IntroductionIntroduction．． The PacificThe Pacific

．． Tok PisinTok Pisin

．． HawaiiHawaii

．． FijiFiji

The PacificThe Pacific

A large number of indigenous A large number of indigenous languages, Asian mainland languages, Asian mainland languages, half a dozen European languages, half a dozen European languages and a number of pidgins languages and a number of pidgins and creoles.and creoles.

The Austronesians brought many The Austronesians brought many varieties of Austronesian langauges.varieties of Austronesian langauges.

English is the official language.English is the official language.

Language contact in the PacificLanguage contact in the Pacific

German in the PacificGerman in the Pacific The first German trading depot was The first German trading depot was

established on Samoa in 1856.established on Samoa in 1856. Tok Pisin has the greatest German Tok Pisin has the greatest German

influence.influence. GadenGaden in Tok Pisin(German in Tok Pisin(German GartenGarten

and English and English gardengarden).).

French in the PacificFrench in the PacificThe French were relative latecomers to the The French were relative latecomers to the pacific.pacific.

English in the PacificEnglish in the PacificA number of varieties of English can be A number of varieties of English can be found in the Pacific: Australian, American, found in the Pacific: Australian, American, and British varieties in addition to English-and British varieties in addition to English-based pidgins and creoles.based pidgins and creoles.

．． First brought by Captain Cook.First brought by Captain Cook.．． The best documented case of The best documented case of

English language influence in English language influence in Polynesia is Hawaii.Polynesia is Hawaii.

Contact languages in the PacificContact languages in the Pacific．． The earliest pidgins in Oceania were The earliest pidgins in Oceania were

Portuguese-based.Portuguese-based.．． Tok Pisin and Hawaii Pidgin/Creole Tok Pisin and Hawaii Pidgin/Creole

English are the best documented English are the best documented Pacific pidgins and creoles.Pacific pidgins and creoles.

Extent of nativisation of English in Extent of nativisation of English in the Pacificthe Pacific

Papua New Guinea English had Papua New Guinea English had develop distinctive patterns of its develop distinctive patterns of its own.own.

Damages, harms, informations, Damages, harms, informations, equipemtns.equipemtns.

Attitudes to English in the PacificAttitudes to English in the Pacific

Many reflect their failure to regard Many reflect their failure to regard pidgin English as a real language.pidgin English as a real language.

Europeans commonly think pidgin Europeans commonly think pidgin English is just a special form of English is just a special form of English.English.

It is likely that ambivalence towards It is likely that ambivalence towards the use of and role of English via Tok the use of and role of English via Tok Pisin will continue for some time to Pisin will continue for some time to come.come.

Gaps in researchGaps in research

The history of research on pidgin, The history of research on pidgin, creole and indigenous languages of creole and indigenous languages of the Pacific has been largely dictated the Pacific has been largely dictated by non-scholarly concerns.by non-scholarly concerns.

English language will play an English language will play an increasingly important role as a increasingly important role as a means of cross-cultural means of cross-cultural communication within and outside communication within and outside the Pacific.the Pacific.

Tok Pisin is one of the three national Tok Pisin is one of the three national languages of Papua New Guinea. It is a languages of Papua New Guinea. It is a form of Melanesian Pidgin English that was form of Melanesian Pidgin English that was developed in the early 1800's as a result developed in the early 1800's as a result of increased travel and economic activity of increased travel and economic activity between the Melanesians and Europeans, between the Melanesians and Europeans, and is still used today as one of the most and is still used today as one of the most dominant and universal languages in the dominant and universal languages in the country of Papua New Guinea. country of Papua New Guinea.

In a country that is said to have over over In a country that is said to have over over 800 languages still in existence, Tok Pisin 800 languages still in existence, Tok Pisin is and integral part of communication for is and integral part of communication for almost all native citizens. almost all native citizens.

Tok PisinTok Pisin

Most studies of creolisation have Most studies of creolisation have emphasised the massive qualitative emphasised the massive qualitative changes accompanying the changes accompanying the acquisition of a pidgin as a native acquisition of a pidgin as a native language by a new generation of language by a new generation of children.children.

More numerous and, arguably, More numerous and, arguably, equally important, are instances equally important, are instances where the expansion of a pidgin where the expansion of a pidgin occurs with a generation of adult occurs with a generation of adult speakers who change their primary speakers who change their primary language as they migrate to the new language as they migrate to the new urban centres of the developing urban centres of the developing nations.nations.

A pidgin language such as Tok Pisin A pidgin language such as Tok Pisin offers a form of verbal interaction offers a form of verbal interaction without the restrictions and taboos without the restrictions and taboos found in male-female discourse in found in male-female discourse in traditional societies.traditional societies.

Speech is typically initiated and Speech is typically initiated and dominated by males in these texts dominated by males in these texts and that the relationship of males with and that the relationship of males with females is seen in terms of metaphors females is seen in terms of metaphors such as consumption of food.such as consumption of food.

The data presented here illustrate The data presented here illustrate the continued growth of Tok Pisin the continued growth of Tok Pisin resulting from its extension to new resulting from its extension to new domains and functions in non-domains and functions in non-traditional settings.traditional settings.

Sociolinguistic variation and Sociolinguistic variation and language attitudes in Hawaiilanguage attitudes in Hawaii

Hawaii, with a population of about Hawaii, with a population of about one million, is the only American one million, is the only American state in which no single ethnic group state in which no single ethnic group is a numerical majority, and where is a numerical majority, and where most of the people are of Asian and most of the people are of Asian and pacific rather than European or pacific rather than European or African origin.African origin.

