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International Journal on Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences & Business Studies

Shodh-Sandhan 2016, Vol. 01, Issue. 04, October-November

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ISSN No. 2455-4804

Art and Craft of Tribals of Uttarakhand

Sranjana Tripathi E-mail : [email protected]

Abstract The tribal are the children of nature and their lifestyle is conditioned by the eco-system. The tribal handicrafts are specialized skills which are passed on from one generation to another and these handicrafts are means of livelihood of the artisans. However, in absence of any organized activity in this sector and the products not being adequately remunerative, there is a possible likelihood of the artisans taking up alternate livelihood options (which may involve migration as well). In such a case this age-old activity will die its own death. At this stage it is very imperative to understand the problems faced by this sector and suggest the strategies for development of tribal handicraft based on which certain policy level interventions need to be taken by the government to sustain the traditional tribal handicrafts.

The scope of work of the study is to study the existing status of the art & crafts of the major tribes of Uttarakhand, to study the source of the raw materials and the extent of sustainability of the art & crafts based on these resources; to assess the extent of dependence (in terms of livelihood) of the artisans on this sector and any other livelihood options; to assess the support provided by the local NGO’s/Government programmes /financial institutions to the artisans and to assess the extent of handicraft sector as a livelihood option and further interventions/support required.

Tribal Art & Craft are mostly defined as "Items made by hand, often with the use of simple tools, and are generally artistic and/or traditional in nature. They are also objects of utility and objects of decoration.” It can be broadly classified in these categories : Performing Arts Chholia, jhora, chancheri, and bhagnaula etc. are major performing folk arts of Uttarakhand. These are performed during marriages, fairs, religious rituals and other occasional ceremonies. Nanda Jat is a peculiar tradition of performing arts. Paintings Uttarakhand has a proud presence in in the field of prehistoric rock paintings. There are a large number of sites with typical magaliths.a variety of megaliths types are available in Kumaun. Garhwal School of Painting and Kumaun School of Painting has played an important role in Indian art. Temple Architecture The rich temple architecture of Uttarakhand proudly contributes to the great indian architecture. Big stone temples were built in Adi badri, Kedarnath, Tugnath in the Garhwal region and Baijnath, Dwarahat, Jageshwar in Kumaun region. Some of these temples were erected with highly intricate and ornamental carvings, having beautiful idols.the salient features of this style of architecture are the

2 Shodh-Sandhan, 2016, Vol. 01, Issue 4

lotus shaped roofs. The main temple is invariably surrounded by a couple of smaller temples.

Woodcarving Tun wood, known for its termite resistant properties is used in the local architecture. Woodcarving of Uttarakhand is famous for its beautiful designs. Doors and windows are carved with creeper s and floral forms. Ornamental woodcarvings on front doors are known as kholi in the local language Folkart Folk art plays a vital role in Uttarakhand. Aipan, peeth, patas, dekara, rangwali and chauki etc.are ritualistic folk arts. Almost every ceremony and festival starts with the graceful presentation and visualization of these. Uttarakhand has a unique combination of entire stream of artisans who follow the traditional folk arts and crafts over the generations. Tribes of Uttarakhand The total population of Uttrakhand as per 2001 census was 8,489,349.of these, 256,129 people were schedule tribes which constitute 3% of total population of the state. Uttaranchal besides spiritual and cultural heredity, is traditionally well known for its artistic tribal crafts. The age old woolen carpets, woolen items due to climatic need continue to be dominant in all the districts of Uttaranchal but predominantly in the districts of Pithrogarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi. This is inhabited by 5 categories of tribes but the maximum number of tribal community belongs to “Bhotias” living in highly hilly regions of these districts. Following tribes living in the hills and the plains are the inhabitants of Uttrakhand -

• Bhotia/shauka/ran • Banraut/raji

• Tharu • Buksha • Jaunsari


Tharu is the largest of all the five tribes of Uttarakhad where as raji is the smallest in number.the tribals of uttrakhand are predo-Minantly living in rural areas. A majority of Tribes are concentrated mainly in four districts, namely • Udham singh nagar (43%), • Dehradun (38.8%) • Pithoragarh (7.5%) • Chamoli(4.1%) Historical records suggest that the tribes of Uttarakhand are earliest settlers of this region of North India. In the past, their main concentrations were confined to remote hilly and forested areas. The tribes of Uttarakhand have retained their age old traditional ways of living. They represent the distinctive culture and traits of a primitive life. Their traditional norms and socio-cultural practices determine their ethnicity.

