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ARAM

Aramis a region mentioned in the Bible located in central Syria,including where the city

ofAleppo(aka Halab) now stands. Aram stretched from the Lebanon mountains eastward across

theuphrates,including the !habur "i#er#alley in northwestern $esopotamiaon the border

ofAssyria.

%udeo&'hristiantradition claims the name is deri#ed from the biblicalAram, son of Shem,a

grandson ofoahin the Bible.*+o ancient records of the time ha#e been found mentioning such a

person, howe#er there are records of #arious Semitic peoples to the west of $esopotamia such

asAhlamuandAmurru.+

-he toponymA-ra-muappears in an inscription atblalisting geographical names, and the

termArmi, which is the blaiteterm for nearbyAleppo, occurs freuently in the bla tablets(ca.

*// B'). 0ne of the annals of aram&Sin of Akkad(c. **1/ B') mentions that he captured 23ubul,

theensiofA-ra-me2 (Arameis seemingly a geniti#eform), in the course of a campaign

against Simurrumin the northern mountains.4+0ther early references to a place or people of 2Aram2

ha#e appeared at the archi#es of $ari(c. 56// B') and at 7garit(c. 5// B'). -here is little

agreement concerning what, if any, relationship there was between these places, or if the Aramu

were actually Aramaeans8 the earliest undisputed mention of Aramaeans as a people is in the

inscriptions of theAssyrianking, -iglath 9ileser :(5554;5/

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:n * B' the region was conuered by the reekruler,AleCander the reat. 7pon his death in *

B' this area became part of the reekSeleucid mpire,at which point reek replaced Aramaic as

the official language of mpire. -his area and other parts of the former Assyrian mpire to the east

were renamed Syria, aHurrian, Luwianandreekcorruption of Assyria.+:t is from this period that

the later Syria vs Assyrianaming contro#ersyarises, the Seleucids confusingly applied the name notonly to the$esopotamianland of Assyria itself, but also to the lands west of uphrateswhich had

ne#er been part of Assyria itself, but merely Aramean inhabited colonies. @hen they lost control of

Assyria itself to the 9arthians,the name Syriasur#i#ed and was applied only to the land west

of uphrates, that had once been part of the Assyrian empire, while Assyria went back to being

called Assyria (and alsoAthuraDAssuristan). Howe#er, this situation led to both Assyrians and

Arameans being dubbed Syriansinreco&"omanculture.

-his area, by now called Syria, was fought o#er by Seleucidsand 9arthiansduring the *nd century

B', and later still by the "omansand Sassanid9ersians.9almyra, a powerfulArameankingdom

arose during this period, and for a time it dominated the area and successfully resisted "oman and

9ersian attempts at conuest. =+-he region e#entually came under the control of the By?antine

mpire.'hristianitybegan to take hold from the 5st to rd 'enturies A3, and the Aramaic language

gradually supplanted 'anaanitein 9hoeneciaand Hebrewin :sraelD9alestine.

-he abateansdominated the region between 5// B' and 5// A3, its most famous city

being9etra. -he abatean kingdom was e#entually conuered by "ome.

:n the mid

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unnamed son of !ing0mriof:srael.5+-he $oabite capital was3ibon. According to the Bible, $oab

was often in conflict with its :sraelite neighbours to the west.

-he $oabites were likely settling in the -ransEordanianhighlands. @hether they were among the

nations referred to in theAncient gyptian languageasShutuor Shasuis a matter of some debateamong scholars. 3espite a scarcity of archaeological e#idence, the eCistence of $oab prior to the

rise of the :sraelitestate has been deduced from a colossal statue erected

at LuCorby 9haraoh"amesses ::, in the 5th century B', which lists Mu'abamong a series ofnations conuered during a campaign.

According to the biblical account, $oab andAmmonwere born toLotand LotPs elder and younger

daughters, respecti#ely, in the aftermath of the destruction of Sodom and omorrah. -he Bible refers

to both the $oabites and Ammonites as LotPs sons enesis 56G

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because %ewish men married women from the #arious nations without their first con#erting to

%udaism.

At the disruption of the kingdom under the reign of "ehoboam,$oab seems to ha#e been absorbed

into the northern realm. :t continued in #assalage to the !ingdom of :sraeluntil the deathofAhabwhich according to . ". -hielePs reckoning was in about 1 B',=+when the $oabites

refused to pay tribute and asserted their independence, making war upon the kingdom of %udah.

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EDOM

Edom(Did T mD5+or Di.dmD8*+HebrewG UJVWX,$odernEdom-iberian m 82red28AssyrianG !dumi8 SyriacG ) orIdumea(reekG YZ[\]^], Idouma"a8 LatinG Id#maea) wasa Semite&inhabited historical region of the Southern Le#antlocated south of %udeaand the 3ead

Seamostly in theege#. :t is mentioned in biblical records as a 5st millennium B' :ron Agekingdomof dom,+and in classical antiuitythe cognatename :dumea was used to refer to a smaller area in

the same region. -he name dom means 2red2 inHebrew, and was gi#en tosau,the elder son of

the Hebrew patriarch:saac, once he ate the 2red pottage2, which the Bible used in irony at the fact

he was born 2red all o#er2.4+-he -orah, -anakh and ew -estament thus describe the domites as

descendants of sau.

-he domites may ha#e been connected with the Shasuand Shutu, nomadic raiders mentioned

in gyptiansources. :ndeed, a letter from an gyptian scribe at a border fortress in the @adi

-umilatduring the reign of$erneptahreports mo#ement of nomadic 2shasu&tribes of dom2 to

watering holes in gyptian territory.1+

-he earliest :ron Age settlements_possibly copper miningcamps_date to the 6th century B'. Settlement intensified by the late th century B' and the main

sites so far eCca#ated ha#e been dated between the th and =th centuries B'. -he last

unambiguous reference to dom is an Assyrian inscription of ==< B'8 it has thus been unclear

when, how and why dom ceased to eCist as a state, although many scholars point to scriptural

references in the Bible, specifically the historical $oo% of &badiah, to eCplain this fact.+

dom is mentioned inAssyriancuneiforminscriptions in the form !dumior !dumu8 three of its

kings are known from the same sourceG !aus&malakaat the time of -iglath&pileser :::(c.

