 8: Conclusions87Managers of SMEs see current training provision in management as not meeting theirneeds. The interviews confirmed the problem identified by other studies and policydocuments (Section 3.3 and 3.4). Provision suffers from defects of content, access,flexibility and cost (Section 5.4 Fig. 19). There are also major concerns overinformation about training and quality. This is particularly the case for ICTBT(Section 5.3 Figs.11 &12). SMEs in the survey were asked an open question aboutwhether they would like to see any changes to existing support services. Earlierquestions had asked for assessments of experiences of advice, consultancy, networksand information. There was interest for more on-line services and better help-linesand centralisation of services to provide better information about training.The review of training provision in the regions found little provision directed at headsof SMEs beyond the start up phase. The research teams looked for examples ofgood practice in their regions, and they were difficult to find. There is provision ofmanagement training, which may encompass SMEs. However, it was difficult to findtraining designed specifically for them. The publicity of training providers, via WebSites or other literature showed little evidence of targeting this market143.The credibility of provision to SME managers is important, as a common complaint is

that they are being fed material for larger firms in a manner, which is inappropriate.Recent Swedish and Irish studies emphasise this point144 and point out significantdifferences in attitudes between providers and managers. Difficulties in accessingmanagement training is confirmed by the SME managers surveyed themselves(Section 5.4 Fig. 19), by the training providers interviewed in this study (Section6.7.4) and in the results of the focus groups (Section 6.8). Training providers in thissurvey confirmed the findings of studies reviewed; that the SME market isinsufficiently rewarding to warrant the investment of large resources, or targetmarketing. All of these sources provide evidence that SMEs require betterinformation about relevant training.8.5 Bridging training and consultancyHeads of SMEs’ priorities for gaining expertise can be divided into three main areas:_ Individualised support_ SME Focus_ InteractionThis division was arrived at by drawing together data from background research,from the interviews with SMEs, from interviews with training providers and evidencefrom providers in the USA. The fourfold classification indicated in Section 3.6 on theexpertise needs of SMEs has been revised in the light of the surveys and more recentliterature145, which emphasises the informal nature of training demanded by heads ofSMEs. It is also chosen as it is relevant to both traditional and ICTBT delivered143 This study aimed at identifying best practice, not conducting an evaluation of provision. Hence,these statements are based on the difficulty of search, responses from managers, providers and otherliterature.144 Klofsten, M. Training for entrepreneurship and new business: attitudes among the organisers,Industry and Higher Education, Volume 13, 1999, pp 397-404 andWalsh, J., & Hynes, B., Herding cats; implications for the development of management developmentcourses for SME owner-managers, pp1273-1289, 23rd ISBA National Small Firms Policy & ResearchConference, November 2000.145 For example Walsh et al (op.cit.) and Johnson, S., Lifelong learning for SMEs: issues for researchand policy, pp577-593, 23rd ISBA National Small Firms Policy & Research Conference, November 2000.Heads of SMEs Section 8: Conclusions88

training. Problem solving for immediate use was a major incentive to undertaketraining, and this is reflected in the priorities above. The relation of the categories tothe literature review and the survey results is indicated below.Category Literature Survey resultson generaltrainingSurvey resultson ICTBT useIndividualisedsupport_ Clientorientation_ Preferences formentoring, &consultancy_ Need forhuman supportSME Focus _ Tailor madetraining_ Qualityassurance_ Short courses_ Relevance ofmaterial_ Qualityassurance_ Up to datematerialInteraction _ Problem solving _ Learning styles_ Immediacy_ ImmediacyThe need for individualised support arises from the heterogeneous nature of SMEs(Section 3.2). Mentoring, consultancy and tailor-made training are means ofproviding individualised support, which are recognised in the BEST Report and otherEU policy documents (Section 3.4). SMEs rate mentoring and one-to-one sessionsamong the top five methods for delivery of training (Section 5 Figs. 22-25). Trainingproviders also use individualised support and forms of self-diagnosis (Section 6.6 and6.7).Training for SMEs needs to have an SME focus. This is identified by current EUdocument policy (Section 3.4), particularly the need for client-orientated training andrelevant content. Open responses from the survey favoured providers with SME

