inference lecture7

8/13/2019 Inference Lecture7

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Statistical inference: CLT,confidence intervals, p-values


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Statistical Inference

The process of makingguesses about the truth froma sample.

Sample

(observation)

Make guesses

about the whole

population

Truth (not

observable)

N

x

N

i

i

2

12

)(

N

x

N

i

1

Populationparameters

1

)(

2

122

n

Xx

s

n

n

i

i

n

x

X

n

in

1

Sample statistics

*hat notation ^ is often used to indicateestitmate


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Statistics vs. Parameters Sample Statisticany summary measure calculated from

data; e.g., could be a mean, a difference in means orproportions, an odds ratio, or a correlation coefficient E.g., the mean vitamin D level in a sample of 100 men is 63 nmol/L E.g., the correlation coefficient between vitamin D and cognitive

function in the sample of 100 men is 0.15

Population parameterthe true value/true effect in theentire population of interest E.g., the true mean vitamin D in all middle-aged and older European

men is 62 nmol/L E.g., the true correlation between vitamin D and cognitive function in

all middle-aged and older European men is 0.15


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Examples of Sample Statistics:Single population mean

Single population proportion

Difference in means (ttest)Difference in proportions (Z-test)

Odds ratio/risk ratio

Correlation coefficientRegression coefficient


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Example 1: cognitive function

and vitamin D Hypothetical data loosely based on [1]; cross-

sectional study of 100 middle-aged and olderEuropean men.

Estimation: What is the average serum vitamin D inmiddle-aged and older European men? Sample statistic: mean vitamin D levels

Hypothesis testing: Are vitamin D levels and cognitive

function correlated? Sample statistic: correlation coefficient between vitamin D

and cognitive function, measured by the Digit SymbolSubstitution Test (DSST).

1. Lee DM, Tajar A, Ulubaev A, et al. Association between 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and cognitive performance in middle-agedand older European men. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2009 Jul;80(7):722-9.


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Distribution of a trait: vitamin D

Right-skewed!

Mean= 63 nmol/L

Standard deviation = 33 nmol/L


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Distribution of a trait: DSST

Normally distributed

Mean = 28 points

Standard deviation = 10 points


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Distribution of a statistic

Statistics follow distributions too

But the distribution of a statistic is a theoretical

construct.

Statisticians ask a thought experiment: how muchwould the value of the statistic fluctuate if one couldrepeat a particular study over and over again withdifferent samples of the same size?

By answering this question, statisticians are able topinpoint exactly how much uncertainty is associatedwith a given statistic.


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Distribution of a statistic Two approaches to determine the distribution

of a statistic:

1. Computer simulation Repeat the experiment over and over again virtually!

More intuitive; can directly observe the behavior ofstatistics.

2. Mathematical theory Proofs and formulas!

More practical; use formulas to solve problems.


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Example of computer

simulation How many heads come up in 100 coin

tosses?

Flip coins virtually

Flip a coin 100 times; count the number ofheads.

Repeat this over and over again a largenumber of times (well try 30,000 repeats!)

Plot the 30,000 results.


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Coin tosses

Conclusions:

We usually getbetween 40 and 60heads when we flip acoin 100 times.

Its extremely unlikelythat we will get 30

heads or 70 heads(didnt happen in30,000 experiments!).


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Distribution of the sample mean,computer simulation

1. Specify the underlying distribution of vitamin Din all European men aged 40 to 79.

Right-skewed Standard deviation = 33 nmol/L True mean = 62 nmol/L (this is arbitrary; does not affect

the distribution)

2. Select a random sample of 100 virtual men fromthe population.

3. Calculate the mean vitamin D for the sample. 4. Repeat steps (2) and (3) a large number of

times (say 1000 times). 5. Explore the distribution of the 1000 means.


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Distribution of mean vitamin D

(a sample statistic)Normally distributed! Surprise!

Mean= 62 nmol/L (the truemean)

Standard deviation = 3.3 nmol/L


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Normally distributed (even though thetrait is right-skewed!)