ered.55+-he ancient capital of dom was Bo?rah.5*+According to enesis, sauPs descendants

settled in this land after displacing the Horites.:t was also called the land of Seir8$ount

Seirappears to ha#e been strongly identified with them and may ha#e been a cultic site. :n the time

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Israeli_Hebrewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Israeli_Hebrewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Israeli_Hebrewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberian_vocalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberian_vocalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberian_vocalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Levanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Levanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-books.google.com.au-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shasuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Tumilathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Tumilathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Obadiahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-books.google.com.au-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%B2aus-malakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%B2aus-malakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%B2aus-malakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiglath-pileser_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiglath-pileser_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malik-rammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malik-rammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sennacheribhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sennacheribhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%B2aus-gabrihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%B2aus-gabrihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%B2aus-gabrihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esarhaddonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esarhaddonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabat%C3%A6anshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanakhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadesh_Barneahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadesh_Barneahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqabahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqabahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Zeredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Zeredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bozrahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Seirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Seirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Seirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Israeli_Hebrewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberian_vocalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Levanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-books.google.com.au-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shasuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Tumilathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Tumilathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Obadiahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-books.google.com.au-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%B2aus-malakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiglath-pileser_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malik-rammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sennacheribhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%B2aus-gabrihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esarhaddonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabat%C3%A6anshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanakhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadesh_Barneahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqabahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Zeredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Zeredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bozrahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Seirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Seir

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ofAma?iah( B'), Selah(9etra) was its principal stronghold, 5+ilat and ?ion&

geberits seaports.54+

enesis = lists thekings of domG

-hese are the kings who ruled in the land of dom before a king ruled the children of :srael.

AndBela ben Beorruled in dom, and the name of his city was 3inhabah. And Beladied, and %obab

ben >erahfrom Bo?rahruled in his place. And%obabdied, and Hushamof the land of -emaniruled

in his place. AndHushamdied, andHadad ben Bedad,who struck$idianin the field of$oab, ruled

in his place, and the name of his city wasA#ith. And Hadad died, and Samlah of $asrekahruled in

his place. And Samlahdied, and Saul of "ehoboth on the ri#erruled in his place. And Sauldied,

andBaal&hanan ben Achborruled in his place. And Baal&hanan ben Achbor died, and Hadarruled in

his place, and the name of his city was 9au,and his wifePs name was $ehetabel bat $atred bat

$e?ahab. And these are the names of the clansofsauby their families, by their places, by their

namesG clan-imnah,clanAl#ah, clan%etheth, clanAholibamah, clanlah, clan9inon,clan !ena?,

clan -eman, clan $ib?ar,clan $agdiel, clan :ram.51+

-he Hebrew word translated as leader of a clan is aluf, used solely to describe the 3ukes of dom

and$oab, in the first fi#e books of $oses. Howe#er beginning in the books of the later prophets the

word is used to describe %udean generals, for eCample, in the prophecies of >achariah twice (6G

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:sraelite go#ernors or prefects,*=+and this form of go#ernment seems to ha#e continued

under Solomon.@hen :srael di#ided into two kingdoms dom became a dependency of

the!ingdom of %udah. :n the time of%ehoshaphat(c. 654 B') the -anakh mentions a king of dom,

*ealot -emple Siegefor more information. After the %ewish

@ars, the :dumaean people are no longer mentioned in history, though the geographical region of

2:dumea2 is still referred to at the time of St. %erome.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehoshaphathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehoshaphathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Edomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Edomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Judahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehoram_of_Judahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaziahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalmshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimon_ben_Yohaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tannaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tannaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maccabeeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Maccabeeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Maccabeeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias_(general)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judas_Maccabeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judas_Maccabeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hyrcanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-JEnc-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipater_the_Idumaeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodian_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodian_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_the_Greathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_the_Greathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_ben_Antipater&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costobarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costobarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costobarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark,_Gospel_ofhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark,_Gospel_ofhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealot_Temple_Siegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Jeromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehoshaphathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Edomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Judahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehoram_of_Judahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaziahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalmshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimon_ben_Yohaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tannaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maccabeeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Maccabeeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Maccabeeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias_(general)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judas_Maccabeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hyrcanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-JEnc-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipater_the_Idumaeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodian_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_the_Greathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_ben_Antipater&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costobarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark,_Gospel_ofhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealot_Temple_Siegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Jerome

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gods wife of amun

At the beginning of the ew !ingdomthe title started to be held by royal women (usually the wife of

the king, but sometimes by the mother of the king), when its eCtreme power and prestige was first

e#ident. -he ew !ingdom began in 511/ B' with the eighteenth dynasty. -hese were the rulers

who dro#e the Hyksosout of gypt and their nati#e city was -hebes, which then became the leading

city in gypt. -hey belie#ed that their local deity,Amun, had guided them in their #ictory and the cult

rose to national importance. AdEustments to the rituals and myths followed.

-he title, (od's )ife of Amun, 2referred to the myth of the di#ine birth of the king, according to which

his mother was impregnated by the godAmun.25+@hile the office theoretically, was sacred, it was

essentially wielded as a political tool by the ser#ing gyptian pharaoh to ensure 2royal authority o#er

the -heban region and the powerful priesthood of Amun2 there.*+

-he royal lineage was tracedthrough its women and, the rulers and the religious institutions were ineCorably wo#en together in

traditions that remained uite stable o#er a period of three thousand years. -his title was used in

preference to the title,(reat *oyal )ife,which was the title of the ueen who was the consort to the

pharaoh and who officiated at the temple. -he new title con#eyed that the pharaoh would be

a demigodupon birth. 9re#iously the pharaoh was considered to become di#ine only at death.

-he first royal wife to hold this new title (not to be mistaken with the title ofodPs @ife) was

ueenAhmose&efertari, the wife ofAhmose :, and this e#ent is recorded in astelain

thetempleofAmunat !arnak, and the role was a priestly post of importance in the temple

ofAmunin -hebes. She then passed it on to her daughter$eritamen, who in turn handed it

toHatshepsut, who used it before she ascended the throne as pharaoh.

