International Organizations: An Alternative Structure

PS 130 World PoliticsMichael R. Baysdell

Saginaw Valley State University

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An Overview of International Organizations

• Function:– General or specialized

• Geographical:– Global or regional

• Intergovernmental (IGOs) or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

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The Origins of IGOs

• Belief in a community of humankind• Developmental stages:– League of Nations– United Nations

• Big-power peacekeeping:– UN Security Council

• Pragmatic cooperation:– Wide range of specialized agencies: Central

Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (1815) is the oldest

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The Growth of IGOs

• Rapid growth in the number of all types of IGOs during the 20th century

• Qualitative growth as well– Roles of IGOs are expanding and taking on new

global issues and functions– Example: International Mobile Satellite

Organization (IMMARSAT)

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Theories of IGO Growth• Functionalism:– “Bottom-up” evolutionary approach– Necessity is the mother of invention:– Begins with limited, pragmatic cooperation on

narrow, nonpolitical issues that leads to broader and higher levels of cooperation later on

– EECECEU• Neofunctionalism:– “Top-down” approach – Need to establish independent and powerful IGOs to

address current political issues– International Criminal Court

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Reasons for Growth

• Increased international contact• Increased global interdependence• Expansion of transnational problems• Failure of state-centered system to provide security• Efforts of small states to gain strength through joint

action• Successful role models

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Role of IGOs: Interactive Arena• Interactive arena where nations pursue self-interest– Disadvantages of using IGO as an interactive arena:• IGO becomes focus of struggle and not forum for

cooperation• Reduced support for IGOs if they do not promote

national interests and/or goals– Advantages of use of IGO as an interactive arena:• Intergovernmentalism• Using IGO makes it politically easier to take action

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Role of IGOs: Center of Cooperation

• Promote and facilitate cooperation on specific issues, often nonpolitical

• Seek to build trust and solve social and economic issues that transcend national borders

• Regime theory: A complex of IGOs, NGOs, norms of behavior, processes, and treaties that govern national and international actors– Create settings for interaction and cooperation– The Regime for the Oceans and Seas– The Law of the Sea Treaty creates global norms;

even non-signatories proclaim 12 mile territorial sea

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Role of IGOs: Independent International Actor

• Permanent administrative IGO staff increases its authority and role

• Role of mediation and conciliation

• Organizational independence

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Role of IGOs: Supranational Organization, continued

• Specialized supranational governance:– World Trade Organization

• Regional government:– European Union– Task of overcoming nationalism and bringing

heterogeneous peoples together easier than global government

– Allows for greater cultural diversity and political experimentation than global government

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Role of IGOs: Supranational Organization, continued

• World government:– Far-reaching alternative facing many criticisms concerning

its adverse effects on national sovereignty, cultural diversity, and political experimentation,

– Concern about the ability of world government to preserve and extend democracy in countries around the world.

– Doubts about the problem-solving effectiveness and unprecedented concentration of power required to enforce international law and address world's daunting economic and social problems.

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Role of IGOs: Supranational Organization, continued

Issues for structuring a world or regional government– Centralized, federal or confederal government– Allocation of decision-making authority and power to different

executive, legislative, and judicial institutions– Democratic opting-out rights to member nations– Uniform monetary policy, common currency, and consensus trade

rules– Preserving individual human rights and liberties in each nation

through constitutional and judicial protections– Admission criteria for new members

The United Nations

• Best known and most influential IGO

• Structure and rules are important for success and are consistently being challenged

History of the UN

• Formed after the fall of the League of Nations which could not Formed after the fall of the League of Nations which could not successfully rule as a governing body and WW IIsuccessfully rule as a governing body and WW II

• Has the ability to maintain and deploy its member nations' Has the ability to maintain and deploy its member nations' armed forces as peace keepers.armed forces as peace keepers.

• The term "United Nations" was suggested by Franklin D. The term "United Nations" was suggested by Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II, to refer to the Allies.Roosevelt during World War II, to refer to the Allies.

