INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS Based on

Models of Teaching by Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun

INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY

Emphasizes ways of enhancing humans’ innate drive to make sense by:-Acquiring information-Organizing information-Identifying problems-Formulating hypotheses-Developing concepts-Generating solutions-Fostering creativity

INDUCTIVE THINKINGHilda Taba

Goals Concept Formation/Concepts Enumeration, Listing Grouping Labeling, Categorizing Interpreting Data Exploring Relationships Identifying Critical Relationships Making Inferences Applying Predicting Explaining Hypothesizing Synthesizing Verifying

STEPS

Concept Formation1. Enumerate or list (“What do you see?”)2. Group (“What belongs together?”)3. Label (“What distinguishes this group?” )Interpret the Data4. Identify group relationships (“What do you notice about each

group?”)

5. Explore relationships (“How are groups related?”)6. Make inferences (“What does this all mean?”)Application7. Predict (“What would happen if…?”)8. Support hypothesis (“Why would this be?”)9. Verify (Use logical principles/evidence)

ELEMENTS

Role of TeacherInitially Teacher-Centered (construct tasks,

environment)Cooperative (T provides support, resources, guidance)

Scaffolding (Match tasks, questions to level and learning style)

Social SystemHigh to moderate structure

TIPS

Practice!Study your studentsFocus on metacognitionFocus on underlying conceptsTeach substanceSelect appropriate data setsDon’t rule out multiple-attribute categoriesDetermine higher-order objective at beginningDon’t reserve for “mature” studentsEmphasize discipline + flexibility

CONCEPT ATTAINMENTJerome Bruner

Goals Attainment of specific concepts Concept-building (metacognition) Labeling, Categorizing Interpreting Data Exploring Relationships Identifying Critical Relationships Making Inferences Applying Predicting Explaining Hypothesizing Synthesizing Verifying

STEPS

Phase One1. Present data to students in pairs (Exemplar, Non-exemplar)2. Learners identify concept, based on essential attributes

Phase Two3. Students generate own examples4. Teacher confirms or disconfirms

Phase Three5. Students analyze strategies6. Record strategies

ELEMENTS

Role of Teacher

Initially teacher-centered (T controls sequence open dialogue); Students gradually assume more initiative

Social System

Moderately structured

TIPS

Focus on attributes-Essential attributes-Attribute value-Multiple attributes (relational)

Focus on students’ processes (metacognition)-Partistic strategies-Holistic strategies

Use as assessment tool

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRYJoseph Schwab

Goals:Method Content

Role of expert practice*Genuine problem/issue/question/event*Invitation to solve or address

Nature of knowledge*Not predetermined, absolute--result of preceding interpretation*Dependability of current knowledge—best we have

STEPS

Confrontation with area of investigation

Identification of conceptual or methodological problem

Invitation to design ways to solve or overcome

Evaluation/interpretation of results

ELEMENTS

Role of TeacherGuide inquiry process, encouraging rigorFocus on process over “facts”Encourage—

*generation of hypothesis*interpretation of data*development of constructs*emergent ways of interpreting reality

Social SystemModerately structured; encourage boldness AND

humility

TIPS

Sequence invitations: simpler > sophisticated

Convert general “wonderments” into immediately useful problems

Develop inquiry-oriented materials (rare—didactic texts are standard)

Understand the modelUnderstand your discipline

INQUIRY TRAININGRichard Suchman

GoalsSimilar to scientific inquiry

STEPS

(Explain inquiry procedures)Present discrepant event (confrontation)Gather data/ask questions (verification)Hypothesize/questions (experimentation)Analyze/evaluate conclusionsAnalyze/evaluate strategies

ELEMENTS

Role of TeacherSelect/construct problem situationReferee questioningRespond to inquiries with informationHelp establish focusFacilitate discussionAssist evaluation

Social SystemCooperative and rigorous:*Social environment—controlled*Intellectual environment--open