BothAhmose&efertariand Hatshepsut sometimes used the title as an alternati#e to that of +in,'s

rinci.al )ife, which shows how important they felt the role was. Hatshepsut passed the title on to

her daughtereferure.

A series of scenes in HatshepsutPs'hapelle "ougeshow the (od's )ife of Amun(her daughter)

and a male priest undergoing a ritual or ceremony that seems to be aimed at destroying the names

of enemies. 0ther scenes elsewhere show the (od's )ife of Amunworshiping the deities, beingpurified in the sacred lake, and following the king into the sanctuary. -hese again show the

importance of the role, but gi#e #ery little indication of the tasks and responsibilities in#ol#ed.

Hatshepsut was the daughter of -hutmose :and, upon his death, she became the wife of the

youthful -hutmose ::who was her young half&brother, born to a lesser wife than her mother. She

seems to ha#e been a de facto co&regent with him, ha#ing a great deal of influence upon the affairs

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyksoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyksoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God's_Wife_of_Amun#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God's_Wife_of_Amun#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God's_Wife_of_Amun#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Royal_Wifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Royal_Wifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Royal_Wifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demigodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God's_Wifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God's_Wifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose-Nefertarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose-Nefertarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose-Meritamonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose-Meritamonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatshepsuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose-Nefertarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose-Nefertarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapelle_Rougehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapelle_Rougehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyksoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God's_Wife_of_Amun#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God's_Wife_of_Amun#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Royal_Wifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demigodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God's_Wifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose-Nefertarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose-Meritamonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatshepsuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmose-Nefertarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapelle_Rougehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_II

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of state. -hey had only one child who sur#i#ed childhood, a daughter, eferure, to whom the title

of (od's )ife of Amunwas passed.

7pon the death of her husband -hutmose ::, Hatshepsut was appointed regentfor the #ery

youthful -hutmose :::, who was not born to her_the royal wife and ueen of his father_rather, hewas born of a lesser wife. He was her stepson and cousin. Shortly thereafter, Hatshepsut was

named pharaoh.

Her daughter, eferure, took her place in many functions that reuired a royal ueen ser#ing as

the (reat *oyal )ifeand, as (od's )ife of Amunin the temple, while -hutmose :::remained as co&

regent to Hatshepsut. He became the head of the armies.

Hatshepsut died after a **&year reign and, -hutmose ::: became pharaoh. At the end of a thirty year

reign of his own, he entered into a co&regency with a son by a lesser wife who would

become,Amenhotep ::. eferure had died without lea#ing another heir, but there were others in line

to become pharaoh,/ho0+so the co&regency assured that these royal offspring with closer ties to

Hatshepsut would be remo#ed from the line of descent, and -hutmose :::Ps chosen heir would rule.

-he records of holders of the title, (od's )ife of Amun, after -hutmose ::: became pharaoh de#iate

from the established pattern, perhaps because of the line of royalty issue. After eferure the list

notes, :set, the mother of -uthmosis :::, but it is uite certain that she ne#er officiated, and was

awarded the title after her death. eCt is, Satiah, a lesser wife of -uthmosis ::: in the early part of his

reign. She is followed by, $erytre&Hatshepsut, another lesser wife of -uthmosis :::, who became the

mother of his ultimate heir. She was the daughter of the 1ivine Adoratrice of Amun, Huy. eCt on thelist is, $eritamen, a daughter of -uthmosis ::: and $erytre&Hatshepsut, thereby the sister of his

ultimate heir. After all of those changes during his long reign, the office holder was the daughter of

-hutmose :::, returning to the traditional association.

Amenhotep ::seems to be the one who initiated the attempts to remo#e records of HatshepsutPs

reign while his father was an old man and continued these efforts after he became pharaoh in his

own right, claiming many of her achie#ements as his own, but failing to be thorough.

Amenhotep :: also tried to break traditions by pre#enting the names of his wi#es from being recorded

and introducing women who were not from the royal lineage into the line of descent_/ithout

success_as his designated heir was o#erlooked. After his death, which is estimated as 54// B',

-uthmosis :` was selected from the royal lineage as the neCt pharaoh.

-he power and prestige of the role of the (od's )ife of Amunwas greatly diminished by Amenhotep

::. He may ha#e declined to ha#e one, unless it remained as his sister, $eritamen. -he woman listed

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_II

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as holding the office neCt is, -iaa. -hat is the name of a wife of his who was the mother of-uthmosis

:`and it is possible that she was named to this title by her son since he ga#e her other titles,

howe#er, the daughter of -uthmosis :` also was named, -iaa.

Later in that dynasty, with religious changes affecting the status of the cult, the title then fell out offa#our. -he pharaohAmenhotep :`ruling from 51 or 515 initially followed the religious traditions.

Soon he instituted a new religion that ele#atedAten,not only to become the dominant cult, but as

a monotheisticcult, suppressing the worship of others. -he pharaoh changed his name

toAkhenatenand mo#ed his court to a new capital he had built,Akhetaten2orizon of Aten, at the

site known today asAmarna. He and his royal wife,efertiti(whom he treated as a co&regent)

became the intermediaries between Aten and the people. -he worship of Amun was especially

targeted for suppression and many of his temples were defaced and no idols were permitted. Aten

became 3he Aten, represented only as a solar disk. "eligious rituals were performed in open air

settings.

-he death of Akhenaten occurred circa 5= B' and it was not long before the traditional religious

practices began to resume. :t is possible that efertiti ruled under another name and, perhaps, was

an influence in the royal family until near the end of the rule of-utankhamun(5&5*4 B'), but if

she did, she did not pre#ent the re#i#al. -utankhamun began ruling as a child of nine under the

name of -utankhaten. Some think that he was the son of Akhenaten by a minor wife. 3uring his

reign his name was changed away from the deity of his father, replacing atenwith amun. -his marks

the beginning of a transition back to -hebes as the capital as well.

-he last ruler of the eighteenth dynasty,Horemheb(5*/&5*6* B'), restored the priesthood of

Amun, but he pre#ented the Amun priesthood from resuming the powerful position they had held

before Akhenaten dissol#ed the powerful cult and mo#ed the capital away from their city. Horemheb

had reformed the army and had de#eloped a loyal chain of command within it. By appointing priests

to the cult of Amun from the high ranks of his trusted army, he a#oided any attempts to reestablish

the powerful relationships that had pro#oked the drastic change made by Akhenaten.