• From August to October 1944, representatives of France, the From August to October 1944, representatives of France, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union met to elaborate the plans at the Dumbarton the Soviet Union met to elaborate the plans at the Dumbarton Oaks Estate in Washington, DC. Those and later talks Oaks Estate in Washington, DC. Those and later talks produced the framework of the UN (finalized in San Francisco)produced the framework of the UN (finalized in San Francisco)

• Originally 51 member countries in 1945Originally 51 member countries in 1945• Now over 200 membersNow over 200 members

UN Financing

• Financed by two methods: Assessed and Voluntary

• Assessed is decided by how large and wealthy the member country is, therefore determining the amount of money it is able to allocate to the UN (decided when the UN makes it’s budget every two years).

• There is a ceiling rate for countries so the UN is not dependent one country for its money. The ceiling rate is now 22%. Only the United States meets this amount.

UN General Assembly• Meets in regular yearly sessions under a president

elected from among the representatives.• Only UN organ in which all members are represented • Serves as a forum for members to discuss issues of

international law and make decisions on the functioning of the organization.

• Begins on the third Tuesday in September and ends in mid-December

• President elected at the beginning of each session • Hold special session under request of Security

Council if majority of members or majority of a single member

• “Uniting for Peace” Resolution has not been effective

Voting in the General Assembly

• Voting on important issues--recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; budgetary matters--is by a 2/3 majority of those present and voting.

• Other questions are decided by majority vote.

• Each member country has one vote, no matter its size or population

Security Council

• The Security Council has the power to make decisions which member governments must carry out under the United Nations Charter.

• Deals with threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of aggression.

• Decisions of the Council are known as UN Security Council Resolutions.

• Presidency of the Security Council is rotated and lasts for one month.

• Members must always be present at UN headquarters in New York so that the Security Council can meet at any time—weakness in League of Nations

• Revolving President sets the agenda, presides at meetings and oversees any crisis - alternates in alphabetical order

• Permanent Members (5) Republic of China, French Republic, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America

• Elected Members (10) elected to 2 year terms

The Secretariat• One of the main organs of the UN

• Headed by the Secretary General, and other civil servants, and provides information for UN Assembly meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other U.N. bodies.

• The United Nations Charter provides that the staff be chosen by application of the "highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity," with due regard for the importance of recruiting on a wide geographical basis

• The Secretary General’s duties include:• -helping resolve international disputes, • -administering peacekeeping operations, • -organizing international conferences, • -gathering information on the implementation of Security Council decisions, and • -consulting with member governments regarding various initiatives.• The Secretary General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter

that, in his or her opinion, may threaten international peace and security.

Offices under the Secretariat• United Nations Office of the Secretary-General • United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services • United Nations Office of Legal Affairs • United Nations Department of Political Affairs • United Nations Department for Disarmament Affairs • United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations • United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs • United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs • United Nations Department of General Assembly and Conference Management • United Nations Department of Public Information • United Nations Department of Management • United Nations Office of the Iraq Program • United Nations Office of the United Nations Security Coordinator • United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, • Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States • United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime • United Nations Office at Geneva • United Nations Office at Vienna • United Nations Office at Nairobi

UN Secretaries General

• Trygve Lie, Norway (1945-1953)

• Dag Hammarskjöld, Sweden (1953-1961)

• U Thant, Burma (1961-1971)

• Kurt Waldheim, Austria (1972-1981)

• Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Peru (1982-1991)

• Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egypt (1992-1996)

• Kofi Annan, Ghana (1997-2006)

• Ban Ki-moon, South Korea (2006-present)

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Membership Issues

• Standards for admitting new members:– The Palestinian question– Kosovo/Serbia dispute

• Successor state status:– USSR -> Russia

• Withdrawal, suspension, or expulsion:– Nationalist China (Taiwan), South Africa during

apartheid

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Representative Bodies

• Usually some plenary representative body (UN General Assembly)

• Limited membership council (UN Security Council—only five permanent members)– Highly criticized:• Inaccurate reflection of power realities• Geographic and demographic imbalance• Inequitable and unlimited veto power• Transparency and accountability of decisions• Ineffective implementation of Security Council

resolutions

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Voting Formulas

• Majority vote: 1 state, 1 vote.– UN General Assembly

• Weighted voting by population or wealth• Negative voting:– Unanimity requirement– Veto power:• UN Security Council

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IGO Leadership

• Secretariat: Political and regional selection considerations

• Role: Activism versus restraint• Cases of the UN secretary-generals:– Dag Hammarskjold (1953–1961)– Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992–1996)– Kofi Annan (1997–2006)– Ban Ki-moon (2007-Present)