BHOTIA Uttarakhand bhotiyas are an ethno-linguistic group of people residing in the upper himalayan valleys of the kumaon and garhwal divisions of Uttarakhand state, india and in darchula district.these include the shaukas of kumaon and tolchhas and marchhas of garhwal. Their name, bhotiya, derives from the word bod which is the classical tibetan name for tibet bhotiya is the name used by the constitution of india, throughout nepal and by most people of the


area. The name bhutia is also sometimes used, though it more commonly refers to the sikkimese people.

The bhotiyas speak almori and other languages belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family, although their dialects are mutually unintelligible to the kumaoni and tibetan people. Owing to the social process of sanskritization, many of them have intermarried with the Hindus over the years. Most of the bhotiya practice a combination of Tibetan Buddhism, bon, and Hinduism, although Hinduism is prevalent among the earlier semi-indian groups, while Buddhism is prevalent among the recent immigrant groups of purer Tibetan origin, such as the jadh.

Bhotia is a transhuman community of mongoloid origin having cultural affinity in the past with the Tibetans. Probably for this similarly the Bhotia region is called as Bhod or . The area where this tribe was residing lies in high mountains of Uttarakhand in between the border of Nepal and Tibet called Bhot. Bhotias were associated for generations with Tibetans through trade. Basically they were indulged in the Trans-Himalayan trade, hut alter occupation of Tibet by China this trade came to an end. Apparently they had been influenced by Tibetan culture and traditions due to a long trade intcraction with them.

Bhotia Shauka! Ran of Kumaun and Marchha/ Taulchhal Jad of Garhwal regions are residing in the heights of 1500. 6000 feet. “These tribal groups are scattered over eight main river valleys known as Johar, Damia. Byans, chauduuns (Pithoragarh district). Mana. Niti (chamoli District), Nilang and Jadung or Jad (Uttarakasi district). Shauka/ran of kumaun and Marcha/taulchha/jad of garhwal regions are residing in the heights of 1500-1600 feet.

BHOTIA-RAN / SHAUKA The shauka living in the johar valley of Goriganga river in Munsyari tehsil of the Pithoragarh district are also known as johari or johari Shauka. They are part of the larger Uttarakhand ethno-linguistic group, and one of the few of Uttarakhand tribes that shows a rich cultural heritage and adhere to the caste system. Shaukas are the followers of Hinduism, and rely on the Hindu Brahmins to conduct religious ceremonies. Their main deity is goddess Nanda Devi in Martoli and Milam. There are different opinions about the origin of Shauka Tribes. However these are the oldest Tribes or Uttarakhand

BHOTIYA-MARCHA / TAULCHHA/JAD The marcha inhabit Mana and Niti Valley.Taulchas inhabit in Niti valley and Jadas inhabit in Nilang and Jadung valleys. These valleys are in the Uttarkashi district in Garhwal region.there origin is from Mongol. The world Encyclopedia suit’ that the shaka tribe migrated from Asia Minor.


The Chinese text describes them as herdsmen and seller of wool, who lived near the hills of Kashgar and Khasgiri.m. Trade, pastoralism and agriculture including woolen industry became the main profession of this tribe. Earlier the woolen industry of the Bhotiyas was also a source of economy as they received enough raw wool from Tibet.

Bhotia/ Shauka/ Ran/ Marchha/ Taulchha/ Jad are residing in the following places. • Bhotia - Pithoragarh ,Almora , Bageshwar • Shauka - Jauhar valley of Pithoragarh • Ran - Darma , Byans. and Chaundas valleys of Pithoragarh

• Marchha - Mana valley of Chamoli • Taulchha - Niti valley of Chamoli

• Jad - Nilang arid Judang valleys of Uttarkashi.

BANRAUT/ RAJI The rajis socially and economically are the most under developed tribal community of the state.they are also called banraut(kings of forest). They still prefer to live in the forest and claim themselves to rajputs,and the original inhabitants of central himalaya.

Few decades back, they used to avoid going to habitations of other communities, used to hide away


in forests from outside and only relation they had with the other people was through barter wooden impliments and utensils.they are found in remote areas of Pithoragarh and Champavat districts and even in the Nepal India border, showing a good relationship with each other.

