Introduction, Acquiring Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Knowledge, and the Scientific

MethodMethod

Chapter 1Chapter 1

Dusana RybarovaDusana RybarovaPsyc 290B Psyc 290B

May 15 2006May 15 2006

OutlineOutline1.1. Introduction to research methodologyIntroduction to research methodology

- Why take a research methods class and how - Why take a research methods class and how is understanding research methodology is understanding research methodology useful?useful?

2.2. Methods of InquiryMethods of Inquiry- The method of authority, The method of - The method of authority, The method of intuition, The method of tenacity,The rational intuition, The method of tenacity,The rational method, The method of empiricismmethod, The method of empiricism

3.3. The scientific methodThe scientific method- the 5 steps of the scientific method- the 5 steps of the scientific method

4.4. The research processThe research process- the 10 steps of the research process- the 10 steps of the research process

1. Introduction to research 1. Introduction to research methodologymethodology

• How is understanding research How is understanding research methodology useful?methodology useful?– Psychology is a sciencePsychology is a science

•this means that psychologists and behavioral this means that psychologists and behavioral scientists in general use the methods of scientists in general use the methods of science to gather and interpret informationscience to gather and interpret information

•science provides a carefully developed system science provides a carefully developed system for answering questions so that the answers for answering questions so that the answers we get are as accurate, objective and we get are as accurate, objective and complete as possiblecomplete as possible

1. Introduction to research 1. Introduction to research methodology (cont.)methodology (cont.)

• How is understanding research How is understanding research methodology useful?methodology useful?– Conducting a studyConducting a study

•one might object that you do not plan to one might object that you do not plan to conduct any studies in the futureconduct any studies in the future

•each student in this class has to develop a each student in this class has to develop a research outline following the 10 steps of research outline following the 10 steps of research processresearch process

•to keep up to date in your profession, you will to keep up to date in your profession, you will probably need to read and understand the probably need to read and understand the most recent research publicationsmost recent research publications

1. Introduction to research 1. Introduction to research methodology (cont.)methodology (cont.)

• How is understanding research How is understanding research methodology useful?methodology useful?– Reading and Evaluating Other People’s Reading and Evaluating Other People’s

StudiesStudies•this class will help you critically evaluate the this class will help you critically evaluate the

research presented in journal articlesresearch presented in journal articles

•you will be able to determine to what extent you will be able to determine to what extent the evidence supports conclusionsthe evidence supports conclusions

1. Introduction to research 1. Introduction to research methodology (cont.)methodology (cont.)

• How is understanding research How is understanding research methodology useful?methodology useful?– Understanding brief descriptions of Understanding brief descriptions of

studiesstudies•there are basic principles that every scientific there are basic principles that every scientific

study follows and knowing about these study follows and knowing about these principles will help you to better understand principles will help you to better understand the meaning of abbreviated descriptions of the meaning of abbreviated descriptions of studies that you will find in your textbooks for studies that you will find in your textbooks for other classesother classes

1. Introduction to research 1. Introduction to research methodology (cont.)methodology (cont.)

• How is understanding research How is understanding research methodology useful?methodology useful?– Making decisions in our daily livesMaking decisions in our daily lives

•you must understand and appreciate the role and you must understand and appreciate the role and capabilities of science and experimentation so capabilities of science and experimentation so that you can evaluate and act on research resultsthat you can evaluate and act on research results

•e.g. ads for weight-loss programse.g. ads for weight-loss programs

•this class will help you make educated decisions this class will help you make educated decisions about the research claims you encounter in about the research claims you encounter in everyday lifeeveryday life

1. Introduction to research 1. Introduction to research methodology (cont.)methodology (cont.)

• How is understanding research How is understanding research methodology useful?methodology useful?– Being a better thinkerBeing a better thinker

•science is a logical and objective method of science is a logical and objective method of critical thinkingcritical thinking

•this class may help you to evaluate evidence this class may help you to evaluate evidence in a more sophisticated way and make a in a more sophisticated way and make a more objective decisions in everyday lifemore objective decisions in everyday life

2. Methods of Inquiry2. Methods of Inquiry

• methods of inquiry are ways in which methods of inquiry are ways in which a person can know things or discover a person can know things or discover answers to questionsanswers to questions

Method of authorityMethod of authority– a person relies on information or answers a person relies on information or answers

from an expert in the subject area from an expert in the subject area – ProblemsProblems