Twosret

-heodore 3a#isidentified the ueen and her husband in a cache of Eewelry found in tomb !`1= in

the`alley of the !ings. -his tomb also contained obEects bearing the name of"ameses ::. -here is

no consensus about the nature of this tomb. Some (Aldred) thought this was the tomb of a daughter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuthmosis_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuthmosis_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuthmosis_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheistichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenatenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhetatenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertitihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertitihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutankhamunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutankhamunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horemhebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horemhebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Davishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_of_the_Kingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_of_the_Kingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rameses_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rameses_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuthmosis_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuthmosis_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheistichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenatenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhetatenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertitihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutankhamunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horemhebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Davishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_of_the_Kingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rameses_II

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of Seti :: and -awosret, but others ($aspero) thought this was a cache of obEects originally belonging

with the tomb of -awosret herself.=+

After her husbandPs death, she became first regent to SetiPs heir SiptahEointly with 'hancellor Bay,

whom some ha#e identified as the :rsumentioned in the Harris 9apyrus. Siptah was likely a stepson

of -wosret since his mother is now known to be a certain SutailEa or ShoteraEa from Lou#re "elief

*=6/5.

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work on her temple proEect. "ichard @ilkinson stressed that -wosretPs mortuary temple was

2largely structurally completed,2 although bearing minimal decoration, 54+therefore, she would

ha#e ruled for se#eral more months beyond :: Shemu *6 of her th ear for her temple to reach

completion. She could, hence, ha#e possibly ruled for = more months and nearly started her 6th

regnal year around the inter#al of :` AkhetD: 9eret_when her husband died (since she assumedSiptahPs reign as her own)&&before she was o#erthrown by Setnakhte. 0r she could ha#e e#en

started a brief 6th regnal year and had full years of rule (a figure which includes the = year

reign of Siptah her predecessor).

20thdynasty Egypt

-he 9haraohsof the */th dynasty ruled for approCimately 5*/ yearsG from ca 55< to 5/=4 B'. -he

dates and names in the table are mostly taken from 'hronological -able for the 3ynastic 9eriod2 in

rik Hornung, "olf !rauss 3a#id @arburton (editors),Ancient E,y.tian 7hronolo,y(Handbook of

0riental Studies), Brill, *//=. $any of the pharaohs were buried in the `alley of the !ings in -hebes

(designated !`). $ore information can be found on the -heban $apping 9roEect website. 5+

name of King "orus #$hrone% &ame date 'uria( )ueen#s%

Setnakhte 7serkhaure 556 ;55= B'

!`54 -iy&merenese

"amesses ::: 7sermaatre&$eryamun55= ;

5511 B'!`55

:set -a&HemdEert

-iye

"amesses :`7serDHeamaatre

Setepenamun

5511 ;

5546 B'!`* 3uatentopet

"amesses

Amenhirkhepeshef :

7sermaatre

Sekheperenre

5546 ;

5541 B'!`6

Henutwati

-awerettenru

"amesses

`:Amenhirkhepeshef ::ebmaatre $eryamun

5541 ;

55< B'!`6 ubkhesbed

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twosret#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setnakhtehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiy-merenesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iset_Ta-Hemdjerthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiye_(20th_dynasty)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duatentopethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henutwatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawerettenruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_VIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_VIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubkhesbedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twosret#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setnakhtehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiy-merenesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iset_Ta-Hemdjerthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiye_(20th_dynasty)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_IVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duatentopethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henutwatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawerettenruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_VIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_VIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubkhesbed

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"amesses :::tamun7sermaatre Setepenre

$eryamun

55< ;

55/ B'!`5

"amesses

`:::Sethhirkhepeshef 7sermaatre Akhenamun

55/ ;

55*6 B'

"amesses

:!haemwaset :eferkare Setepenre

55*6 ;

5555 B'!`= Baketwernel

"amesses

Amenhirkhepeshef :::

!hepermaatre

Setepenre

5555 ;

55/< B'!`5 -yti

"amesses

:!haemwaset ::$enmaatre Setpenptah 55/< ;

5/

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Howe#er, at this time gypt was also increasingly beset by a series of droughts, below&normal

flooding le#els of the ile, famine, ci#il unrest and official corruption ; all of which would limit the

managerial abilities of any king. -he power of the last king,"amesses :, grew so weak that in the

south the High 9riests of Amun at -hebesbecame the effecti#e defacto rulers of7pper gypt,

while SmendescontrolledLower gypte#en before "amesses :Ps death. Smendes woulde#entually found the -wenty&Qirst dynastyat -anis.

CIMMERIANS, a nomadic people, most likely of Iranian origin, who flourished in the 8th-7th

centuries b.c.e.

The name. The English form is ultimately derived from k.Kimmrioivia !at.Cimmerii. In "ssyrian

and #abylonian sources various forms are found$ Ga-mir,Gamir-(r)a, Gi-mir-a-a, Gi-mir-ra-a-a,

and so on %see, e.g. &arpola, '(7)a, pp. '**-++ cf. &inches, p. ''. The /ebrew #ible %enesis ')$*,

E0ekiel +8$ has gmr, masoretic G mr%erroneously assimilated to G mr, name of the wife of

/osea %/osea '$+ 12yakonov, '(8', p. ')( no. '* in the 3eptuagint the forms Gmer%enesis

and Gmer %E0ekiel are used %cf. 4osephus,Antiquitates Iudaicae '.'*+$Gmaros, and

'.'*$ Gomares, and the 5ulgate has Gomer%cf. also E0ekiel *7.'7$gmdym 6read gmrym cf

!agarde, p. +7, 4eremiah *9.*9$mry 6read gmry cf. 12yakonov, '(8', p. ''*. I. :. 12yakonov

attributes the variation a!i in the first syllable of the word to vowel gradation %see below. It is

possible that the name was preserved in "rm. Garmi" , referring to ;appadociasouth of the river

/alys %"dont0, pp. +'ff. 12yakonov, '(8', p. ''' cf., however, .