TIPS

Distinguish verification & experimentation phases

Encourage/reward all questions

Selection of puzzling situation critical

Focus on process ( content)

ADVANCE ORGANIZERSDavid Ausubel

Goal/PurposeHelp students organize/process information by providing “ideational anchors”

Use with: presentational instructional methods (lecture, written, video/audio)

STEPS

Presentation of Advance Organizer*Higher level of abstraction/inclusiveness

than lesson content*Important content in itself*Expository or comparative

Presentation of material (“active reception learning”)

Strengthening of cognitive organization(“integrative reconciliation,” clarification

ELEMENTS

Role of TeacherTeacher controls intellectual structure student

integrates/internalizes/makes personally relevant

Social SystemStructured moderately structured

TIPS

Well-organized material critical

Integral and appropriate relationship between organizer and content

Caution: from Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, p. 201)

“Many textbooks do not feature conceptually organized material.”

SYNECTICS

Goal/Purpose

Increase problem-solving capacity, creative expression, empathy, and insight into problems, relationships, concepts, and ideas by—

making creativity a conscious process

“Make familiar strange and strange familiar.”

STEPS

Describe problem or situationSuggest direct analogiesChoose one to explore/develop“Become” the analogy (personal analogy)Suggest compressed conflictsChoose one to developGenerate new direct analogy based on

compressed conflictReexamine original task

ELEMENTS

Role of TeacherInduce psychological states likely to foster

creative thinkingUtilize nonrational thinkingAccept/legitimize all answersClarify and summarizeCreate safe, accepting environment

Social SystemModerately structured

TIPS

Work within students’ experienceEncourage divergent thinking (maximize

“conceptual distance”)Attend to pacingExplicitly outline proceduresConsider group sizeUse with discussion, written, hands-on

materialsConsider domain-specific trainingTake risks; practice; be open; reflect

SOCIAL FAMILY*

Emphasizes humans’ social nature: -humans are inherently social beings -learning is an inherently social process -social interaction enhances (or is

necessary for) intellectual learning

-Synergy of cooperative setting >motivation -social skills are learned—and -are required for democratic behavior -knowledge is socially constructed*

“The most stunning thing about teaching people to help kids learn cooperatively is that people don’t know how to do it as a result of their own schooling and life in this socety. An, if anything is genetically-driven, it’s a social instinct. If it weren’t for each other, we wouldn’t even know who we are.” Herbert Thelen

Philosophical Roots

John Dewey (Experiential learning)

Lev Vygotsky (Zone of Proximal Development)

(Others: Charles Hubbard Judd, 1934; William Heard Kilpatrick, 1919; George Counts, 1932; Boyd Bode, 1927)

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Goal/PurposeCreate feelings of “connectedness” which lead

to synergy essential for effective learningProduce cognitive as well as social complexityIncrease positive feeling, decrease alienationImprove social skillsIncrease learning*

STEPS

Set taskFormulate groupsEstablish (model) rolesProvide appropriate

resources/environmentFacilitate/trouble-shootGuide reflectionSynthesize learning

ELEMENTS

Role of Teacher:

“Guide on the Side”*Manage intellectual, social, and physical environment*Be expert in field of study

Social System

Moderately structured

TIPS

Group structure (size, homogeneous vs.

heterogeneous) depends on:

-students-nature of task

Planning!Organization!FlexibilityAuthenticity!!!

GROUP INVESTIGATION

Goal/Purpose

To combine the form and dynamics of democratic process with process of academic inquiry.

(Thelen, Dewey)

STEPS

Students encounter puzzling situationStudents explore reactionsStudents structure problem

and organize for studyIndividual or group studyReport/concludeAnalysis of process

ELEMENTS

Role of Teacher:

“Guide on the Side”*Manage intellectual, social, and physical environment*Be expert in field of study

Social System

Moderately structured

TIPS

Remember: Outcome is not completely predictableNegotiation and renegotiation are

essence of social process (Thelen)Teaching model replicates societal

patternsProcess continually generates new dataProvide adequate support systemsPuzzlement must be genuine!Authentic exchanges are essential!!