expertise and experience of running small firms, which confirms findings in otherliterature146 The interviews with training providers indicate that the SME focus isgreater in the private sector providers (Appendix 2) who are more likely to provideconsultancy, tailor-made training and to use client data and case studies to helpsolve problems. The need to involve SMEs in design and use SME case studies wasrecognised as good practice by most of the training providers interviewed (Section6.4). Training with an SME focus also needs to be flexible to access as mostmanagers want training at their request (Section 5.4 Fig.17).SMEs favour methods, which involve interaction. This is demonstrated by thepreferred methods of delivery in our SME sample which includes one day seminars,group-work and mentoring (Section 5.4 Figs 22-25). Activist and pragmatist learningstyles show a preference for learning, which involves interaction and direct results(Section 5.7). Lack of human support is seen as the worst aspect of ICTBT (Section5.3 Fig.9). Methods favoured by training providers for both traditional and ICTtechniques involve interaction (Section 6.6, 6.7.1). US providers: Harvard, Babsonand FastTrac encourage interaction between entrepreneurs as an important way oflearning (Appendix 2.3).Good practice elements can be identified in these areas for both traditional and ICTtechniques.146 See Klofsten (op.cit) and Walsh et al (op.cit.)Heads of SMEs Section 8: Conclusions89Individualised support_ Self-diagnosis /business check-up_ On-site consultancy or counselling_ MentoringSME Focus_ Content including case studies from SMEs_ Problem solving approach relevant to the businesses_ Provision at appropriate time and placeInteraction_ Group-work to solve problems_ Guest speakers from industry and debates_ Course conferencing on-line for group sessionsChat tool for real-time communicationThese areas bridge the division between consultancy and training. Provision, which

involves both aspects would seem to suit the requirements of many heads of SMEs.There is often a division among providers and funding mechanisms between the two,which may be hampering adequate delivery.8.6 Priorities of heads of SMEsFor more formal courses, heads of SMEs expressed six priorities:_ Relevance to real business situation_ Problem solving_ Short duration_ Flexible delivery_ Networking_ Quality assuranceThese priorities are demonstrated by interviews with heads of SMEs (Figs. 12, 15,17, 21, Figs. 22-25) and interviews with training providers (Section 6.6, 7.5).Most of the elements can be delivered by either traditional techniques or ICT.However, emerging good practice involves a combination of human and ICTdelivered material (Section 6.7.1). This can involve either the provision of ICTsupported material, in a traditional setting, or the provision of some humaninteraction events to a mainly ICT delivered course. However, some such asnetworking are typically thought of as easier in a traditional setting, and others, suchas flexible delivery may bestow advantages on ICTBT.8.7 Good Practice in Course DevelopmentThe survey of training providers (Section 6.4) identified a number of basic featureswhich may be considered good practice in the process of development and deliveryof management training for heads of SMEs. These basic features can be summarisedas follows:_ Research or market analysis_ Involvement of SMEs in design, to enable a client-centred approach – involvesbuilding relationships with SMEs or groups of SMEs_ On-site initial assessment of the needs of the SME manager_ Expertise and experience of trainers in SMEs_ Generation of entrepreneur networks for participants_ Evaluation and feedbackHeads of SMEs Section 8: Conclusions908.8 The ICTBT OpportunityICT represents an opportunity for managers and providers to overcome a number ofbarriers to the delivery of training. Both groups recognise this. The advantages ofaccess at any time and place, proceeding at one’s own tempo, access to a variety of

sources, interactivity, good teacher contact and individual support through email,instant responses and the ability to update and customise the material arerecognised (Section 6.7.2).Developing material is expensive, but once developed, costs of adaptation should bemuch less. Groupware products are designed to make it easier to develop anddeliver on-line training (Section 4.2).To ensure that ICT can play a full role in developing new training provision, anumber of hurdles have to be overcome, which are pedagogical, technical andfinancial (Section 6.7.3). Within pedagogy, the need for human interaction has beenrecognised, and guidelines for its development are being recognised. However,there is no similar consensus on the degree of structure needed in navigating webbasedcourses. Technical problems to be overcome include security, delivery speedon the internet and appropriate infrastructure. The latter is still lacking in parts ofEurope, and at a firm level, the machines may either be too old, too few or in thewrong place (Section 3.5). The development of the infrastructure, the learningenvironment, and the material are all costly activities. After their establishment,costs should diminish.8.9 Problems and Constraints in providing Management Training toHeads of SMEsHowever, there are constraints in realising these goals._ Little existing provision meets themThere is a lack of specific training for heads of SMEs (see Section 8.4).Executive Training at business schools is often targeted at larger companies.There is a lack of provision with the required level of flexibility for SMEs.There is a lack of best practice/expertise for training SME managers. Thereare no guides or standards as to how training providers should deliver qualitytraining to SME managers._ The SME training that is provided tends to serve either start-ups or medium sizedfirmsThere is a lack of provision for micro firms. Micro firms have specific need forsurvival programmes (Section 3.2 & 6.2).There is a lack of entrepreneurial training for small and growing firms(Section 3.4 & 6.3).Heads of SMEs Section 8: Conclusions91_ ICTBT is under-providedMuch ICTBT is of low quality, being simply the presentation of printedmaterial on a web-site147. There are concerns expressed by training providers