#rigin. The first mention of ;immerians in western sources is in The #dyssey of /omer %''.'>,

where they are described as inhabitants of the opposite side of the ?ceanus river surrounding the

earth, a country forever deprived of sunshine, thus at the entrance to the kingdom of /ades, toward

which ?dysseus sails to obtain an oracle from the soul of the seer Teiresias. The western reeks veryearly locali0ed ?dysseus2s wanderings to the seas around Italy and 3icily and placed the ;immerians

around !ake "vernus near ;umae in ;ampania near "vernus there was an ancient oracle of the

dead, and, because of its physical peculiarities, the lake was considered to be one of the entrances to

/ades %Ephorus 6ca. >)9-++) b.c.e., in 4acoby,$ragmente, no. 7), fr. '+> 3trabo, 9.>.9.

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;immerians with the ;eltic %or ermanic tribe of the ;imbri, made by &oseidonius %'*8->9 b.c.e.,

ultimately depended on this evidence %4acoby,$ragmente, no. 87, fr. +'.

.''-'*, the ;immerian

aristocrats, reluctant to abandon their homeland, killed one another and were buried in a tumulus

beside the river Tyres %modern 1niester, after which the common people migrated to B"siaC to

escape the 3cythians, proceeding along the #lack 3ea coast of ;aucasia %see caucasus i. geography,

population, and economy to the peninsula of 3inope and leaving traces in the form of toponyms on

the shores of the ;immerian #osporus. The idea that the #lack 3ea steppes had been the former

homeland of the ;immerians was probably already current at the beginning of the period of the

Ionian coloni0ation of 3cythia, in the second part of the 7th century b.c.e. Initially two different

versions about the starting point of the ;immerian flight were current among the colonists, that of

the Tyrits and that of the #osporans. !ater these were combined by the historians, as in the work of

/erodotus. !ater authors, influenced by the large number of B;immerian toponymsC in the region of

the #osporus, connected the ;immerians mainly with that region %see, e.g., 3trabo,'.'.'), '.*.(,

+.*.'*, 7.>.+, ''.*.9. &robably it was before the time of /erodotus that reports about the ;immerians

on the northern shores of the #lack 3ea were connected with the evidence in The #dyssey it seemed

natural to consider that /omer had depicted this cold northern country in poetic imagery as

deprived of sunshine and near /ades %3trabo, '.'.') '.*.(.

This opinion has been accepted by the maDority of scholars in modern times. "rcheologists have

logically concluded that finds dating from before the appearance of the 3cythians %i.e., the culture of

3cythian type in southern @ussia must be ;immerian. Especially since ". I. Tereno0hkin published

his work on these pre-3cythian finds, 3oviet archeologists, as well as many from abroad, have

identified a nomadic culture that flourished mainly in the kraine during the period of transition

from the #ron0e to the Iron "ge as that of the ;immerians. Two chronological phases have been

recogni0ed$ ;hernaya ora %ca. ())-79) b.c.e. and

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:Hllenhoff %pp. '(-+' argued that the location of the ;immerians on the north shore of the #lack

3ea was based solely on an attempt at rationali0ation of the /omeric evidence by the reeks, citing

the "vernian location as an analogy %see also, @ohde, pp. ((-')) "ly, pp. '**-*+ ;o00oli, p. 7 et

passim. a, pp.

'>*->+. It is clear that the reeks ascribed to the ;immerians a tumulus beside the river Tyres, Dust

as, for eGample, they ascribed various ancient buildings to the half-mythical &elasgians %cf. slar, p.

*77 12yakonov, '(9, p. *+(. " similar interpretation was given to some ruins that were

reminiscent of defensive structures,Kimmria te"hea %B;immerian fortificationsC /erodotus, >.'*

Tokhtas2ev, '(8>b, pp. '>>->9. EGcavators of the #osporan settlement Fimmerikon %late th century

b.c.e.-+rd century c.e. discovered a stratum dated to the second half of the *nd millennium b.c.e.,

which had been disturbed by reek colonists %Fruglikova for dating, see 3harafutdinova, pp. ''9-

' the name of the later settlement is evidence that the reeks considered these antiuities to be

;immerian. The assertion that ;immerians had lived there was founded partly on findings of this

sort and was reflected in the name of another locality on the #osporus,Kimmer& "h r&%B;immerian

landC /erodotus, >.'* cf. Tokhtas2ev, '(8>b, pp. '>*ff.. 4ust as the Thracian #osporus received its

name from adDoining Thrace, the ;immerian #osporus took its name from ;immeria.

;onfidence in the classical tradition was finally shaken by the fact that no artifacts of the

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the names of ;immerian kingsJTeu'%a, Tug!"!g!"-dam-m*-i, and+a-an-da"-K,-

ru %read+anda"'atruJare not completely reliable, though they could be Iranian %12yakonov, '(8',

pp. ''* n. *), ''-'7 n. +) cf. :ayrhofer, pp. '87ff.. The ingenious etymology proposed for the

ethnonym itself, from Iranian Kg.m/ra-LKgm/ra- Bmobile unitC %12yakonov, '(8', pp. '+'-+*,

cannot be verified, but no other satisfactory suggestion has been put forward. The widely heldopinion that the ;immerians were of Thracian origin depends in fact only on the confused

information of 3trabo$ BThe ;immerians, who are also called Treres, or some people of themC

%'.+.*' B. . . Treres, a ;immerian peopleC %'>.'.>). In all other references, however, 3trabo and

other authors treated Treres and ;immerians as separate peoples %cf. 3trabo, '.+.*', '*.+.*>, '*.8.7,

and '+.>.8 cf.;allisthenes, in 4acoby,$ragmente, no. '*>, fr. *( for more detail, see ;o00oli, pp.

79ff. 3ome scholars have considered the word rgi00ai Bunderground dwellings,C which Ephorus

applied to the habitations of the "vernian ;immerians, as of Thracian origin, but those ;immerians

were not directly related to the historical people %see above the same word, attested this time as a

reek word, has a convincing reek etymology %cf. ;hantraine, p. ')+.

