interdisciplinary project teams on agriculture and environment: a problem-oriented approach
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Interdisciplinary project teams onagriculture and environment: Aproblem-oriented approachG.W.J. Barendse a & D. van der Hoek ba Centre of Environmental Science , Leiden University , P.O.Box 9518, 2300 RA, Leiden, The Netherlandsb Department of Nature Conservation , WageningenAgricultural University , P.O. Box 8080, 6700 DD, Wageningen,The NetherlandsPublished online: 30 Jul 2007.
To cite this article: G.W.J. Barendse & D. van der Hoek (1994) Interdisciplinary project teamson agriculture and environment: A problem-oriented approach, European Journal of AgriculturalEducation and Extension, 1:3, 83-103, DOI: 10.1080/13892249485300271
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13892249485300271
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Interdisciplinary project teams on agriculture problem-oriented approach
G.W.J. Barendse* and D. van der Hoek**
and environment: A
Abstract
In a one-year, postgraduate, professional training course an interdisciplinary project approach is taught to prepare disciplinary specialists for inter- disciplinary team work. This paper is based on five years of experience with such projects and deals with the conditions necessary to engage successfully in interdisciplinary project teaching. A high degree of organisation, firm guidance at the start of the project, feedback on actual practice from experts, the in-q~ortance of cyclical working methods, the use of project planning techniques and product-oriented thinking are elements to be stressed. As an illustration a project is presented on environmental policy for a specific target group: greenhouse horticulturists in the province of Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands. Fur J Agr Educ Ext (1994), ! , 3, pp. 83-104)
Introduction
Mounting environmental problems call for new elements in our higher education curricula. Students should not only gain awareness of the environmental aspects related to their own discipline but should also acquire
" Centre of Envh'onmental Science, Leiden Univergity, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlandl " DepaffJ~ent of Nature Conservation, Wageningen Agriaultural Univeraity, P.O. Box 8080, 6700 DD Wageningen, The Netherlands
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the ability to apply their specialist knowledge and understanding in multidisciplinary teams.
Introducing environmental issues into higher agricultural education curricula involves more than merely teaching students about the environmental aspects of agricultural science. Environmental problems being essentially inter- disciplinary, they require not only thorough specialist knowledge about problem sources, mechanisms and options for solution, but also the ability to integrate knowledge from different fields. In traditional higher education institutions it is often hard to gain the latter skill.
In the 'UBM' postgraduate professional training course described in this paper, a problem-oriented interdisciplinary project approach is taught to prepare specialists for interdisciplinary team work. Although this educational method is far from new, its high degree of organisation makes it different from the project work that was heavily propagated in the sixties and seventies. In general, interdisciplinary problem-oriented project teaching as undergone substantial change over the last few decades (De Vries and Van Zormeveld, 1991).
In a feasibility study for the UBM course, some eight years ago, interviews were held with employers in the environmental field to help define the content of the intended course. It appeared that at that time graduates entering the professional field were not functioning adequately in the first years of their professional careers (IVAM/UvA et al., 1985). Accustomed to academic working methods, they experienced difficulties in adapting to the working standards of most professional organisations and institutions, one of the crucial problems being lack of experience in cooperating with people from other disciplines. The problems of new employees not trained in interdisciplinary team work can be summarized as follows: - misunderstandings and misconceptions because of different disciplinary
languages (jargons); overestimating or underestimating the contribution of their own discipline in analyzing and solving environmental problem situations; lack of knowledge about integrating knowledge and insights from different disciplinary fields;
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lack of knowledge about integrating methods and techniques; lack of experience in team work as such; lack of experience in problem-oriented work, and in handling time limits, uncertainties and gaps in knowledge.
This general lack of professionalism was and is of course partly due to a lack of job experience on the part of the graduates. In the UBM course students are taught professional ways of thinking and acting in the context of project work. Although interdisciplinary problem-oriented project education should counteract most of the aforementioned shortcomings, experience shows* that it can only be successful if specific conditions are met in advance.