•people sometimes assume that a person’s status people sometimes assume that a person’s status as an authority in one area transfers into some as an authority in one area transfers into some other area (e.g. athletes eating cereals are not other area (e.g. athletes eating cereals are not nutrition experts)nutrition experts)

•authorities can be biased (e.g. psychodynamic vs. authorities can be biased (e.g. psychodynamic vs. behavioral psychologists)behavioral psychologists)

•answers from an expert may represent subjective answers from an expert may represent subjective opinion rather than true expert knowledgeopinion rather than true expert knowledge

•expert’s statements are often accepted without expert’s statements are often accepted without questionquestion

• just being called an expert does not make just being called an expert does not make someone an expertsomeone an expert

• The method of intuitionThe method of intuition– information is accepted as true because it “feels information is accepted as true because it “feels

right”; you rely on your intuition right”; you rely on your intuition – ProblemProblem

• reliabilityreliability

• there is not mechanism for separating accurate from there is not mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledgeinaccurate knowledge

• The method of tenacityThe method of tenacity– information is accepted as true because it has information is accepted as true because it has

always been believed or because superstition always been believed or because superstition supports it (e.g. black cats and “opposites supports it (e.g. black cats and “opposites attract”)attract”)

– ProblemProblem• accuracyaccuracy

• difficult to correct in the face of evidencedifficult to correct in the face of evidence

The rational methodThe rational method– involves seeking answers by logical reasoninginvolves seeking answers by logical reasoning– uses arguments consisting of premises and uses arguments consisting of premises and

conclusionsconclusions– if the premise statements are true and the logic is if the premise statements are true and the logic is

sound, then the conclusion is guaranteed to be sound, then the conclusion is guaranteed to be correctcorrect

– Example:Example:

All 3-year-old children are afraid of the dark.All 3-year-old children are afraid of the dark.

Amy is a 3-year-old girl.Amy is a 3-year-old girl.

Therefore, Amy is afraid of the dark.Therefore, Amy is afraid of the dark.– ProblemsProblems

• unless the premise statements are absolutely true, we unless the premise statements are absolutely true, we cannot draw any conclusions about Amycannot draw any conclusions about Amy

• people are not particularly good at logical reasoningpeople are not particularly good at logical reasoning

The rational method (cont.)The rational method (cont.)Compare the logic of these two Compare the logic of these two

examples:examples:

• Example 1Example 1

All psychologists are human.All psychologists are human.

Some humans are women.Some humans are women.

Therefore, some Therefore, some psychologists are women.psychologists are women.

• Example 2Example 2

All apples are fruits.All apples are fruits.

Some fruits are oranges.Some fruits are oranges.

Therefore, some apples are Therefore, some apples are orangesoranges

Method of empiricismMethod of empiricism

– uses observation or direct sensory uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledgeexperience to obtain knowledge

– ProblemsProblems•we can not necessarily believe everything we we can not necessarily believe everything we

see (e.g. illusions)see (e.g. illusions)

•misinterpretation of observationmisinterpretation of observation

•your perceptions can be drastically altered by your perceptions can be drastically altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings and prior knowledge, expectations, feelings and beliefsbeliefs

•Can be dangerousCan be dangerous

3. The scientific method3. The scientific method

• the scientific method is an approach the scientific method is an approach to acquiring knowledge that contains to acquiring knowledge that contains many elements of the methods many elements of the methods previously discussedpreviously discussed

• it tries to avoid pitfalls of any it tries to avoid pitfalls of any individual method used by itselfindividual method used by itself

The steps of scientific methodThe steps of scientific method

– Step 1: Observe Behavior or Other PhenomenaStep 1: Observe Behavior or Other Phenomena• often based on informal observationsoften based on informal observations• often based on inductive reasoning: using a relatively often based on inductive reasoning: using a relatively

small set of specific observations to form general small set of specific observations to form general statementstatement

– Step 2: Form a Tentative Answer or Explanation Step 2: Form a Tentative Answer or Explanation (Hypothesis)(Hypothesis)• hypothesis is a possible explanation that is intended to hypothesis is a possible explanation that is intended to

be tested and critically evaluatedbe tested and critically evaluated

– Step 3: Use the hypothesis to generate a Step 3: Use the hypothesis to generate a testable predictiontestable prediction• more specific and concrete version of the original more specific and concrete version of the original

hypothesishypothesis

– Step 4: Evaluate the prediction by making Step 4: Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observationsystematic, planned observation• this involves research / data collectionthis involves research / data collection