Cimmerians in Transcaucasia and the 1ear 2ast. "ccording to intelligence reports sent to the

"ssyrian king 3argon II between 7*) and 7'> b.c.e., Fing @usM I of raru marched his troops

toK, Gamir(ra) Bland of the ;immeriansC but was defeated %&arpola, '(87, nos. +)-+*

!anfranchi and &arpola, nos. (*, '>>, '7> 1eller, pp. (8ff. a modern attempt at more precise

dating of these events to "ugust-3eptember 7'> %!anfranchi is hardly convincing.K,

Gamir(ra)was reliably locali0ed by 12yakonov on the territory of modern eorgia, most probably in

its central part %12yakonov, '(8>, pp. (), '79 n. *9+ idem, '(8', p. ')8 idem and Fashkai, p. 7'

the opposing view of :irDo 3alvini %pp. >9-> and his arguments for a location south or southeast of

lake rmia do not seem well founded. It is in central eorgia that archeologists have found thegreatest concentration of materials of the 3cythian type %12yakonov, '(8', p. '+9 Esayan and

&ogrebova, p. *) map, the earliest dating from about 7)) b.c.e. %Fossak, pp. >+->8. The /omeric

evidence for the ;immerians %see above was apparently drawn from a more ancient reek

epic,Argonautica%see 5on der :Hhll, pp. '>8ff., which may have recorded the actual presence of

;immerians in the general region immediately to the east of;olchisin the 8th century b.c.e.

"ccording to another "ssyrian intelligence report %!anfranchi and &arpola, no. '>9 1eller, no. *.',

;immerians did invade raru from the territory of :annea %the country south of !ake rmia the

document is datable to the same years %7*)-'> b.c.e., but, as the conteGt differs from that of @usM2scampaign against the Bcountry of ;immerians,C it is probable that it deals with a different phase of

the conflict.

Transcaucasia was in fact the base from which ;immerian troops marched, probably until the

beginning of the reign of"NNurbanipal%8-ca. *9 b.c.e.. In 7( the ;immerian king TeuNpa was

defeated by the "ssyrians near the city ubuNsnu %perhaps in ;appadocia see, e.g., #orger, pp. ++ l.

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/callisthenes-the-name-of-a-greek-historian-of-the-period-of-alexander-the-great-qhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/callisthenes-the-name-of-a-greek-historian-of-the-period-of-alexander-the-great-qhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/colchis-ancient-greek-name-of-the-region-at-the-eastern-end-of-the-black-sea-and-south-of-the-caucasus-mountainshttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/colchis-ancient-greek-name-of-the-region-at-the-eastern-end-of-the-black-sea-and-south-of-the-caucasus-mountainshttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/assurbanipal-king-of-assyria-666-25-bchttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/assurbanipal-king-of-assyria-666-25-bchttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/callisthenes-the-name-of-a-greek-historian-of-the-period-of-alexander-the-great-qhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/colchis-ancient-greek-name-of-the-region-at-the-eastern-end-of-the-black-sea-and-south-of-the-caucasus-mountainshttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/assurbanipal-king-of-assyria-666-25-bc

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'8, 9' l. >+, ')) l. *+ /eidel, p. '>, col. * ll. '-+ rayson, p. '*9, chron. '>.( in the same year

;immerian detachments of individual soldiers %probably captives were serving in the "ssyrian army

%12yakonov, '(8>, p. '79 no. *9( idem, '(8', p. ''+. In 79 they were present on the border of

:annea %Oales and !anfranchi cf. 3tarr, no. *( and in about 7 on :annean territory %&arpola,

'(8+, p. >*). Pubria %the country west of !ake 5an was perhaps subDect to invasion by the;immerians in about 7*-( %3tarr, no. '8, referring to an alliance with raru. In the period of the

:edian revolt against "ssyria %ca. 7>-7* even &arsuM %west of :edia 3tarr, no. +(, >) and

probably Ellipi %between :edia and Elam, 3tarr, nos. 7(, 8) cf. nos. 9, (7 were open to attack by

the ;immerians, who were allies of the :edes %cf. 3tarr, nos. +, >+, >9, >8, 9), 9', pp. lGi-lGii

&arpola, '(8+, pp. '(*-(+ and n. '(. ;immerians were serving as contingents in the "ssyrian army

in 7'-7) %3tarr, nos. '+(, '>*, '>>, p. lGiii.

Cimmerians in Anato0ia. 3trabo %'.+.*' synchroni0ed the suicide of Fing :idas of &hrygia with the

invasion of his country by the ;immerians. ?wing to contradictory and dubious reports about the

date of :idas2s death, however, it is impossible to date this event more precisely than 7))-79 b.c.e.

The apparent synchronism most likely results from chronographic speculations, in which ancient

and popular conceptions about :idas and /omer as contemporaries were connected with the no less

widely accepted synchronism between /omer and the ;immerian invasion. ?ther evidence about the

arrival of the ;immerians in &hrygia %3tephanus #y0antius, s.v.+yasss offers no grounds for

dating. "n "ssyrian oracular teGt of 7-) b.c.e. has been interpreted as referring to a conDectural

alliance between the ;immerians and &hrygians against :elitene, ,, 3e0/di%modern Eski

:alatya in eastern Turkey 3tarr, no. ', cf. pp. lvii-lviii see also 3tarr, no. '7, a document probably

related to the same events, mentioning ;immerians in the same connection with ;ilicians. It is

eually difficult to determine when the ;immerians appeared in the region of 3inope %Ehrhardt, pp.99, +*ff.. "s noted above, ;immerians were defeated by "ssyrians in eastern "natolia as early as

7( b.c.e., but in the reign of Esarhaddon %8)-( b.c.e. they remained active, mainly on the

northern and eastern borders of "ssyria. The first reliable information about their permanent

establishment in "natolia is from the early reign of "NNurbanipal$ in about 9 they attacked !ydia

but were defeated by Fing yges, with "NNurbanipal2s support %;ogan and Tadmor, p. 8> 3palinger,

p. >)*. In the spring of 97 the "ssyrians eGpected the ;immerians to march against !ydia,

probably from eastern "natolia %apparently from ;appadocia, which was their base cf.