This paper deals with these conditions, stressing the importance of producing reports with practical relevance, cyclical working methods, thorough preparation, project planning techniques and product-oriented thinking. Another important dimension is the need for a flexible response to changing circumstances, for instance the changing needs of the environmental labour market and the availability and development of environmental science curricula elsewhere in the Netherlands (Interdisciplinaire Commissie Milieuknnde/VSNU, 1991). Although this paper focuses on projects undertaken within the framework of postgraduate courses, much of it likewise applies to projects in graduate curricula. Differences between projects in graduate and postgraduate curricula are dealt with in part 6 of this paper. The purpose of this paper is to show that the educational impact of project teaching may reach very high standards under controlled conditions.
• Project teaching is improved each year on the basis of extended evaluatiom, each project team producing an evaluation report at the end of the project. From ~ reports general recommendations can be derived for changes in set-up and working methods. The board of directora of the UBM digeuues the extended projects each year
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The UBM postgraduate professional training course
The UBM (Universitaire Beroepsopleiding Milieukunde) postgraduate programme in environmental science was started in the Netherlands in 1987. This one-year, full-time educational programme is designed for students who have graduated in disciplines of relevance to environmental policy and management (chemistry, ecology, economics, law, social sciences, agri- cultural sciences, etcetera; graduates from polytechnics also participate). The course aims to provide environmental specialists with a generalistic broadening of their expertise, preparing them optimally for a professional career in the environmental policy and management labour market. The UBM course does not train graduates for purely research positions.
The programme is organised by four environmental science centres in the Netherlands: - the Interfaculty Department of Environmental Science of the University
of Amsterdam; - the Centre of Environmental Science of Leiden University; - the Institute for Environmental Studies of the Free University,
Amsterdam, and - the Centre of Environmental Studies of Wageningen Agricultural
University."
A large Advisory Board reviews the content of the programme and its continuing relevance to the societal context. The members of this board play an important role in various environmental "scenes' in the Netherlands, to an extent representing the future employers of the students. Several topics mentioned in this paper were discussed with this Advisory Board. The comments of the Advisory Board's members make it is possible to adjust the profile and content of the UBM course to new developments. This updating of the course programme is also essential for ongoing fund-raising (IVAM/UvA et al., 1991).
The preparatory phase was f'manced by the Mini~ry of Education. The programme is currently funded by the Ministry of Housing, Physical Phuming & Environment and the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Conservation & Fhsheries
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The labour market for environmental experts
In 1987 a study was made of the labour market's demand for environmental experts (Voogd et al., 1988 and 1989). As part of this research an analysis was made of job vacancy advertisements in specialist journals and other magazines. This revealed that many environment-related tasks are performed by employees with widely varying educational backgrounds. As regards the difference between generalists and specialists, it was found that there is greater demand for specialists in research institutes and the commercial service sector, with more generalists being required for work in local authorities.* The analysis shows that, in positions requiring a specialist, additional knowledge or experience is almost always desired, for example, knowledge in the field of environmental legislation, ecology, etcetera. These results are in approximate agreement with the basic profile of the UBM programme.
Cooperation between a variety of specialists proves to be indispensable for dealing with environmental problems, and it proves very frustrating when experts are not prepared for, nor capable of, understanding one another's contributions." In addition, employers often complain about the inadequacy of graduates' skills in problem-oriented thinking, legible writing, project management, chairing meetings, etcetera.; all these skills have to be acquired on the job itself, in a situation of uncertainty as regards the abilities of the employees attracted. Thus a gap was discerned between the academic 'luggage' of graduates and the requirements of professional practice in environmental positions. The UBM was set up as an educational programme to bridge this gap.
" Chemists and engineers are the specialiams moat in demand, followed by agdcalmnd scientists, ecologists sad geosraphens. Comlmiag the two years in which the job vaeancka were assembled (1987 and 1988) there was a considerable increase in the number of adv©rtisemem in 1988; the increase (about 50%) ;a found in all sectors and disciplines " This was ©oneluded in our initial ~arvey, during the feasibility study and was repeatedly restated by members of the UBM Advisozy Board
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Educational objectives and programme structure
The three main educational objectives of the programme are: - training in working in interdisciplinary working groups;
broadening knowledge and understanding the methodology and techniques of environmental science and environmental policy-making; acquiring skills necessary for professional careers, for example, presentation skills (written and oral), chairing meetings, project management, conflict resolution, etcetera.