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IGO Bureaucracy

• Size• Restraints on selection of Secretariat staff–Dominant powers make appointments–Geographic and gender composition of staff

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UN Administration

• Administrative reform:– Staff and budget considerations and cutbacks– Issues of gender equality– Corruption (e.g., Iraq Oil for Food Program)

• Putting charges of maladministration in perspective:– U.S. comparisons

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Financing the United Nations:The Elements of the UN Budget

• Core budget• Peacekeeping budget• Voluntary contributions budget• Severe and controversial budget problems• Dependent on assessment with little power

to raise support

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UN Budget Crunch

• Growing cost of operations• Size of bureaucracy• Unwillingness of member-countries to pay

dues– U.S. debt cleared by Congress only recently

• Criticism of assessment scheme: eight countries pay 76% of costs

European Union

Member/Potential Member Countries of the EU

Demographics• Institution sites: Brussels, Luxembourg, Strasbourg

• Monetary Authority: European Central Bank

• 27 Member States

• Currency: Euro

• 23 official Languages

• Area: 4,324,782 km² (7th)

• Population:497,198,740 (3rd)

• 114 people/square km

• GDP: $14.712 trillion  (1st) U.S. $14.5T

• Life Expectancy: 78 years total population/75.8 for males and 81.9 for females

• Major Imports: oil, electrical machinery, office machines

• Major Exports: road vehicles, electrical machinery, industrial machinery

• European Anthem: “Hymn to Joy”

History of European Integration• 1946- Winston Churchill gives speech at the University of Zürich, calling for a

"United States of Europe"• 1949- Formation of the Council of Europe• 1950- Robert Schuman presented his proposal for the creation of an

integrated Europe. This proposal, known as the "Schuman Declaration", is considered to be the beginning of the creation of what is now the European Union.

• 1951- Treaty of Paris forms the European Coal and Steel Community. Six founding countries: Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany, France, Italy

• 1954- French National Assembly refuses to ratify the European Defense Community treaty

• 1957- Treaty of Rome establishes the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)

• 1960- Britain and other OEEC members who didn't belong to the EEC formed an alternative association, the European Free Trade Association

• 1963- Charles DeGaulle vetoes Britain’s membership in the EEC. DeGaulle vetoes another attempt at membership in 1967.

• 1966- Luxembourg compromise• 1967- EEC, ECSC and Euratom merge into the European Community• 1972- Ireland, Denmark and Norway hold referenda on whether to join

1973- Britain successfully joins the EU.1979- First direct elections for the European Parliament1981- Greece joins the EU1985- Greenland leaves the union after home rule and a referendum1985- Schengen treaty: open borders within EU without passports1986- Portugal and Spain join the EU1986- Single European Act signed in Luxembourg1992- Maastricht Treaty1993- Criteria were drawn and established at the European Council in Copenhagen, Denmark. (Copenhagen Criteria)1997- Treaty of Amsterdam1995- Austria, Sweden and Finland (with Åland) are admitted2001- Treaty of Nice2003- Treaty of Accession signed in Athens2004-EU Constitution rejected2007- Bulgaria and Romania join the EU2007—Treaty of Lisbon negotiated2008—Treaty of Lisbon rejected by Ireland2009—Treaty of Lisbon approved by Ireland and Czech Republic; enters into force

EU History 1973-Present

• The Treaty of Paris (1951) created the European Steel and Coal Community (ESCC). • The Treaties of Rome (1957) established the European Economic Community (EEC)

and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) • The Schengen Agreement (1985) eliminated border controls between member

countries (now currently 24)• The Single European Act (1986) introduced measures aimed at achieving an

internal market and greater political cooperation. • The Maastricht Treaty (1992) established EU citizenship and the European

Monetary Union (EMU). • The Amsterdam Treaty (1997) introduced measures to reinforce political union and

prepare for enlargement towards the East. • The Nice Treaty (2001) defined the institutional changes necessary for

enlargement. • The Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe sought to simplify and synthesize

previous treaties within a single, clear, foundational document for the European Union. It was rejected in 2007 by French and Dutch voters, leading to the Treaty of Lisbon (2009) after a “period of reflection”

• The Treaty of Lisbon (2009), among other things, eliminated the pillar system and established a President of the European Council and Foreign Minister

Treaties of European Union

Schengen Agreement, 1985

• Eliminated borders between countries that were signatories

The Single European Act• Apart from minor modifications, this Treaty was the

first profound and wide-ranging constitutional reform of the EU since the 1950s.