"rm. Gamir" , whence they also eGercised BhegemonyC over at least a part of 3yria %&arpola, '(7)b,

nos. ''), +)) idem, '(8+, pp. +)7ff.. In >> they defeated the !ydians and took 3ardis, the !ydiancapital yges died during this battle. It is possible that, when the Treres and the !ycians sei0ed

3ardis once again in +7, the ;immerians were their allies %3palinger, pp. >)-)( ;ogan and

Tadmor, pp. 78-7( nos. *9, 8>.

In the >)s, under the leadership of Fing !ygdamis %"kkad. 1ugdammQ and sometimes in alliance

with the Treres under Fing Fobos, the ;immerians attacked the reek city-states of Ionia and "eolis

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%/erodotus, '. ;allimachus,4ymn to iana*99ff. Relles, no. 7 3trabo, '.+.*', +.*.'*, ''.*.9

Fleiner et al., pp. '+9ff.. They were also active in &aphlagonia %3trabo, '.+.*', especially in the

region of 3inope %cf. above in #ithynia %"rrian, in 4acoby,$ragmente, no. '9, frs. ), 7 scholia

in "pollonius of @hodes,Argonautica '.''* /eracleides &onticus, in Rehrli, pp. ')+-)>, fr. '*(

and in the Troad %"ristotle, in 3tephenus #y0antius, s.v.Antandros in &liny,1atura0 4istory 9.'*+.In about >) they tried to enter into an alliance with the state of Tabal, a faithless vassal of "ssyria,

and twice attacked the imperial forces during the second campaign, in >), !ygdamis was taken

seriously ill and killed himself %according to 3trabo, '.+.*', he died in ;ilicia, being succeeded by his

son 3a-an-dak-F@-ru %Thompson, '(++, pp. 88-8( idem, '(>), pp. ')-)7 no. ++ l. ')-'', ')( no.

+9 ll. -'* :illard, pp. ')(-') ;ogan and Tadmor, pp. 8)-8', 8> 3palinger, p. >)7.

In the +)s or *)s b.c.e. the 3cythian king :adyes defeated the Treres %3trabo, '.+.*', probably in

eastern "natolia, and at the end of the 7th or beginning of the th century the !ydian king "lyattes

defeated the ;immerians %/erodotus, '.' &olyaenus, 7.*.', after which nothing more was heard of

them.

The Scythianswere an ancient Iranic people of horse-riding nomadic

pastoralists who, throughout classical antiquity, dominated the Pontic-

Caspian steppe, known at the time asScythia.

The Scythians are thought to have originated from the Central sian

region of Persia, as a !ranch of the ancient Iranian peoples e"panding

north into the steppe regions from around #$$$ %C&. The Scythians

first appeared in the historical record in the 'th century %C&.

The Historiesof Herodotusprovide the most important literary

sources relating to ancient Scyths. (e reported three versions as to

the origins of the Scythians, !ut placed greatest faith in this version)

*There is also another different story, now to !e related, in which I am

more inclined to put faith than in any other. It is that the wandering

Scythians once dwelt in sia, and there warred with the +assagetae,

!ut with ill success they therefore quitted their homes, crossed the

ra"es, and entered the land of Cimmeria.*

round %C&, the Scythians in alliance with the +annaens

attacked Assyria. The group first appears in ssyrian annals under the

name Ishku/ai. ccording to the !rief assertion of Esarhaddon0s

inscription, the ssyrian Empiredefeated the alliance. Su!sequent

http://www.ancient.eu/Scythians/http://www.ancient.eu/scythia/http://www.ancient.eu/Persia/http://www.ancient.eu/herodotus/http://www.ancient.eu/assyria/http://www.ancient.eu/Esarhaddon/http://www.ancient.eu/empire/http://www.ancient.eu/Scythians/http://www.ancient.eu/scythia/http://www.ancient.eu/Persia/http://www.ancient.eu/herodotus/http://www.ancient.eu/assyria/http://www.ancient.eu/Esarhaddon/http://www.ancient.eu/empire/

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mention of Scythians in %a!ylonian and ssyrian te"ts occur in

connection withMedia. %oth 1ld Persian and Greeksources mention

them during the period of the Achaemenidempires, with 2reek

sources locating them in the steppe !etween the 3nieper and 3on

rivers.

In 4#5 %C&, when 6ing Darius the Greatof Persia attacked the

Scythians, he allegedly penetrated into their land after crossing the

3anu!e. (erodotus relates that the nomadic Scythians succeeded in

frustrating the designs of the Persian army !y letting it march through

the entire country without an engagement. ccording to (erodotus,

3arius in this manner came as far as the 7olga 8iver.

3uring the 4th to 9rd centuries %C& the Scythians evidently prospered.:hen (erodotus wrote his Historiesin the 4th century %C&, 2reeks

distinguished Scythia +inor in present-day 8omania and %ulgaria from

a 2reater Scythia that e"tended eastwards for a 5$ day ride from the

3anu!e 8iver, across the steppes of today0s &ast ;kraine to the lower

3on !asin. The Scythians apparently o!tained their wealth from their

control over the slave tradefrom the north to Greecethrough the

2reek %lack Sea colonial ports of 1lvia, Chersonesos, Cimmerian

%osporus, and 2orgippia. They also grew grain, and shipped wheat,flocks, and cheese to 2reece.

Stra!o reports that 6ing teas united under his

power the Scythian tri!es living !etween the +aeotian marshes and

the 3anu!e. (is westward e"pansion !rought him in conflict

with Philip II of Macedon, who took

military action against the Scythians in 99? %C&. teas died

in battleand his empire disintegrated. In the aftermath of this defeat,

the Celts seem to have displaced the Scythians from the %alkans,

while in south 8ussia a kindred tri!e, the Sarmatians, gradually

overwhelmed them.

%y the time of Stra!o0s account , the Crimean Scythians had created a new kingdom

http://www.ancient.eu/media/http://www.ancient.eu/greek/http://www.ancient.eu/Achaemenid/http://www.ancient.eu/Darius_the_Great/http://www.ancient.eu/trade/http://www.ancient.eu/greece/http://www.ancient.eu/Philip_II_of_Macedon/http://www.ancient.eu/battle/http://www.ancient.eu/media/http://www.ancient.eu/greek/http://www.ancient.eu/Achaemenid/http://www.ancient.eu/Darius_the_Great/http://www.ancient.eu/trade/http://www.ancient.eu/greece/http://www.ancient.eu/Philip_II_of_Macedon/http://www.ancient.eu/battle/

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e"tending from the lower 3nieper to the Crimea. The kings Skilurus

and Palakus waged wars with +ithridates the 2reat for control of the Crimean littoral, including Chersonesos and the

Cimmerian %osporus. Their capital city, Scythian Aeapolis, stood on

the outskirts of modern Simferopol. TheGothsdestroyed it later, in themid-9rd century C&.