The main structure of the programme is shown in the box:
(A) THEORY
Introduction and overview Specialist additional treining (Environmental) Policy Methodology and techniques Case study
(~) PaACTICE
Extended project Short project/traineeship
AI (2 weeks) A2 (4 wee~) A3 (5 weeks) A4 (3 weeks) A5 (2 weeks)
BI (5 months) B2 (5 weeks)
For obvious reasons, in this paper we focus on the second part of the course programme, in particular element BI: the Extended project. First, however, the interrelationship between the theoretical and practical parts of the UBM course should be explained. In the theoretical part of the curriculum, theories and methods are presented that are of practical use in generalised situations. However, they remain theories: the section on
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(environmental) policy, for instance, deals with theories concerning policy- making and the use of policy instruments. In the methodology section a variety of methods are presented that may be useful in the different stages of the decision-making process: problem analysis (scenario studies, use of models), plan design and plan evaluation (cost-benefit and multi-criteria methods) and so on. The practical value of these theories and methods is put to the test in the extended project, in so far as they are relevant to the research objective.
The most important didactic objective of the theory part, however, is to provide students with a frame of reference for problem-oriented thinking, enabling students to tackle a wide variety of problem situations. This goal is achieved by teaching a step-by-step approach built around the key concepts of problem recognition, problem definition, problem analysis, plan design and plan evaluation. The value of this UBM approach is then put to the test in a project setting, with the actual scheme followed being modified if necessary, depending on the subject, to suit the needs of the project team. An example of such a problem-solving scheme is presented in part 5 of this paper.
After 5 years' experience it can be concluded that the UBM course is a successful programme. This conclusion is based on three sources: ° evaluations of the curriculum during the course, - surveys among former students and their employers; - the degree to which students completing this training course acquire jobs
in the intended field of occupation."
T h e Interdisciplinary Project
In this comprehensive part of the programme students work in small, multidisciplinary teams consisting of five to eight persons. The group is coached by two supervisors, one supervising the process, the other the
J .
On the ba~ of the first three levies (100 waders) it wee found that within 5 months of completing the course 80% of the WadeaU had meceeded in finding a mitable job in the intended field. After I year 99 out of 100 had join in the intended field
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content of the study. Each group works at one of the participating environmental science centres on environmental problems of topical interest. Examples include: - elaborating regionally based policies for two defined regions
(Bollenstreek and Gelderse Vallei) with the aim of integrating conflicting interests (agriculture, nature, environment, recreation and housing) in the physical planning of the region;
- designing an environmental care system for private companies in the dairy sector;
- assessing existing policies for limiting excessive deposition of manure and fertilizer from the perspective of groundwater quality, and formulating alternative policies;
- preparing an integrated management plan for a defined catchment basin, integrating the interests of nature conservation, agriculture, the run-off function, recreation and drinking water production.
These subjects have in common that they can only be dealt with by several different disciplinary specialists working together in a team. The main objectives of this part of the programme are: - to experience and learn from working in interdisciplinary working
groups; - to learn to apply one's own specialist knowledge in analyzing and
'solving' environmental problems; - to apply the methods and techniques of knowledge integration, as learnt
in section A4 (including dealing with uncertainties); to recognize and handle the different political values and interests involved in all environmental problem situations.
These projects are designed to culminate in reports of value to one or more of the authorities, organisations and individuals involved in the problem situation investigated. In order to enhance the real-world character and the practical value of the reports, the group is supervised and supported by various external professionals and experts from relevant organisations and authorities, including one or more representatives of the target group of the project. This steering committee comments on the research plan and other interim reports of the group.
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Experiences
After completing five years of the UBM course and 17 UBM projects we can conclude that the project part of the programme has succeeded in achieving its educational goals: linking theories and methodologies to practice by means of interdisciplinary, problem-oriented group work. In many cases a group has succeeded in producing a report that has influenced the policies and activities of the target groups. Although, obviously, not all groups were that successful, nevertheless, all the reports were accepted willingly and appreciated in the field. More importantly, students judged this part of the programme to be highly instructive (Evaluatieverslagen Lange Project 1988, 1989, 1990 and 1991). Former students who were invited to evaluate the UBM course several years after they had completed it stated that the experience acquired in the project had proved very useful in the jobs they had acquired (mostly in government institutions or research and consultancy agencies).