At present, mainly Raji or Banraut have been changing from hunter-gatherers to agriculturists and skilled and unskilled workers engaged in agricultural and non-agricultural production.

The Government initiative to IMG 7- SHOWING BANRAUT GIRLS provided allotted land to them for agriculture and housing for settled life also brought a bright change in their life.

THARUS The tharus are tibetan tribals that originally inhabited the eastern zone of the tarai,along the border of nepal.however they had migrated from rajasthan. Most of these tharus are settled in the tract of tarai on the banks of river sharada over 10-12 miles extending from kashipur to banbasa.

The main habitations of Tharus where they reside in Uttarakhand are Khatima, Banbasa, Rudrapur, Sitarganj mainly of Udham Singh Nagar. Tharus are subdivided into many sub-tribes, although a majority of them live in Udham Singh Nagar. They have large families that live communally.


BUXA (BUKSHA) The buxas associate themselves with the vanraj or king Jagat Dev of Dharanagari, Rajasthan. The forefathers of buxas migrated to Uttarakhand from Rajasthan. It is said also about the origin of Buxas that In the fourteenth century AD after the killing of royal rajput kings in the baffle. Rajput queens for the survival of their lives and modesty migrated to the foot hills of north lndIa with their servants. They later had marital relations with these servants. Thus this tribe evolved and called Buxas.


Buxa tribe is spread over five districts of Uttarakhand namely Udham Singh Nagar, Nainital, Haridwar, Dehradun and Pauri. The buxa habitants also spill over to parts of Bijnor district adjoining Uttarpradesh.

Agriculture is the main source of livelihood of this tribe but during their off time, Buxas also have an expertise in other occupation like fishing, cot knitting, mats, and hand fan making, wood work etc.

JAUNSARI Jaunsari represents a number of tribal groups, namely the khasa, artisan classes, koltas and bajgis who inhabit the jaunsar area (upper Dehradun district) and Rawain (Uttarkashi). Chakrata, Tyuni and Kalsi are tehsil headquarters of district Dehradun where the jaunsaris are in majority.

Jaunsaries are famous for their famous colorful clothes and festivals. They earn their livelihood from agriculture and craft. They live in two/three storied homes made of stones and wood.

The Khasas comprises of Brahmins and Rajputs. They are traditional landowners and are mainly cultivators. They belong to upper privileged class. Artisans or service classes namely Koltas and Bajgis are expected to serve the upper class. They earn their livelihood from agriculture and craft. Koltas have been restricted from owing lands. They are at the lowest level of the jaunsar class structure and are the lowest service class.


THE TRIBAL POPULATION IN UTTARAKHAND CENSUS (2001)

EDUCATION As per 2001 Census, Bhotiyas literacy rate is highest among the five STs of the state. On the other hand Raji have recorded the lowest literacy rate of just 35.8 percent.

The Jansari and Buksha, the remaining two STs also have recorded below the state average as shown in the following table. Fifteen schools on the basis of Ashram Padhyati are running in different districts of Uttrakhand for schedule tribes where they get education free of cost.They are provided all necessary items fee,food,clothing and books etc during their course of studies.

Banraut or Raji could not take interest in education due to poverty and their shy nature. Tharu are progressing in education. Government has opened schools name Rajkiya Ashram Padyati Vidyalaya only for tribals in their districts.

Buxas are taking interest in getting education. Few of them are studying in the higher education. They prefer to study particularly the subjects of fine arts. It is a good sign among Jaunsaries that male and female child are considered equal for their education. They are getting the same education in the village school and a genuene help as provided to them.

According to their economy the tribes of Uttrakhand take interest to get their education.It seems Vanraut or Raji and Buxas would have been far behind in the race of education learning. Nevertheless, other tribes including Vanraut or Raji and Buxas have secured remarkable posotion in the feild


ART AND CRAFT OF BHOTIA/ SHAUKA/ RAN/ MARCHHA/ TAULCHA/ JAD Bhotiyas are basically known for their woollen art and craft. The main sources of wool production are sheep and goats. These all the bhotias of Uttarakhand were essentially shepherd and owned a good number of goats and sheep. A special kind of pashmuna goat was a pride possession. Horses, jabbu and yak are also reared by them. The basic colour of wool obtained from sheep and goats is white and black. They initially get wool in black and white colours. The colours mainly used are obtained from vegetable origin. Boiling the leaves of Shyama produce the brown red colour like henna. These leaves are dried in sun before boiling.