• The SEA introduced measures aimed at achieving an internal market (for instance, harmonization) plus institutional changes related to these (such as a generalization of qualified majority voting and a cooperation procedure involving the European Parliament).

• It also provided legal form for European Political Cooperation (EPC). The SEA was signed in February 1986 and came into force on 1 July 1987.

Maastricht Treaty

• The Treaty on European Union initiated the road to political and economic and monetary union. It was drafted at a historic juncture in which the reunification of Germany and the fall of the Soviet block made necessary a re-thinking of the European project.

• Created EU citizenship and the EMU• Created the so-called three pillar structure.• 3 Pillars: European Community (EC) pillar, the Common

Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar, and the Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) pillar

• It was signed on 7 February 1992 and came into force on 1 November 1993.

Pillar 1 Issues: European Community

• Customs Union and Single Market• Common Agriculture• Common Fisheries Policy• EU competition law • EU Citizenship • Education and Culture• Trans-European Network• Consumer protection• Health Care • Research• Environmental law• Social policy• Immigration

Pillar 2 Issues: Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)

• Foreign Policy: • Human Rights• Democracy• Foreign aid

• Security policy:• European Security and Defense Policy• EU battle groups• European Rapid Reaction Force• Peacekeeping

Pillar 3 : Police & Judicial Cooperation

• Cooperation in the fight against crime. • This pillar was originally named Justice and Home

Affairs• Examples:• Drug trafficking and weapons smuggling• Terrorism• Organized crime

Ratification of Maastricht Treaty

• Difficulties in various states• A referendum in France only narrowly

supported it, with 51.05% in favor, and Denmark rejected the original treaty, only to hold a 2nd referendum and pass it

Amsterdam Treaty

• Enlargement towards the East plus several pending issues on the EU agenda prompted the negotiation of the Treaty of Amsterdam just four years after the conclusion of the Treaty of Maastricht.

• Negotiations, however, took place in a much less optimistic climate. The Treaty of Amsterdam opened the way towards reinforced or closer cooperation but it failed to resolve institutional issues created by the forthcoming enlargement.

• It was signed on 2 October 1997 and came into force on 1 May 1999.

Nice Treaty

• The Nice Treaty dealt mainly with the institutional adaptations required for the expansion of the Union to 25 Member States.

• These issues remained unresolved with the Treaty of Amsterdam and they provided the background for the one of the most difficult negotiations in the history of the Union. The Treaty was signed on 26 February 2001 and came into force on 2 February 2003.

Constitutional Treaty for Europe (2004)

• Towards the end of the 20th century, it became clear for a large number of European leaders that the EU required a re-foundation and renovation.

• From an initial agenda that included the distribution of competencies, simplification and the incorporation of the Charter of Fundamental Rights, the Convention on the Future of Europe produced a fully-fledged proposal for a Constitution or Constitutional Treaty for Europe.

• Italian and Irish Presidencies had led the negotiation and final approval of this document.

• On 29 October 2004, the Heads of State or Government of the 25 Member States and the 3 candidate countries signed the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe

• Needed to be ratified by all 25 member states of the enlarged Union.

• Rejected by French and Dutch voters in separate referenda

The Treaty of Lisbon (2009)

• Prominent changes included more qualified majority voting in the Council of Ministers

• Increased involvement of the European Parliament in the legislative process through extended co-decision with the Council of Ministers

• Eliminated the pillar system and the creation of a long-term President of the European Council and a High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy to present a united position on EU policies.