concerning the cost of development of ICTBT, particularly for SMEs which is anew and uncertain market (Section 6.7.3 & Section 7.5).There are skills shortages in ICTBT development and delivery. On-linetrainers need good ICT skills and their role is different from a traditionaltutor. There is too little training available for designers of ICTBTmanagement material. Skills are needed in being able to communicate thecontent using different ICT-based mediums (Section 6.7.3 & 6.8).There are barriers for SMEs in using ICTBT. These are: lack of knowledge,lack of quality assurance and cost of technology (Section 5.3 Fig.11)._ There is difficulty in finding informationThis concerns, both locating courses and gaining sufficient information aboutthe content of courses and their relevance to SMEs (Section 5.4 Fig.19,Section 6.7.4)There is no system of quality assurance.147 Tele-Teaching and Training for Management of SMEs – Studies, TeleMan Consortium, September1998.Heads of SMEs Section 9: Recommendations929 RECOMMENDATIONSRecommendations need to address the problems and constraints that have beenidentified in providing management training to heads of SMEs.Recommendations have been divided into two areas:1. Those concerning Member States2. Those concerning the CommissionMember States9.1 Recommendation One: More training specifically for Heads ofSMEsThere is a need for more training specifically for heads of SMEs in all Member States.There is a need for separate programmes for small firms and micro firms. Theseprogrammes should be benchmarked against a set of quality standards for theprovision of training to heads of SMEs. A first stage involves ensuring awareness ofthe needs of SMEs among training providers (i.e. that SMEs are not smaller largeenterprises) and ensuring that the obstacles facing SMEs are recognised by policymakers and responsible bodies.9.2 Recommendation Two: Promotion of ICTBTICTBT can be used to overcome some of the barriers SME managers face concerningcost and time. It may be used as a support tool for management training or as themain mechanism for delivery of training. Provision of ICTBT to a specific SMEaudience is recommended through provision of material and awareness raising.

Actions which may contribute to increased use of ICTBT could include stimulation ofICT skills amongst heads of SMEs or the use of ICT in combination with a trainingstyle favoured by heads of SMEs. An example of this could be the use of ementoring.Pilot projects under Leonardo da Vinci for the 2000-2006 period will look atdeveloping and transferring innovation and quality in vocational training which willinclude use of ICTs. The best practice indicators outlined in these recommendationsmight be taken into account as selection criteria for projects developing the use ofICTs in vocational training. In particular the development of material for heads ofSMEs needs to be promoted. This may be done under specific measures in EQUAL.These are detailed in Appendix 6.9.3 Recommendation Three: Training of TrainersThere are a lack of trainers with experience and expertise in SMEs. There is a lack ofunderstanding of best practice for training SME managers. The training of trainersshould be promoted and benchmarked against a set of quality standards.There is also a lack of skills and training for development and delivery of ICTBT toSME managers. Training needs to be developed to address these skills shortages.Heads of SMEs Section 9: Recommendations93Particular actions might include exchanges of expert providers across the Communityin the areas of management training and design of ICT-based training material. Tosupport this activity, ‘Training for Trainers’ under Leonardo should include guidelinesfor developing training for the design and delivery of ICTBT.The Commission9.4 Recommendation Four: Concerted Action for Quality AssuranceConcerted action for quality assurance in management training for heads of SMEs isrecommended. This has two main areas:1. Establishment of quality standards among Member States2. Benchmarking of provision in each Member StateEstablishment of Quality StandardsA set of best practice indicators have been proposed for the delivery of managementtraining to heads of SMEs. These need to be developed into standards throughmeetings of exchange groups across the EU. They should be charged with:

_ Promoting best practice in training provision in terms of content, mode ofdelivery, and marketing_ Stimulating the growth of expertise for trainers and in multi media design fortraining_ Promotion of a manual of best practices in training for SME managers, covering:design, delivery techniques, involvement of SMEs, use of ICT-based training,evaluation and publicity. This could result from a benchmarking exercise and besupported by examples drawn from several Member States_ Policy conferences and workshops for heads of SMEs, regional policy makers andimplementers on best practice in management training and ICT developmenttailored to training needs of SMEsBenchmarking of Provision in each Member StateA set of indicators should be drawn up to benchmark provision across MemberStates. The following are an indicative list:_ Provision of Training/Support specifically directed at heads of SMEs by:Number of providersNumber of beneficiariesNumbers reaching benchmarked quality standardsExpenditureEach of the above directed at either micro or small firms_ ICTBT provision directed at heads of SMEs by:Number of providersNumber of beneficiariesNumbers reaching benchmarked quality standardsExpenditureEach of the above directed at either micro or small firms_ Involvement of SMES Representative Groups (sectoral, local or general) intraining support delivery as a proportion of the activities described above.

DISCUSSION

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Attitude (psychology)

Attitude (psychology) Topic Home Discussion

OverviewAn attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event-- this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both positive and negative attitudes toward the item in question.

Attitudes are judgments. Discussion

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I need definition of attitude with reference

EncyclopediaAn attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event-- this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both positive and negative attitudes toward the item in question.

Attitudes are judgments. They develop on the ABC model (affect, behavior, and cognition

CognitionCognition is the scientific term for "the process of thought." Usage of the term varies in different disciplines; for example in psychology and cognitive science, it usually refers to an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions...

). The affective response is an emotionalEmotionEmotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality and disposition, and motivation. The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French word émouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e- means 'out' and movere means 'move'...

 response that expresses an individual's degree of preference for an entity. The behavioral intention is a verbal indication or typical behavioral tendency of an individual. The cognitive response is a cognitive evaluation of the entity that constitutes an individual's beliefs about the object. Most attitudes are the result of either direct experience or observational learningObservational learningObservational learning is a type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating novel behavior executed by others...

 from the environment.

Attitude formation

Unlike personalityPersonality psychologyPersonality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and individual differences.Its areas of focus include:* Constructing a coherent picture of a person and his or her major psychological processes...

, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experienceExperienceExperience as a general concept comprises knowledge of or skill in or observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or exposure to that thing or event....

. Tesser (1993) has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes - but believes that they may do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be consistent in our beliefs and values. The most famous example of such a theory is Dissonance-reductionCognitive dissonanceCognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, or by justifying or rationalizing them...

 theory, associated with Leon FestingerLeon FestingerLeon Festinger , was an American social psychologist, responsible for the development of the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Social Comparison Theory, and the discovery of the role of propinquity in the formation of social ties as well as other contributions to the study of social...

, although there are others, such as the balance theoryBalance theoryBalance Theory is a motivational theory of attitude change proposed by Fritz Heider, which conceptualizes the consistency motive as a drive toward psychological balance...

. tite

Attitude change

see also Attitude changeAttitude changeBreckler and Wiggins define attitudes as “mental and neural representations, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence on behavior” . Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components...

Attitudes can be changed through persuasion and we should understand attitude change as a response to communication. Experimental research into the factors that can affect the persuasiveness of a message include:

1. Target Characteristics: These are characteristics that refer to the person who receives and processes a message. One such trait is intelligence - it seems that more intelligent people are less easily persuaded by one-sided messages. Another variable that has been studied in this category is self-esteem. Although it is sometimes thought that those higher in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is actually curvilinear, with people of moderate self-esteem being more easily persuaded than both those of high and low self-esteem levels (Rhodes & Woods, 1992). The mind frame and mood of the target also plays a role in this process.

2. Source Characteristics: The major source characteristics are expertise, trustworthiness and interpersonal attraction

Interpersonal attraction

Interpersonal attraction is the attraction between people which leads to friendships and romantic relationships. The study of interpersonal attraction is a major area of research in social psychology. Interpersonal attraction is related to how much we like, love, dislike, or hate someone...

 or attractiveness. The credibility of a perceived message has been found to be a key variable here; if one reads a report about health and believes it came from a professional medical journal, one may be more easily persuaded than if one believes it is from a popular newspaper. Some psychologists have debated whether this is a long-lasting effect and Hovland and Weiss (1951) found the effect of telling people that a message came from a credible source disappeared after several weeks (the so-called "sleeper effect"). Whether there is a sleeper effect is controversial. Perceived wisdom is that if people are informed of the source of a message before hearing it, there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect than if they are told a message and then told its source.