Carpet weaving is their first and foremost traditional art and craft. In the earlier stage they made small size carpets. Subsequently, they adapted the passionately ornate art and craft of carpet weaving in Uttarakhand Shauka, Ran Shauka, Ran, Talchha, Marchha and Nilang Jad are engaged in this.

In India particularly in Uttarkhand this art camre from tibet. The bhotia carpet weaving is different from kashmir carpets. The kashmiri carpets are generally silken and have intricate designs based on vines and flowers. Bhotia carpet on the other hand has certain Buddhist (Tibetan) motifs and designs. These are basically woollen carpets.

Uttarakhand tribes weave various kinds of woollen blankets and the developing with the time. Carpets or mattress better known as ‘dan’ in local language is well known art of this tribe.this art is handed over to the daughter by her mother and the tradition continues through the generations. They also weave natural, geometrical, religious, social, political and historical designs on dan.

Some modern designs also have abstract form. The bhadoi knotted method of preparing carpet is common but in design the Tibetan style is popular. Traditionally natural dyes were used which have now been replaced by chemical dyes. Since border trade with Tibet ceased,


raw wool is no longer imported from Tibet. Carpet makers of the valley now depend upon supplies of raw material from Bhadoi, Shahjahanpur and Panipat.

Efforts have been made by Indian Veterinary Research Institute at Mukteshwar (Nainital) and UPSI in Ladakh to breed goats producing pasham. At present about two hundred families in jauhar valley are engaged in the cashmere shawls industry, the annual output of which is about 800 pieces. This form of industry is more profitable than others and therefore people are more inclined towards it.

PROBLEMS FACED BY BHOTIYAS No other people make thulama or chutka except Bhotias. It is a fact that now this industry of bhotia is shrinking. Bhotias cannot get raw material from Tibet hence they started procuring a kind of Australian wool from the gaddi tribes in Himachal. It is very difficult to find local wool in the villages these days. It is a matter of concern that only few families have sheep and goats in the villages now.

DEVELOPMENT The modern equipments are being used these days. A loom is being used woollen industry. Bhotias still are not trained to use it. It is observed that most modern equipments are being used only by the tribes of Uttarkashi in the woollen industry.

The sale of the products of the mama valley tribes in Chamoli ranks on top in the trade due to heavy rush of pilgrims to Badrinath Dhams. They make mostly topi, muffler, shawl, pankhi, thulma or blankets and carpets.


BRIEF CLASSIFICATION OF SOME OTHER FORMS OF CRAFTS OF BHOTIAS

ART OF DEING The bhotias of Munsyari and Dharchula areas in Pithoragarh are well known for their traditional expertise in making a range of woollen garments and materials. Weavers training centre (wtc) Chamoli, Gobind Ballabh Pant Himalayan Research Environment Institute, Kosi and Almora also have some of the natural dyes. WOODCRAFT The wood craft of Uttarakhand is especially found in the building and temple architecture. Beautiful natural and geometrical designs are carved on wood in the residence of bhotia/ shauka / ran. These exhibit the skill of the tribes in wood carving. BAMBOO CRAFT Baskets and other eqipments are made by craftsmen belonging to tribal areas. Chamoli and Pithoragarh are important districts where the work of bamboo is seen. LEATHER, BONE AND HORN CRAFT Leather craft of Jauhar Valley, Nachani and Milam are noteworthy. Many of the tribal people carved intricate patterns on bone. There is a collection of all these things in the tribal museum, Munsyari. Most of the new generations have become artisans and lohars and do smith works, as the bone and horn crafts have become the part of history. ART AND CRAFT OF BANRAUT/RAJI Banrauts or Raji are known for their craft work. They carve beautiful wooden utensils. They are the indigenous people living in high mountains in village of Rachi, Juma, Kanar etc. They also trade in wool, salt and borax. Good grass mats are prepared here. They were known as the traders of night. The tribe is reputed for its wooden crafts. Van Rawats of Pithoragarh are experts in making wooden pots. Brownish red coloured wood of Gethi can be easily carved due to its smooth grains. The pots made from this wood are the best for the storage of milk. However pine and deodara wood is also used.