Mean = true mean

Standard deviation = 3.3 nmol/L

The standard deviation of a statistic is

called a standard error

The standard error of a mean =

Distribution of mean vitamin D

(a sample statistic)

n

s


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If I increase the sample size

to n=400Standard error = 1.7 nmol/L

7.1400

33

n

s


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If I increase the variability ofvitamin D (the trait) to SD=40

Standard error = 4.0 nmol/L

0.4100

40

n

s


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Mathematical TheoryThe Central Limit Theorem!

If all possible random samples, each of size n, aretaken from any population with a mean and astandard deviation , the sampling distribution of

the sample means (averages) will:

x

1. have mean:

n

x

2. have standard deviation:

3. be approximately normally distributed regardless of the shape

of the parent population (normality improves with larger n). It all

comes back to Z!


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Symbol Check

x The mean of the sample means.

x The standard deviation of the sample means.Also

called the standard error of the mean.


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Mathematical Proof (optional!)

If Xis a random variable from any distribution withknown mean, E(x), and variance, Var(x), then theexpected value and variance of the average of n

observations of X is:

)()(

)(

)()( 11 xEn

xnE

n

xE

n

x

EXE

n

i

n

i

i

n

n

xVar

n

xnVar

n

xVar

n

x

VarXVar

n

i

n

i

i

n

)()()(

)()(22

11


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Computer simulation of the CLT:(this is what we will do in lab next Wednesday!)

1. Pick any probability distribution and specify a mean andstandard deviation.

2. Tell the computer to randomly generate 1000 observationsfrom that probability distributions

E.g., the computer is more likely to spit out values with highprobabilities

3. Plot the observed values in a histogram.

4. Next, tell the computer to randomly generate 1000 averages-of-2 (randomly pick 2 and take their average) from thatprobability distribution. Plot observed averages in histograms.

5. Repeat for averages-of-10, and averages-of-100.


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Uniform on [0,1]: average of 1

(original distribution)


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Uniform: 1000 averages of 2


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~Exp(1): average of 1



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~Exp(1): 1000 averages of 2


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~Bin(40, .05): average of 1


~ n : averages


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~ n , . : averagesof 2

~ n : averages


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~ n , . : averagesof 5

Bin(40 05): 1000 averages of


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Bin(40, .05): 1000 averages of00


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The Central Limit Theorem:

If all possible random samples, each of size n, aretaken from any population with a mean and astandard deviation , the sampling distribution of

the sample means (averages) will:

x

1. have mean:

n

x

2. have standard deviation:

3. be approximately normally distributed regardless of the shape

of the parent population (normality improves with larger n)


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Central Limit Theorem caveats

for small samples: For small samples:

The sample standard deviation is an imprecise estimate of

the true standard deviation (); this imprecision changesthe distribution to a T-distribution. A t-distribution approaches a normal distribution for large n

(100), but has fatter tails for small n (


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Summary: Single populationmean (large n)

Hypothesis test:

Confidence Interval

n

s

Zmeannullmeanobserved

)(*Zmeanobservedintervalconfidence /2n

s


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Single population mean (smalln, normally distributed trait)

Hypothesis test:

Confidence Interval

n

s

Tn

meannullmeanobserved

1

)(*Tmeanobservedintervalconfidence /2,1n

s

n


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Examples of Sample Statistics:Single population mean




Correlation coefficient

Regression coefficient


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1. Specify the true correlation coefficient Correlation coefficient = 0.15

2. Select a random sample of 100 virtualmen from the population.

3. Calculate the correlation coefficient forthe sample.

4. Repeat steps (2) and (3) 15,000 times 5. Explore the distribution of the 15,000

correlation coefficients.

Distribution of a correlationcoefficient?? Computer simulation


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Distribution of a correlationcoefficient

Normally distributed!

Mean = 0.15 (true correlation)

Standard error = 0.10


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Distribution of a correlationcoefficient in general

1. Shape of the distribution Normally distributed for large samples

T-distribution for small samples (n


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Many statistics follow normal(or t-distributions)

Means/difference in means

T-distribution for small samples

Proportions/difference in proportions

Regression coefficients

T-distribution for small samples

Natural log of the odds ratio


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Estimation (confidenceintervals)

What is a good estimate for the truemean vitamin D in the population (the

population parameter)? 63 nmol/L +/- margin of error


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95% confidence interval

Goal: capture the true effect (e.g., thetrue mean) most of the time.