The following elements appear to have been of greatest significance in achieving project goals (Handleiding Projectgroepen UBM, 1994):
Guidance In the 17 project groups to date we have learned that thorough project preparation and extensive group guidance is essential if the project is to be successful. To prepare a useful report or plan within the space of five months, it is necessary to place initial constraints on project groups in terms of the areas and problem situations to be studied. If left to work without thorough guidance in the initial phase, project teams tend to define, describe and analyze the problem situation at length, avoiding the steps of plan design and plan evaluation. To be useful, final reports should not be limited to an extensive description of the problem situation unless this description is in itself a desired goal. In most situations the problem is more or less understood but the options available for solving it are unknown or problematic. A project team that merely provides a description and analysis of the situation generally adds little to what is already known.
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Preparation by supervisors It is important that relevant, elementary literature is collected in advance and that relevant contacts in the appropriate fields are established by the supervisors before the start of the project. These kind of research tasks tend to be very time-consuming and may frustrate the progress of the project unnecessarily. One of the crucial tasks of the supervisors is, therefore, to provide the team with just the right amount of literature and information for sound formulation of the problem and to discourage team members from visiting libraries, eager to read all the available literature on the topic before making any choice. Potential members of the external steering committee and the optional target group are already approached before the start of the project. Their cooperation often has to be sought by the promise of a cheap and valuable final report that in principle should contains clear analyses, creative solutions and an independent approach not tainted by predefined interests.
Delimiting the project Project topics are provided by the supervisors, but project teams should further delimit their own research objective in the initial phase of the project. By deciding on the scope of the problem and the research goals, in this stage of the project the team members gain the necessary experience in problem formulation. In the initial phase, teams need firm guidance in order to ensure production of a workable research plan within a month. The project team is responsible for the elementary choices that should be made in this stage: (provisional) problem formulation, main research questions, research goals, project constraints and guidelines, target group or institution for which the report is prepared, etcetera. In this phase the project team receives thorough guidance to ensure that choices are not unnecessarily postponed and that research tasks are properly defined.
In many projects, plan design is a major goal. In many of the academic studies from which UBM participants are selected this is not the case, however. In helping students in this initial phase the so-called rapid- prototyping or mini-project method is therefore advised. This method
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encourages students to think about the possible contents of the plan in the final report in the initial stage.
In this initial phase the project team acquires specific training in project planning and management as well as skills relating to decision-making procedures. Although the project team is responsible for the choices made in this phase of the project, they receive major assistance from the supervisors with respect to both process and content. The re.suit of this first phase is a research plan, stating the problem, research objectives, target group or institution, constraints, basic assumptions, etcetera and giving an outline of the end product foreseen (often a plan). This interim report is discussed with the external steering committee - and here practice comes in.
Assessing practical relevance The interim report is commented on by experts and representatives of interested organisations. Special emphasis is placed on the comments given by the representative of the target group chosen by the project team, which thus plays the role of a "pseudo-commissioning party'. In the second phase of the project the research is carried out in accordance with the research plan after incorporation of the comments of the steering committee - which may imply major changes. From now on the 'day-to-day supervisors' withdraw somewhat from the process, with the external experts gaining greater influence. This often takes place in a cyclical process in which interim reports are submitted to the steering committee for further comment. In this way the approach of the group to the problem situation shifts from more theoretical in the initial phase to more practical later on, under the guidance of the external committee, with the constraints , and limitations inherent in practice (for example, existing policies, conflicts of competence and conflicting interests and values) becoming incorporated into the project.
Problems in guidance Of course this kind of firm group guidance may at times be at odds with ideas of self-determination and sdf-reliance, and problems certainly sometimes ensue.
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In general there is no problem in convincing students that a certain amount of guidance and preparation is necessary to gain the kind of experience aimed for in the project. Establishing restraints is generally appreciated by students of a professional postgraduate course: they do not want to get lost in endless discussions of what and why and where to study in the initial phase of a project. However, from the evaluation reports it can be concluded that firm guidance may lead to two other problems: a. Through extensive guidance from internal and external experts the project
team may sometimes fail to elaborate its own perspective on the problem and come up with creative solutions. This in turn prevents the project team from entering into fruitful argument and discussion with the experts. There is, therefore, a danger of the team members handling the project in a technocratic way. Although there are several methods for eliciting views and opinions from a project team, groups differ in their behaviour in this respect. In limiting this problem there are two crucial aspects that should be taken into due account: I. The choice of subject: it is advisable not to select overly complex
topics or topics on which no basic reports or data are available; it requires a great deal of research before a view can be expressed on such topics.