Cultivation and cattle rearing are the main occupations. They also rear goats. They also trade in wool, salt borax. Good grass mats are prepared here. The Rawats also make beautiful utensils of wood. ART AND CRAFT OF THARU Tharus and bukshas of tarai are experts in making wooden utensils. They are the skilled carpenters and are also known for their quality of good work, they are also skilled in grass basketry. Beautiful and intricate baskets of varied shapes and size are woven by these tribals. The tharus and buxas also make fine ropes/yarn out of certain grass. The paddy remains is also used to make mats, they are excellent cot weavers and weave cots in varied aesthetic patterns and designs. These tribals have also mastered the art of mat making. The value of arts and crafts of these tribes was not known in the past.

A variety of baskets are made by the Tharu and Buxa tribals. Basketry is a traditional art and craft of women. The values of arts and craft of these tribes was not known in the past. Increasing awarness of these art and crafts over the last few years has brought these to fore. These arts are now commercialized and earn good revenue to the tribals and have given a boost to them.

The baskets, wood and grass craft products of these tribals are very popular in the markets now. Many NGOs like the Mahila Swayam Sidha Pariyojana have helped, patronized and encouraged the tribal women to develop their craft. Grass for making baskets is brought from river banks especially Devha river. Urai grass is good for making baskets.

Of late polythene material is also being used to make baskets.The women folk of Kutara village are indulged in making polythene baskets. Tharus make beautiful

Grass Carpets/mats. Gondi grass is better for making grass mats. The tribals have now started growing this grass near the ponds in their locality. They also make ropes of different thickness. Basketery projects take time for execution. It takes around two to three days to make a single normal basket. In comparison to basket the grass mates takes less time. A normal mate can be made in a short period of 5 to 6 hours.

Cotton carpet is currently developed craft of Tharu women. Balkhera villagers in Udham Singh Nagar make beautiful cotton carpets. These carpets are made in bulk after the month of October when they get a lot of free time from their agricultural work.


ART AND CRAFT OF BUXAS Buxas have similar art and craft forms like that of tharus with minor deviation. Buxas have mastery in depicting relief sculpture which is well established and noteworthy. Relief work in clay is very rich. This work of art is visible in the houses of buxas which are mostly made up of clay and dry grass. Buxas understand the importance of their environment and social surroundings which is being depicted by them in their art works.

They have explored their imagination fully and exhibited a fine creative expression with abundant positive energy. Buxas also share the crafts of tharus in addition to their own crafts. Buxas tribals of Uttarakhand have a rich tradition of grass basketry. The material used in the Tribal art and craft is eco-friendly as it is picked by them from the nature and its biodegradable the grass is the main raw material for these baskets. Weaving of basket is an art as ancient as making pottery.

ART AND CRAFT OF JAUNSARI TRIBE Beautiful natural and geometrical designs are carved on wood in the temples and residences by Jaunsari. They too like Buxas and Tharus make strong and beautiful baskets and few villagers are engaged working with woollen items. Ashram schools provide the facilities of learning the art. These schools promote the tribal community. A tailoring centre is also being run them. Bamboo basketry of Thana village in Chakrata is well known in the region. Each village of Jaunsar has a black smith tribal family. MAJOR ART & CRAFT TRADITIONS OF UTTARAKHAND TRIBES

Bhotia/ Shauka/ Ran /Marchha

Van Rawat / Raji Tharu Buxa Jaunsari

• Art & craft of wooden

• Weaving carpets, dan, asan

• Wool dyeing

• Craft of wooden utensils • Basketry

• Matting

• Nets (fishing)

• Cot weaving

• Clay Pots

• Wood Craft

• Relief work

• Basketry

• Matting

• Nets (fishing)

• Cot weaving

• Clay pots

• Wood craft

• Art of tantra –mantra

• Temple art

• Wood craft

• Basketry

• Woollen craft


CAUSES OF DETORIORATION AND POSSIBLE MEASURES FOR UPLIFTMENT OF ART AND CULTURE Deterioration is a natural and biological phenomenon. The gradual decline in quality in quality of an object or culture or damage during occurring over a period of time due to lack of maintenance are the other causes of deterioration in general. Art and craft is a universal language and a means of expression that attracts the viewer and is subject to deterioration. An analytical approach to the tribal arts and crafts of Uttarakhand reveals the following points-

• The first and foremost threat to the dwindling tradition of art and craft forms is absolute lack of awareness about these in the masses especially the youth. The ignorance and unawareness about the value of the rich traditions and heritage leads to the neglect of the traditional art forms.