ROLE PLAY

Goal/PurposeTo explore and understand human relations issues and concepts by illuminating and analyzing the underlying values involved.

“The analysis of values is what’s important. Playing the roles lets the values become visible if the analysis is right. Understanding that what you do is a living out of your values starts the inquiry.” --Fannie Shaftel

STEPS (Shaftel Model)

Identify/Introduce problemAnalyze roles/Select role playersSet line of actionAssign observation tasksEnact role playDiscuss and evaluateReenactDiscuss and evaluateGeneralize

ELEMENTS

Role of Teacher:Directive (shape the exploration and establish

the focus)Reflective (accept all suggestions as legitimate;

no value judgments) Supportive (atmosphere of equality and trust)Deliberative (help students recognize and

evaluate alternative points of view; evaluate consequences)

Social System: Moderately structured

TIPS/POINTS

Adapt to needs of curriculum, students, time constraints, etc.

Emphasize intellectual as well as emotional content (through internalization)

Underscores role of expert practice (deep understanding of principles of discipline)

Distinct from simulation Develops social, problem solving, critical thinking skills Amenable to:

--Interpersonal conflicts--Intergroup relations--Individual dilemmas--Historical or contemporary problems--Any content requiring perspective-taking and/or

examination of alternate perspectives

JURISPRUDENTIAL INQUIRY

Goal/PurposeTo give student tools for analyzing and debating social issues by identifying underlying values in conflict in order to develop citizens capable of sharing in the formulation of social policy

(Shaver)

STEPS

Introduce materialsIdentify issue(s)Take positionsExplore the stances; determine if:

--value problem--factual problem--definitional problem

Refine, qualify positionsTest factual assumptions

ELEMENTS

Role of Teacher:Direct issue formulationProbe substance—

--relevance--consistency--specificity/generality--definitional clarity

Enforce continuity of thoughtEmphasize goal (clarification of issue,

development of most defensible position)

Social System: Structure: high low

TIPS/POINTS

Mastery of framework for analyzing issues is major learning outcome

Time intensiveMost suitable for higher grades (but

adaptable for lower grades)Cross-curricular applicabilityEncourages development of critical

thinking skills

PERSONAL FAMILY

Emphasizes the individual student as the starting point of learning.

Beliefs:Enhancing the learner as a person is

worthwhile educational goal in and of itself.Self-actualized learners have increased

learning capacities.

Goals of Personal Family

Lead students to increased mental/emotional health

Increase proportion education emanating from students’ needs and goals

Develop specific kinds of qualitative thinking

USES

General models of teaching“Flavor” learning environments designed around other models

CounselingInform development of curricula in content areas

NONDIRECTIVE TEACHING (Rogers)

Goal/Purpose

Development of:

effective long-term learning strategiesself-actualized individuals

STEPS

Express feelings/define problem

Discuss problemMake plan/decisionGather further insight develop more positive action

Take action

ELEMENTS

Role of Teacher:Facilitator

Social System:Low structure*Resources (vary)*Privacy*Time

TIPS/POINTS

May apply to personal, social academic situations

Engage students through affectUltimate goal: student responsibilityPerspective: See world as student sees/feels

it

SELF ACTUALIZATION (Maslow, etc.)

“The important message is that students can learn, not only academic content and social skills, but how to become integrated selves

that reach out into the world and reciprocally contribute to and profit from

their transactions with it.”AND….

“Students become what we model for them, and part of our influence on them depends on our own states of growth—our own self-

concepts…”--From Models of Teaching, p. 284

Opportunities for growth

FormalPeer-generatedPersonal

Differences among teachers

Function of individual’s disposition to interact productively with environment

Correlated across domainsModerate by social climate (synergistic environment)

PERSONAL GROWTH STATE

Classify yourselfClassify schoolClassify closest colleaguesClassify school leadersIdentify personal needs/aspirationsMake a planResources?Reflect on effect(s) on students