2. The attitude of the supervisor: he or she should encourage a group to develop its own opinions and should warn against taking the views and perspectives of him/herself or the other experts for granted.
b. The second problem is related, and may be even more serious. The project team must rapidly familiarise itself with the problem, becoming devoted to the issue and seeing the problem as its own - the danger being that it may sometimes be seen as the supervisor's problem. This trap can largely be avoided by allowing students a say in the topics being studied.
7he product The goal of producing a useful report is a means of achieving several didactic goals: confrontation with time limits, taking decisions in the face of uncertainty and gaps in knowledge, handling the practical constraints of conflicting interests in society, etcetera. In our experience to date there have been no situations in which didactic goals conflict with the need for a useful
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product, and we do not anticipate such problems arising in the future. Sometimes a target group shows no interest at all in an analysis of the problem situation, pretending already to fully understand the problem. However, the project team members are encouraged to draw up their own problem definition and analysis before elaborating options for solutions. By comparing the problem formulation of the project team with the (often implicit) problem conception of the target group, surprising discussions may arise. Moreover, the problem-solving schemes taught in the theory part of the UBM course deliberately stress independent problem definition and analysis as a precursor to developing sound plans.
If there is major disagreement among project teams about aims and strategies, time should preferably be taken to clear up the differences; this contrasts with professional practice, where the initiative is often taken by the project leader. In project education, however, there is no formal group hierarchy and supervisors refrain from adopting the role of project leader.
A case s tudy as an i l lustrat ion
Environmental policy for a specific target group: greenhouse horticulturists in the province of Zuid-Holland, the Netherlands In 1991 a project was organised on this topic at the Centre of Environmental Studies of Wageningen Agricultural University (Eenkhoorn et al., 1991). The project team consisted of 6 UBM students.
General The objective of the project was to advise the province of Zuid-Holland on a suitable environmental policy for a specific target group: greenhouse horticulturists. The policy was to incorporate appropriate environmental measures for the specific problems involved, ensuring that these measures were mutually compatible. The project team started by stating the following key question: How should an effective target-group-oriented policy be designed, proceeding from an analysis of environmental, societal, economic and administrative aspects, and how can the effectiveness of the policy be evaluated?
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:igure 1 shows the basic design of the project. Although the figure listinguishes the various phases of the project for the sake of clarity, in ~ractice these were closely related and did in fact overlap to some degree. ~.t the start of the project, basic assumptions and constraints were brmulated to delimit the scope of the key question. For instance, it was ~ostulated that the environmental burden should be restricted before the year !000 and that the principle should hold that the polluter pays for the neasures to be taken. During the first phase an inventory was made of • elevant policies and of the environmental problems caused by greenhouse lorticulture in the area in question. In the second phase technical measures md policy instruments considered suitable for alleviating the problems were malyzed. This analysis laid the foundation for designing a specific policy 31an for the target group, the greenhouse horticulturists (phase 3). In the Yourth phase this plan was assessed by the relevant policy actors and then tdjusted accordingly. It was stimulating for the participants in the project :o construct this scheme. They gained insight into the relative importance 3f the various sub-studies and the need for the project team to make choices it the right moments. The steering committee was composed of a ~epresentative of the pseudo-commissioning party (the province) and several ?rofessional field experts and specialists from the Agricultural University. At crucial moments this steering committee was informed and consulted on ~)rogress (see Figure 1). Representatives of interest groups were explicitly involved in the project in the last phase only, when they were asked to ~ssess and adjust the concept of the plan. During the previous phases of the project it was assumed that the respective contributions of these interest groups would be introduced by the steering committee experts.