• The Treaty also made the Union's human rights charter, the Charter of Fundamental Rights, legally binding

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The Government of the EU: A Prototype• Political leadership:– Council of Ministers (Council of the European Union):

Weighted votes, sets policy• Bureaucracy:– European Commission: Implements policy– President of the Commission

• Oversight agencies• Legislature:– European Parliament

• Judiciary:– Courts of Justice, First Instance, Auditors– European Ombudsman

Judicial Branch• European Court of Justice

• European Court of Human Rights created by European Convention on Human Rights

• Single European Act established a junior Court of First Instance in 1989

The European Court of Justice• 27 judges-one from each state appointed for 6 years. Ensures that EU law is properly applied and to

resolve disputes between governments, EU institutions, and citizens over that law

• Types of Proceedings for the Court of Justice

• actions for failure to fulfill obligations under the treaties (Commission vs. member state)

• actions by one member state against another

• actions on grounds of failure to act (against Council or Commission)

• references from national courts for preliminary rulings to clarify the meaning and scope of Community law

• claims for damages against the Community

• works by unanimity unlike the U.S. Supreme Court

• all member states are obliged to accept its rulings and powers which are stated in the Treaties of Paris and Rome

• decisions are not subject to appeal

• increasingly large caseload

Other European Courts

• European Court of Human Rights• Serious challenges to sovereignty—Ireland• UK foxhunting issue

• Court of First Instance rules on:

• Staff cases

• Actions in the field of competition law

• Actions under antidumping law

• Actions under the ECSC Treaty

Executive Branch

• Headed by European Commission but now potentially by European Council President

• Jobs:

– Proposing new legislation – Implementing EU policies and the budget – Enforcing European law – Representing the EU on the international

stage

Legislative Branch

• European Parliament (EP) • Elections are held every five years • The present parliament has 785 members from all 27

EU countries. Nearly one third of them are women. • Jobs:

– Passing European laws – Democratic supervision – The power of the purse

The Council of the European Union • The Council is the EU's main decision-making body and is composed of twenty-

seven national ministers (one per state). • The exact membership depends upon the topic; for example, when discussing the

agricultural policy the Council is formed by the twenty-seven national ministers whose portfolio includes this policy area (with the related European Commissioner contributing but not voting)

• The Council has six key responsibilities:• To pass European laws – jointly with the European Parliament in many policy areas.• To co-ordinate the broad economic policies of the member states.• To conclude international agreements between the EU and other countries or

international organisations.• To approve the EU’s budget, jointly with the European Parliament.• To develop the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), based on

guidelines set by the European Council.• To co-ordinate co-operation between the national courts and police forces in

criminal matters (see the Freedom, security and justice section).• There are nine different Council configurations:

– General Affairs and External Relations– Economic and Financial Affairs (ECOFIN)– Justice and Home Affairs (JHA)– Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs– Competitiveness– Transport, Telecommunications and Energy– Agriculture and Fisheries– Environment– Education, Youth and Culture

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The Future of the European Union

• Duality about further integration; several determining and controversial factors

• Questions about further expansion, state sovereignty, jobs, agricultural trade subsidies by individual nations, Britain's refusal to adopt common currency (the Euro), and immigration

©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 55

IGO Activities:Promoting International Peace and Security

• Creating norms against violence• Providing a debate alternative• Diplomatic intervention– Inquiry, good offices, mediation,

arbitration, and adjudication

©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 56

IGO Activities, continued

• Sanctions:– Diplomatic and economic (e.g., Iran and Sudan)

• Peacekeeping:– Expanding role: from neutral buffers to military

intervention to nation-building efforts (e.g., Lebanon, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo)

• Arms Control and Disarmament:– International Atomic Energy Agency—promotes and

monitors the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons (e.g., North Korea)

©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 57

Social, Economic, Environmental, and Other Activities of IGOs

• Economic development• Human rights• The environment• International law and norms• The quality of human existence• Independence

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Evaluating IGOs and Their Future

• Standards:–What are the ultimate goals?–Has progress been made?–What is possible?–Do any alternatives exist?

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, students should be able to:• 1. Discuss the nature and development of international organization as an alternative form organizing

and conducting international relations.• 2. Identify the roots of international organization as a primarily modern phenomenon.• 3.Trace the growth of intergovernmental organizations during the 20th century.• 4. Summarize the traditional goals and activities of international organizations.• 5. Examine and discuss the current and expanding roles of IGO. • 6. Discuss the concept of world and regional government.• 7. Describe IGO structure by evaluating the experience of the United Nations.• 8. Identify the promotion of international peace and secu rity as the primary IGO activity, as exemplified

by the United Nations.• 9. Outline major social, economic, environmental, and other roles of intergovernmental organizations.• 10. Speculate regarding the shape of international organization in the future.• 11. Explain the prospect of effective supranational organizations for international governance, making

reference to the evolution of the European Union.

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