A 95% confidence interval shouldinclude the true effect about 95% ofthe time.

A 99% confidence interval shouldinclude the true effect about 99% ofthe time.


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Mean Mean + 2 Std error =68.6Mean - 2 Std error=55.4

Recall: 68-95-99.7 rule for normal distributions! These is a 95%chance that the sample mean will fall within two standard errors ofthe true mean= 62 +/- 2*3.3 = 55.4 nmol/L to 68.6 nmol/L

To be precise, 95%of observations fall

between Z=-1.96and Z= +1.96 (sothe 2 is a roundednumber)


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There is a 95% chance that the sample meanis between 55.4 nmol/L and 68.6 nmol/L

For every sample mean in this range, samplemean +/- 2 standard errors will include thetrue mean:

For example, if the sample mean is 68.6 nmol/L:

95% CI = 68.6 +/- 6.6 = 62.0 to 75.2 This interval just hits the true mean, 62.0.


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Thus, for normally distributed statistics, theformula for the 95% confidence interval is:

sample statistic 2 x(standard error) Examples:

95% CI for mean vitamin D:

63 nmol/L 2 x(3.3) = 56.469.6 nmol/L

95% CI for the correlation coefficient: 0.15 2x(0.1) = -.05.35


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Simulation of 20 studies of100 men

95% confidenceintervals for the mean

vitamin D for each of thesimulated studies.

Only 1 confidence

interval missed the true

mean.

Vertical line indicates the true mean (62)


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Confidence Intervals give:*A plausible range of values for a populationparameter.

*The precision of an estimate.(Whensampling variability is high, the confidenceinterval will be wide to reflect the uncertaintyof the observation.)

*Statistical significance (if the 95% CI doesnot cross the null value, it is significant at.05)


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Confidence Intervals

point estimate (measure of how confidentwe want to be) (standard error)

The value of the statistic in my sample(eg., mean, odds ratio, etc.)

From a Z table or a T table, dependingon the sampling distribution of the

statistic.

Standard error of the statistic.


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Common Z levels of confidence Commonly used confidence levels are

90%, 95%, and 99%

Conf idence

LevelZ value

1.28

1.645

1.96

2.33

2.58

3.08

3.27

80%

90%

95%

98%

99%

99.8%

99.9%


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99% confidence intervals

99% CI for mean vitamin D:

63 nmol/L 2.6 x(3.3) = 54.471.6 nmol/L

99% CI for the correlation coefficient: 0.15 2.6x(0.1) = -.11.41


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Testing Hypotheses

1. Is the mean vitamin D in middle-aged and older European men lower

than 100 nmol/L (the desirable level)? 2. Is cognitive function correlated with

vitamin D?

h


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Is the mean vitamin Ddifferent than 100?

Start by assuming that the mean = 100

This is the null hypothesis

This is usually the straw man that wewant to shoot down

Determine the distribution of statistics

assuming that the null is true

C i l i (10 000


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Computer simulation (10,000repeats)

This is called the nulldistribution!


Std error = 3.3

Mean = 100

C h ll di ib i


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Compare the null distributionto the observed value

Whats theprobability ofseeing a sample

mean of 63 nmol/Lif the true mean is100 nmol/L?

It didnt happen in

10,000 simulatedstudies. So theprobability is lessthan 1/10,000

C th ll di t ib ti


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Compare the null distributionto the observed value

This is the p-value!

P-value < 1/10,000

C l l ti th l ith


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Calculating the p-value with aformula

Because we know how normal curves work, we can exactly calculatethe probability of seeing an average of 63 nmol/L if the true averageweight is 100 (i.e., if our null hypothesis is true):

2.113.3

10063

Z

Z= 11.2, P-value


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The P-value

P-value is the probability that we would have seen ourdata (or something more unexpected) just by chance ifthe null hypothesis (null value) is true.

Small p-values mean the null value is unlikely givenour data.