4pproach and results During the inventory phase a description was drawn up of the target group and the environmental problems. Data about the various different types of horticultural production and about geographical aspects were collected and interpreted, with due attention being paid to the different cultivation methods, product markets and the economic importance of the horticultural sector. In this phase attention was also paid to other important policy actors such as trade organisations, regional authorities, public relations associations and so on. The greenhouse horticultural sector is characterized by a strong
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o~ 1. INVENTORY
2. PROBLEM ANALYSIS
I ~bl'' t l [ criteria
3. PLAN DESIGN
actors [
4, PLAN EVALUATION
description J of greenhouse horticul~re
-> : Consultation wiW Steering Committee
technical J n l e 4 u ; u r e l
L priofi~
L draft pi~
|
t
I [ ,-, o04
I goals of the ] m~y j
[ mmlysis of ~thon~ ]
i [po,,oy [ in~rum, ats
t perspective I
Figure 1 Conceptual framework of the project
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mutual exchange of know-how, intensive promotion of its interests and a high degree of inventiveness. In this way the sector has built up an important economic position. The relationship between the environmental problems and the actors was described using a model developed by Bressers (1989). This survey enabled the project team to select the most important environmental topics (pesticides, nutrients, energy, waste and artificial lighting). These problems were analyzed and compared with the goals of the government's environmental policies. Using certain predefined criteria their order of priority was also assessed. This was necessary to steer the policy- making process and to evaluate the policy ex ante. During this phase of analysis not only were the environmental problems due to greenhouse horticulture systemized, but an inventory was also made of the options available for solving them. This involved making an analysis of the technical and management options as well as the possibilities and constraints of the policy instruments available to several public authority strata. An essential question was to what extent it was necessary to differentiate within the target group, for instance, in terms of groups of products, technical means, cultivation methods and locations.
In the plan-design phase the most important technical measures and policy instruments were considered, for example, cultivation in artificial substrate, drainwater recirculation, soil disinfection by steaming, and balanced fertilising. Legal instruments should be in the form of new rules based on existing legislation (for example, Surface Water Pollution Act). Economic instruments might also be used, such as a tax on non-recirculation of dralnwater or on use of crop protection chemicals. Communication should be an effective instrument, in combination with legal and economic instruments, and it could be successful in promoting environmental care systems. Several options for the future development of greenhouse horticulture were compared and a plan was designed based on the ideas of the project team about the future of greenhouse horticulture in general and the role of government in particular. The plan indicated options for a cooperating government to implement an integrated environmental policy for greenhouse horticulture. Two relevant approaches to solving the environmental problems were presented: a. controlled horticulture in artificial substrate;
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b. non-polluting horticulture in soil. For each of these approaches, appropriate policy instruments and technical measures were identified, along with plans for implementation. There was particular focus on the role of the provincial authorities.
The last phase of the project consisted of plan assessment and evaluation. First the effectiveness of the policy plan was considered using the following criteria: the degree to which the environmental problems were mitigated, economic and financial consequences, and management feasibility. In this phase the draft plan and the initial assessment of the project team itself were also submitted to several relevant policy actors (including interest groups) for their opinion of its feasibility. Subsequently the plan was adjusted and discussed with the steering committee.
The conclusion of the project was that a specific policy for greenhouse horticulturists on the part of the province of Zuid-Holland has perspective. However, the competence of the provincial authority is restricted. The province has an important role to play as a catalyst and coordinator in stimulating other authorities and the organised horticulturists to take appropriate measures. It is up to the province to recognise the full extent of the problems and to use monitoring data to formulate and adjust its policy. The project produced a systematic view of the environmental problems caused by greenhouse horticulture, options to reduce the environmental impact and the instruments and measures to stimulate development of a form of more compatible horticulture. Moreover, the new ideas were favourably received by the pseudo-commissioning party, the province. At the time of writing, some of the recommendations have been adopted by the relevant authorities.
Projects in graduate studies
Although this paper deals essentially with the use of pro~ects in postgraduate professional training courses, the question might be posed whether this type of project is also suitable for graduate studies. Some of the environmental science centres organising the UBM course have long-term experience in
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interdisciplinary projects in graduate studies (De Vries et al., 1991; Barendse et al., 1989). A comparison of the design and functioning of such projects in graduate and postgraduate studies can therefore be made. Differences can be identified in the composition of the team, the guidance given to the group, the topics studied and the final product:
Team composition In graduate projects the disciplines required for adequate study of the subject are defined in advance and brought in deliberately. If any of these disciplines are not taught at the university in question, students from other universities are recruited through advertisements. In Amsterdam students from polytechnics are also invited to join these interdisciplinary project teams. Because students in these graduate projects are in their third or fourth year, their disciplinary knowledge and skills are not as advanced as is the case with postgraduate project teams. Often the project is used to acquire additional skills in their own discipline.
Supervision Because it is not a professional training programme but an academic one the guiding committee is recruited mainly from academics rather than professionals. This means that each member of the group has a background supervisor from his or her own discipline, supervising adequate application of the discipline in the interdisciplinary group work.