Hawaii’s cultural diversity is largely Hawaii’s cultural diversity is largely the result of massive labour the result of massive labour importation, triggered by the importation, triggered by the development of sugar plantations by development of sugar plantations by north Americans during the late north Americans during the late nineteenth and early twentieth nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.centuries.

The emergence of a creole The emergence of a creole continuumcontinuum

On the plantations, which were first On the plantations, which were first worked primarily by native worked primarily by native Hawaiians, a pidginised Hawaiian Hawaiians, a pidginised Hawaiian developed by the end of the developed by the end of the nineteenth century.nineteenth century.

This later gave way to a pidginised This later gave way to a pidginised English – Hawaii Pidgin English (HPE)English – Hawaii Pidgin English (HPE)

Hawaii Creole English (HCE) was Hawaii Creole English (HCE) was initially created by the first Hawaii-initially created by the first Hawaii-born children of the plantation born children of the plantation communities and further developed communities and further developed by subsequent generations of local by subsequent generations of local people.people.

Whereas HPE speakers typically have Whereas HPE speakers typically have an accent influenced by their first an accent influenced by their first language, HCE speakers’ accent is language, HCE speakers’ accent is that of their first language.that of their first language.

Attitudes HCE and SEAttitudes HCE and SE

Negative attitude toward HCE and a Negative attitude toward HCE and a positive one toward SE.positive one toward SE.

HCE is low academic achievement HCE is low academic achievement and low socioeconomic status.and low socioeconomic status.

HCE in the classroomHCE in the classroom

Hawaii Board of Education (BOE) Hawaii Board of Education (BOE) formulated a policy on ‘Standard formulated a policy on ‘Standard English and Oral Communication,’ a English and Oral Communication,’ a preliminary version of which preliminary version of which mandated that ‘Standard English mandated that ‘Standard English would be the mode of oral would be the mode of oral communication for students and staff communication for students and staff in the classroom. in the classroom.

Several months after the BOE’s action, an Several months after the BOE’s action, an informal survey of 986 graduating students informal survey of 986 graduating students at public and private high schools across the at public and private high schools across the state was conducted by a major Honolulu state was conducted by a major Honolulu newspaper to gauge student sentiment newspaper to gauge student sentiment about the role of HCE in the classroom.about the role of HCE in the classroom.

Whereas only 26 per cent of the private Whereas only 26 per cent of the private school students surveyed felt that HCE use school students surveyed felt that HCE use should be allowed in school, 54 per cent of should be allowed in school, 54 per cent of the public school students supported this the public school students supported this idea.idea.

Students attending rural public Students attending rural public schools show much stronger loyalty schools show much stronger loyalty to HCE than the urban private school to HCE than the urban private school students from middle and upper-students from middle and upper-income families.income families.

Attitudes and sociolinguistic Attitudes and sociolinguistic variationvariation

Negative stereotypes of HCE and Negative stereotypes of HCE and positive stereotypes of SE are still positive stereotypes of SE are still held by many in the community.held by many in the community.

The recent educational and legal The recent educational and legal controversies seem to have controversies seem to have sharpened the community’s sense of sharpened the community’s sense of HCE as a marker of local identity.HCE as a marker of local identity.

None of those who argued against None of those who argued against the BOE’s policy denied the the BOE’s policy denied the importance of acquiring academic importance of acquiring academic English and, particularly, literacy in English and, particularly, literacy in SE.SE.

Public policy can no longer ignore the Public policy can no longer ignore the linguistic systematicity and cultural linguistic systematicity and cultural significance of HCE.significance of HCE.

To the extent that speakers choose To the extent that speakers choose to accentuate their localness to accentuate their localness linguistically, there will be some linguistically, there will be some degree of refocusing of HCE.degree of refocusing of HCE.

Variation in Fiji EnglishVariation in Fiji English

English is the national language of English is the national language of Fiji, used in government, business, Fiji, used in government, business, and education. It is also the lingua and education. It is also the lingua franca among the many ethnic franca among the many ethnic groups of the country.groups of the country.

A distinctive local variety of English A distinctive local variety of English is characterised by certain non-is characterised by certain non-standard linguistic features.standard linguistic features.

The Fiji English, is a linguistic The Fiji English, is a linguistic continuum with variation according continuum with variation according to the frequency of occurrence of to the frequency of occurrence of these nonstandard features, here these nonstandard features, here called markers.called markers.

Differences between groupsDifferences between groups

The different frequencies of The different frequencies of occurrence of the markers may reflect occurrence of the markers may reflect stylistic differences depending on the stylistic differences depending on the situational factors of setting and topic.situational factors of setting and topic.

One would expect a lower occurrence One would expect a lower occurrence of the markers in more formal of the markers in more formal situations.situations.

Girls were in the more formal Girls were in the more formal environment of a school whereas the environment of a school whereas the boys were in a playground.boys were in a playground.

One of the most significant social One of the most significant social differences between the two groups differences between the two groups of subjects may be level of education.of subjects may be level of education.

Certain non standard features may Certain non standard features may occur less frequently in the speech of occur less frequently in the speech of the girls because of their higher level the girls because of their higher level of education. But other nonstandard of education. But other nonstandard features occur more frequently features occur more frequently because they may have become more because they may have become more standard features of the colloquial standard features of the colloquial informal variety.informal variety.

The frequency of occurrence of some The frequency of occurrence of some of the linguistic markers which of the linguistic markers which identify BFE may be changing over identify BFE may be changing over time while others remain constant.time while others remain constant.