3. Message Characteristics: The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion. Sometimes presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes.

Cognitive Routes: A message can appeal to an individual's cognitive evaluation to help change an attitude. In the central route to persuasion the individual is presented with the data and motivated to evaluate the data and arrive at an attitude changing conclusion. In the peripheral route to attitude change, the individual is encouraged to not look at the content but at the source. This is commonly seen in modern advertisements that feature celebrities. In some cases, physician, doctors or experts are used. In other cases film stars are used for their attractiveness.

Emotion and Attitude Change

Emotion is a common component in persuasionPersuasionPersuasion is a form of social influence. It is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and symbolic means.- Methods :...

, social influenceSocial influenceSocial influence occurs when an individual's thoughts or actions are affected by other people. Social influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing...

, and attitude changeAttitude changeBreckler and Wiggins define attitudes as “mental and neural representations, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence on behavior” . Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components...

. Much of attitude research emphasized the importance of affective or emotion components. Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitive process, or the way we think, about an issue or situation. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components. Attitudes are part of the brain’s associative networks, the spider-like structures residing in long term memory that consist of affective and cognitive nodes.

By activating an affective or emotion node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. In primarily affective networks, it is more difficult to produce cognitive counterarguments in the resistance to persuasion and attitude change.

Affective forecasting, otherwise known as intuition or the prediction of emotion, also impacts attitude change. Research suggests that predicting emotions is an important component of decision making, in addition to the cognitive processes. How we feel about an outcome may override purely cognitive rationales.

In terms of research methodology, the challenge for researchers is measuring emotion and subsequent impacts on attitude. Since we cannot see into the brain, various models and measurement tools have been constructed to obtain emotion and attitude information. Measures may include the use of physiological cues like facial expressions, vocal changes, and other body rate measures. For instance, fear is associated with raised eyebrows, increased heart rate and increase body tension (Dillard, 1994). Other methods include concept or network mapping, and using primes or word cues.

Components of Emotion Appeals

Any discrete emotion can be used in a persuasive appeal; this may include jealousy, disgust, indignation, fear, and anger. Fear is one of the most studied emotional appeals in communication and social influence research.

Important consequences of fear appeals and other emotion appeals include the possibility of reactance which may lead to either message rejections or source rejection and the absence of attitude change. As the EPPM suggests, there is an optimal emotion level in motivating attitude change. If there is not enough motivation, an attitude will not change; if the emotional appeal is overdone, the motivation can be paralyzed thereby preventing attitude change.

Emotions perceived as negative or containing threat are often studied more than perceived positive emotions like humor. Though the inner-workings of humor are not agreed upon, humor appeals may work by creating incongruities in the mind. Recent research has looked at the impact of humor on the processing of political messages.

While evidence is inconclusive, there appears to be potential for targeted attitude change is receivers with low political message involvement.

Important factors that influence the impact of emotion appeals include self efficacy, attitude accessibility, issue involvement, and message/source features. Self efficacy is a perception of one’s own human agency; in other words, it is the perception of our own ability to deal with a situation. It is an important variable in emotion appeal messages because it dictates a person’s ability to deal with both the emotion and the situation. For example, if a person is not self-efficacious about their ability to impact the global environment, they are not likely to change their attitude or behavior about global warming.

Dillard (1994) suggests that message features such as source non-verbal communication, message content, and receiver differences can impact the emotion impact of fear appeals. The characteristics of a message are important because one message can elicit different levels of emotion for different people. Thus, in terms of emotion appeals messages, one size does not fit all.

Attitude accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from memory in other words, how readily available is an attitude about an object, issue, or situation. Issue involvement is the relevance and salience of an issue or situation to an individual. Issue involvement has been correlated with both attitude access and attitude strength. Past studies conclude accessible attitudes are more resistant to changeDISCUSSION

Implicit and explicit attitudes

There is also considerable research on implicit attitudesImplicit Association TestThe Implicit Association Test is an experimental method within social psychology designed to measure the strength of automatic association between mental representations of objects in memory...

, which are generally unacknowledged or outside of awareness, but have effects that are measurable through sophisticated methods using people's response times to stimuli. Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect people's behavior, though in different ways. They tend not to be strongly associated with each other, although in some cases they are. The relationship between them is poorly understood.