Research topics and final product There is some difference between the topics suitable for graduate and post- graduate projects. In graduate studies there is no need to produce a report that will be applied directly by a target group; hence problem formulation in graduate groups can be more academic and the methods used more analytic. Although these reports are not generally designed for immediate application, real-world practical relevance is certainly a reference point for the project work, and the reports may consequently have a long-term relevance for defined target groups. While in postgraduate projects the emphasis is on plan design and plan evaluation, in graduate studies the aim is to open up new horizons by pointing out and analyzing new .~nvironmental questions. The educational value of interdisciplinary problem-
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oriented projects for the students is about the same in graduate and postgraduate studies. The experience gained in interdisciplinary work and problem-oriented thinking proves to be highly valued by participants when questioned several years later, in their professional careers (De Vries and Van Zonneveld, 1991).
C o n c l u s i o n s
Experience with interdisciplinary problem-oriented projects in a postgraduate professional training shows that: - For the projects to be successful as an educational tool a high degree of
organisation and guidance is necessary. Conflicts between a high level of guidance/organisation and the group's self-determination can be mitigated.
- A controlled mix of educational goals and harsh demands from practice encourages students to become aware of the constraints of real-world problem analysis and deciSion-making.
- In all cases practical relevance has to be assessed by an external committee of experts from organisations, companies and authorities working in the field.
- Students consider this part of their educational curriculum highly demanding yet instructive.
- Project teams may produce, within five months, reports that are very useful and, therefore, highly appreciated in the professional field. Nevertheless, failure to produce applicable results should not in all cases be interpreted as a failure of the project. Didactic goals may well still have been achieved. Practical training in a professional course like the UBM programme aims for balanced optimisation of educational and substantial goals.
It is important for a postgraduate professional training programme like the UBM course to have a firm base in the professional field for which it is preparing students. This is achieved in the following ways:
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by systematic internal evaluation of the course's elements, the practical applicability of the theories and methodologies taught can be assessed and adjusted; in a changing world it is essential that the programme can respond flexibly to new signals from the occupational and educational field, therefore: good contacts are essential to readjust the content of the curriculum and adjust it to the changing needs of the labour market. In the UBM context, contacts are established and re-established in the Advisory Board, the external steering committees of each of the projects and the numerous individual internships after the project. This element of the programme lies outside the scope of this paper.
R is not only in postgraduate curricula that interdisciplinary project teams constitute useful educational elements. Also in graduate studies the same type of projects are commonly used, although they differ slightly in character. In the first place, students have not yet completed their degree, so they need assistance during the project from teachers from their own discipline to ensure that they apply their disciplinary knowledge correctly, deepening it if necessary for the purposes of the project. Secondly, the type of topics studied may differ. In a graduate course the focus should be on analytical questions of an academic nature, in a postgraduate course on designing and evaluating plans for tackling current, real-world problem situations, as illustrated in the case study described above.
References
Barendse, De Groot, De Wit and Van der Ploeg (1989). Teaching Envirenmmtal Science as a Problem oriented Discipline. In: Ch. Susanne et al. (otis.). Integration of Environmental Education into General University Teaching in Europe. Brussels, VUB Press.
Bressers, J.Th. (1989). Instrumentatieproblemen: Theoretische en praktische inzichten. In: P. Glasbergen (ed.). Milieubeleid, theorie en praktijk, 's- Gravenhage, VUGA.
De Voogd, J. and C.Th. Zandvliet (1988). Behoefle aan kennis op milieugebied; Fen verkenning van de arbeidsmarkt van milieudeskundigen. NEI. Rotterdam.
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De Voogd, J., C.Th. Zandvliet and A. Verkaik (1989). Vacatures voor hoger opgeleide milieudeskundigen in 1987 en 1988. Milieujrg.4, 1989/1, pp. 34-38.
De Vries, A. andLB.F. Zonneveld (1991). Onderwijskundige uitwerking van inter- disciplinair probleemgericht hoger onderwijs. Doctoral thesis, University of Amsterdam.
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Universitaire Beroepsopleiding Milieuimnde. IVAMFUvA, CML/RUL, IVM/VU and CMW/LU. Amsterdam/Leiden/Wageningen. 2nd revised edition.
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