Our data are so unlikely given the null hypothesis(


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The P-value

By convention, p-values of


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Summary: HypothesisTesting

The Steps:

1. Define your hypotheses (null, alternative)

2. Specify your null distribution

3. Do an experiment

4. Calculate the p-value of what you observed5. Reject or fail to reject (~accept) the null

hypothesis


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Hypothesis TestingThe Steps:

1. Define your hypotheses (null, alternative)

The null hypothesis is the straw man that we are trying to shoot down.

Null here: mean vitamin D level = 100 nmol/L

Alternative here: mean vit D < 100 nmol/L (one-sided)

2. Specify your sampling distribution (under the null)

If we repeated this experiment many, many times, the mean vitamin D

would be normally distributed around 100 nmol/L with a standard error

of 3.33.3

100

33

3. Do a single experiment (observed sample mean = 63 nmol/L)

4. Calculate the p-value of what you observed (p


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Confidence intervals give the sameinformation (and more) than hypothesis

tests


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Duality with hypothesis tests.

Null value99% confidence interval

Null hypothesis: Average vitamin D is 100 nmol/L

Alternative hypothesis: Average vitamin D is not 100

nmol/L (two-sided)

P-value < .01

50 60 70 80 90 100

2 i i f i l d


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2. Is cognitive function correlatedwith vitamin D?

Null hypothesis: r = 0

Alternative hypothesis: r 0

Two-sided hypothesis

Doesnt assume that the correlation will bepositive or negative.

Computer simulation (15 000


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Computer simulation (15,000repeats)

Null distribution:


Std error = 0.1

Mean = 0

Whats the probability of our


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Whats the probability of ourdata?

Even when the truecorrelation is 0, we getcorrelations as big as 0.15or bigger 7% of the time.


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Whats the probability of our


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What s the probability of ourdata?

Our results could havehappened purely due to afluke of chance!


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Formal hypothesis test

1. Null hypothesis: r=0

Alternative: r 0(two-sided)

2. Determine the null distribution Normally distributed

Standard error = 0.1

3. Collect Data, r=0.15

4. Calculate the p-value for the data:

Z =

5. Reject or fail to reject the null (fail to reject)

5.11.

015.0 Z of 1.5 corresponds to atwo-sided p-value of 14%

Or use confidence interval to


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Or use confidence interval togauge statistical significance

95% CI = -0.05 to 0.35

Thus, 0 (the null value) is a plausible

value! P>.05


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Examples of Sample Statistics:

Single population mean




Correlation coefficient

Regression coefficient


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Example 2: HIV vaccine trial

Thai HIV vaccine trial (2009)

8197 randomized to vaccine

8198 randomized to placebo Generated a lot of public discussion about p-

values!


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Source: BBC news, http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/health/8272113.stm

51/8197 vs. 75/8198

=23 excess infections in theplacebo group.

=2.8 fewer infections per 1000people vaccinated
http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/health/8272113.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/health/8272113.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/health/8272113.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/health/8272113.stm


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Null hypothesis

Null hypothesis: infection rate is thesame in the two groups

Alternative hypothesis: infection ratesdiffer

Computer simulation assuming


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Computer simulation assumingthe null (15,000 repeats)

Normally distributed,standard error = 11.1



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If the vaccine iscompletelyineffective, we

could still get 23excess infectionsjust by chance.

Probability of 23or more excessinfections = 0.04


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How to interpret p=.04

P(data/null) = .04

P(null/data) .04

P(null/data) 22%

*estimated using Bayes Rule (andprior data on the vaccine)

*Gilbert PB, Berger JO, Stablein D, Becker S, Essex M, Hammer SM, Kim JH, DeGruttola VG. Statisticalinterpretation of the RV144 HIV vaccine efficacy trial in Thailand: a case study for statistical issues in efficacytrials. J Infect Dis2011; 203: 969-975.


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Probability of 20or more excessinfections = 0.08

P=.08 is only slightlydifferent than p=.04!


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Confidence intervals

95% CI (analysis 1): .0014 to .0055

95% CI (analysis 2): -.0003 to .0051

The plausible ranges are nearly

identical!

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