• Traditional arts and crafts are more prone to deterioration due to development, education and lack of awareness among the younger generations about the value of these traditions. Therefore the main cause of deterioration of these art and crafts is the ‘human race’ itself who is more indulge in more worldly material pursuits that the rich and glorious heritage is often ignored and neglected.

• Economic state of artisans - It is seen that most of the folk/tribal artists suffer the vagaries of poverty. Their wares are less in demand and are costly and leave their traditional vocation. Today the market is swarmed with mechanically produced cheap replicas of traditional wear. The ‘Chinese goods’ and alternative market possess a great threat to a cottage industry in general and folk/tribal arts and craft in particular.

• Lack of access to modern technology - Traditional artists and craftsmen are used to work in traditional methods using traditional tools. Their socio-economic status and lack of access to modern technology – probably due to unawareness and lack of technical education and facilities is another reason for pushing these art forms to the verge of extinction.

• Lack of raw material - Lack of raw material availability to the folks and due to no import export between the neighbouring countries the tribals have found difficulties in continuing their arts. The artisans need to explore the possibility of using other alternative raw materials.

PATRONAGE BY THE GOVERNMENT AND NGOS

Some individuals and certain NGOs are involved in reviving the art and craft of tribes of Uttarakhand. Tribal Heritage museum of Pithoragarh and an association of ran, bhotia, jaunsari, buksha and tharu are working in this direction. The central and the state governments have initiated many projects to revive the heritage and recognition to the tribal art and craft by providing them sufficient facilities and infrastructure.

The state government has set up training cum production centres to encourage crafts among tribals and others too. Some Ngos in the districts of Bageshwar, Almora, Dehradun and


Chamoli have initiated steps to impart training to budding artisans. For revival of industries government is playing the role in ensuring platform to these craftsmen. Training by master craftsmen is being organised in situ and these locations would be developed as “ship grams”.

State government is providing facilities in training programme through master craftmen to facilitate the artisans of the state a cell named “Udyog Mitra” is being set up in every district industries centre. State government has proposed to open three urban haats at Haridwar, Dehradun, Nainital / Haldwani.

Recently the central government has tied with the state has started “EkIkrat Hathkargha Vikas Yojana” that will produce export quality products after training in clusters. Furthermore trifled have also encouraged tribal artisans in the production of arts and crafts. Tribe’s shops are set up to show case tribal arts and crafts by procuring the crafts from tribal artisans at remunerative prices and sell the same at these shop and organizing periodic exhibitions at different places all over India.

CONCLUSION Since most of the tribal population had been living in their own environment and remained aloof from the outer world until the two or three centuries before. According to Majumdar, they were living in secure asylums in the hills and forests, lived on fruits and tubers, and wore leaves or rags round their loins. But today most of these tribes have come into contact with advance communities. Thus, due to their assimilation with non-tribal communities their socio-cultural setting has been changed.

Remoteness of their habitat, lack of finances etc. little or no award, rnodernisation, lack of interest in traditional arts and crafts, persuasion of better job prospects and easy life style have already affected the overall development and patronage of art and crafts of Uttarakhand tribes. The main objective behind the research is to contribute, explore, promote and disseminate the rich and characteristics of the tribal arts and craft of Uttarakhand among a fraternity all over the globe.

It has been observed that need of employment by development of art & crafts sector through locally available resources which may be utilized for the development of handicrafts sector. Employment opportunities can be categorized in three segments namely (1) Self –Employment (2) Regular Employment (3) Daily Waged. Employment efforts shall be made to engage the un-employed tribal youth for providing them Self-Employment through various development schemes on priority basis.

Establishment of common facilities centres for imparting training, marketing, providing market intelligence, establishing linkages with financial institutions, providing raw materials, providing managerial inputs is the need of the hour. The synergic approach and planning between tourism industry and handicrafts sector can create new milestones in the prosperity and economic growth of the state.


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