The steps of scientific The steps of scientific methodmethod

– Step 5: Use the observations to support, Step 5: Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesisrefute, or refine the original hypothesis•compare the actual results of step 4 with the compare the actual results of step 4 with the

prediction made in step 3prediction made in step 3•based on the results decide whether the based on the results decide whether the

original hypothesis was true, false or can not original hypothesis was true, false or can not be refuted or confirmed based on the be refuted or confirmed based on the obtained dataobtained data

•decide on further aspects of the hypothesis decide on further aspects of the hypothesis to be tested (this step can serve as step 1 of to be tested (this step can serve as step 1 of another cycle of scientific inquiry)another cycle of scientific inquiry)

Other elements of the Other elements of the scientific methodscientific method

– science is empiricalscience is empirical• it involves structured or systematic observationit involves structured or systematic observation

– science is publicscience is public• scientific method makes observations available for scientific method makes observations available for

evaluation by others (especially other scientists) by evaluation by others (especially other scientists) by publishing them in scientific journalspublishing them in scientific journals

• other scientists should be able to repeat the same other scientists should be able to repeat the same step-by-step process that led to the observationsstep-by-step process that led to the observations

• replicationreplication – repetition of observation, allows – repetition of observation, allows verification of findingsverification of findings

– science is objectivescience is objective• minimizes the influence of minimizes the influence of experimenter biasexperimenter bias – the – the

influence of researcher’s biases and beliefs on the influence of researcher’s biases and beliefs on the outcome of the studyoutcome of the study

4. The research process4. The research process

• Step 1: Find a research ideaStep 1: Find a research idea– selecting general topic, reviewing the literature selecting general topic, reviewing the literature

(previous research)(previous research)• Step 2: Convert your research idea into a Step 2: Convert your research idea into a

specific research hypothesisspecific research hypothesis– Hypothesis is a statement about the relationship Hypothesis is a statement about the relationship

between two (or more) variablesbetween two (or more) variables– a good hypothesis must be testable (all of the a good hypothesis must be testable (all of the

variables, events, and individuals are real and can variables, events, and individuals are real and can be defined and observed)be defined and observed)

– a good hypothesis is refutable (it can be a good hypothesis is refutable (it can be demonstrated to be false, allows for the possibility demonstrated to be false, allows for the possibility that the outcome will differ from the prediction)that the outcome will differ from the prediction)

4. The research process 4. The research process (cont.)(cont.)

• Step 3: Determine how you will define and Step 3: Determine how you will define and measure your variablesmeasure your variables– make a specific prediction about the outcome make a specific prediction about the outcome

of empirical observationof empirical observation

•e.g. people who watch more violent e.g. people who watch more violent programs are more aggressive than those programs are more aggressive than those who watch less TV violencewho watch less TV violence

• Step 4: Identify the participants or subjectsStep 4: Identify the participants or subjects– select the subject groupselect the subject group

4. The research process 4. The research process (cont.)(cont.)

• Step 5: Select a research strategyStep 5: Select a research strategy– the type of question asked (existence of a the type of question asked (existence of a

relationship vs. causal relationship)relationship vs. causal relationship)– ethics and other constraintsethics and other constraints

• Step 6: Select a research designStep 6: Select a research design– make decisions about the specific make decisions about the specific

methods and procedures you will use to methods and procedures you will use to conduct the research study (one conduct the research study (one individual vs. more, comparisons at the individual vs. more, comparisons at the same time or over a period of time)same time or over a period of time)

4. The research process 4. The research process (cont.)(cont.)

• Step 7: Conduct the studyStep 7: Conduct the study– decide whether the study will be decide whether the study will be

conducted in a laboratory or in the fieldconducted in a laboratory or in the field

• Step 8: Evaluate the dataStep 8: Evaluate the data– use statistical methods to examine and use statistical methods to examine and

evaluate the dataevaluate the data

4. The research process 4. The research process (cont.)(cont.)

• Step 9: Report the resultsStep 9: Report the results– describe what was done and how the describe what was done and how the

findings were interpretedfindings were interpreted

• Step 10: Refine or reformulate your Step 10: Refine or reformulate your research idearesearch idea– test the boundaries of the resultstest the boundaries of the results– refine the original researchrefine the original research