Jung's definition

Attitude is one of Jung'sCarl JungCarl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist, an influential thinker and the founder of analytical psychology. Jung is considered as the first modern psychologist to state that the human psyche is "by nature religious" and to explore it in depth...

 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological TypesPsychological TypesPsychological Types is the title of the sixth volume in the Princeton / Bollingen edition of the Collected Works of Carl Jung. The original German language edition, "Psychologische Typen", was first published by Rascher Verlag, Zurich in 1921....

. Jung's definition of attitude is a "readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain way" (Jung, [1921] 1971:par. 687). Attitudes very often come in pairs, one conscious and the other unconscious. Within this broad definition Jung defines several attitudes.

The main (but not only) attitude dualities that Jung defines are the following. Consciousness and the unconscious. The "presence of two attitudes is extremely

frequent, one conscious and the other unconscious. This means that consciousness has a constellation of contents different from that of the unconscious, a duality particularly evident in neurosis

Jung's theory of neurosis

Jung's theory of neurosis is based on the premise of a self-regulating psyche composed of tensions between opposing attitudes of the ego and the unconscious. A neurosis is a significant unresolved tension between these contending attitudes. Each neurosis is unique, and different things work in...

" (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 687).

Extraversion and introversion. This pair is so elementary to Jung's theory of types that he labeled them the "attitude-types".

Rational and irrational attitudes. "I conceive reason as an attitude" (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 785).

The rational attitude subdivides into the thinking and feeling psychological functions, each with its attitude.

The irrational attitude subdivides into the sensing and intuition psychological functions, each with its attitude. "There is thus a typical thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuitive attitude" (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 691).

Individual and social attitudes. Many of the latter are "isms".

In addition, Jung discusses the abstract attitude. “When I take an abstract attitude...” (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 679).AbstractionAbstractionAbstraction is a cognitive process by which higher, more abstract concepts are derived from the usage and classification of literal, "real," or "concrete" concepts....

 is contrasted with concretismConcretismConcretism may refer to one of the following*Concrete art, a form of abstractionism*Concrete poetry*Reism, a philosophical movement*concretism , an opposite of abstraction, see Attitude_*Reification...

. “CONCRETISM. By this I mean a peculiarity of thinking and feeling which is the antithesis of abstraction” (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 696).For example "i hate his attitude for being Sarcastic.

MBTI definition

The MBTI write-ups limit the use of "attitude" to the extraversion-introversion (EI) and judging-perceiving (JP) indexes.

The above MBTI Manual statement, is restricted to EI," is directly contradicted by Jung's statement above that there is "a typical thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuitive attitude" and by his other uses of the term "attitude". Regardless of whether the MBTI simplification (or oversimplification) of Jung can be attributed to Myers, Gifts Differing refers only to the "EI preference", consistently avoiding the label "attitude". Regarding the JP index, in Gifts Differing Myers does use the terms "the perceptive attitude and the judging attitude" (Myers, 1980:8). The JP index corresponds to the irrational and rational attitudes Jung describes, except that the MBTI focuses on the preferred orientation in the outer world in order to identify the function hierarchy. To be consistent with Jung, it can be noted that a rational extraverted preference is accompanied by an irrational introverted preference.

See also

Cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, or by justifying or rationalizing them...

Elaboration likelihood model

Elaboration likelihood model

The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion is a model of how attitudes are formed and changed that was developed by R. E. Petty and J. T. Cacioppo in the early 1980's . Central to this model is the "elaboration continuum", which ranges from low elaboration to high elaboration...

Propositional attitude

Propositional attitude

A propositional attitude is a relational mental state connecting a person to a proposition. They are often assumed to be the simplest components of thought and can express meanings or content that can be true or false...

Social psychology

Social psychology

Social psychology is the study of the relations between people and groups. Scholars in this interdisciplinary area are typically either psychologists or sociologists, though all social psychologists employ both the individual and the group as their units of analysis.Despite their similarity,...

Theory of reasoned action

Theory of reasoned action

The theory of reasoned action , developed by Martin Fishbein and , derived from previous research that started out as the theory of attitude, which led to the study of attitude and behavior...

Theory of planned behaviour Expectancy-value theory

Expectancy-value theory

-Introduction:Expectancy-value theory was originally created in order to explain and predict individual's attitudes toward objects and actions. Originally the work of psychologist Martin Fishbein, the theory states that attitudes are developed and modified based on assessments about beliefs and...

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