In the 5nd century %C&, a group of Scythian tri!es, known as the

Indo-Scythians, migrated into Bactria, Sogdianaand rachosia. Bed

!y their king, +aues, they ultimately settled in modern-day Puna!

and 6ashmir from around '4 %C&, where they replaced the kingdom of

the Indo-2reeks !y the time of /es II .

In late antiquity the notion of a Scythian ethnicity grew more vague,

and outsiders might du! any people inha!iting the Pontic-Caspian

steppe as *Scythians*, regardless of their language.

Oirst 3cythian kingdomedit+

:n the

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Second Scythian !ingdom which reached its ?enith in the 4th century B'. (see furtherGHistory of

inEiang)

3econd 3cythian kingdomedit+

ScythiaPs social de#elopment at the end of the 1th century B' and in the 4th century B' in#ol#ed its

pri#ileged stratum in trade withreeks,efforts to control this trade, and conseuences partly

stemming from these twoG aggressi#e eCternal policy, intensified eCploitation of dependent

population, progressing stratification among the nomadic rulers. -rading with reeks also stimulated

sedentari?ation processes.

-he proCimity of the reek city&states on the Black Seacoast (9ontic 0lbia,'immerian

Bosporus,'hersonesos, Sindica,-anais) was a powerful incenti#e for sla#ery in the Scythian

society, but only in one directionG the sale of sla#es to reeks, instead of use in their economy.

Accordingly, the trade become a stimulus for capture of sla#es as war spoils in numerous wars.

-he Scythian state reached its greatest eCtent in the 4th century B' during the reign

ofAteas. :socrates+belie#ed that Scythians, and also -hraciansand 9ersians, are 2the most able to

.o/er4 and are the .eo.les /ith the ,reatest mi,ht.2 :n the 4th century B', under king Ateas, the

tribune structure of the state was eliminated, and the ruling power became more centrali?ed. -he

later sources do not mention three basileusesany more.Strabotells6+thatAteasruled o#er maEority

of the orth 9ontic barbarians.

@ritten sources tell that eCpansion of the Scythian state before the 4th century B' was mainly to the

west. :n this respect Ateas continued the policy of his predecessors in the 1th century B'. 3uring

western eCpansion,Ateasfought the -riballi.5/+An area of -hracewas subEugated and le#ied with

se#ere duties. 3uring the 6/ year life ofAteas, the Scythians settled firmly in -hraceand became an

important factor in political games in theBalkans.At the same time, both the nomadic and agricultural

Scythian populations increased along the3niesterri#er. A war with the Bosporian !ingdomincreased

Scythian pressure on the reek cities along the orth 9ontic littoral.

$aterials from the site near !amianka&3nipro#ska, purportedly the capital of the Ateasj state, show

that metallurgists were free members of the society, e#en if burdened with imposed obligations. -he

metallurgy was the most ad#anced and the only distinct craft speciality among the Scythians. Qrom

the story of 9olyaenus and Qrontin, it follows that in the 4th century B' Scythia had a layer of

dependent population, which consisted of impo#erished Scythian nomads and local indigenous

agricultural tribes, socially depri#ed, dependent and eCploited, who did not participate in the wars,

but were engaged in ser#ile agriculture and cattle husbandry.

-he year 6 B' was a culminating year for the Second Scythian !ingdom, and the beginning of its

decline. -he war with9hilip :: of $acedonended in a #ictory by the father ofAleCander the reat, the

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Xinjianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Xinjianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Xinjianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scythia&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greekshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greekshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greekshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Olbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Olbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimmerian_Bosporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimmerian_Bosporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimmerian_Bosporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chersonesos_Tauricahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanaishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isocrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isocrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triballihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triballihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dniesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dniesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporian_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamianka-Dniprovskahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Greathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Xinjianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Xinjianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scythia&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greekshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Olbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimmerian_Bosporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimmerian_Bosporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chersonesos_Tauricahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanaishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isocrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triballihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dniesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporian_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamianka-Dniprovskahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great

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Scythian kingAteasfell in battle well into his nineties.55+$any royalkurgans('hertomlyk, !ul&0ba,

Aleksandropol, !rasnokut) are dated from afterAteasjs time and pre#ious traditions were continued,

and life in the settlements of @estern Scythia show that the state sur#i#ed until the *1/s B'. @hen

in 5 B' >opyrion, AleCanderPs #iceroy in -hrace, 2not wishing to sit idle2, in#aded Scythia and

besieged9ontic 0lbia,he suffered a crushing defeat from the Scythians and lost his life.5*+

-he fall of the Second Scythian !ingdom came about in the second half of the rd century B' under

the onslaught of 'eltsand -hraciansfrom the west andSarmatiansfrom the east. @ith their

increased forces, the Sarmatians de#astated significant parts of Scythia and, 2annihilating the

defeated, transformed a larger part of the country into a desert2.5+

-he dependent forest&steppe tribes, subEected to eCaction burdens, freed themsel#es at the first

opportunity. -he 3nieperand Buhpopulace ruled by the Scythians did not become Scythians. -hey

continued to li#e their original life which was alien to Scythian ways. Qrom the rd century B' for

many centuries the histories of the steppe and forest&steppe ?ones of orth 9ontic di#erged. -he

material culture of the populations uickly lost their common features. And in the steppe, reflecting

the end of nomad hegemony in Scythian society, the royal kurgans were no longer built.

Archeologically, late Scythia appears first of all as a conglomerate of fortified and non&fortified

settlements with abutting agricultural ?ones.

-he de#elopment of the Scythian society was marked by the following trendsG

An intensified settlement process, e#idenced by the appearance of numerous kurgan burials

in the steppe ?one of orth 9ontic,some of them dated to the end of the 1th century B', but the

maEority belonging to the 4th or rd centuries B', reflecting the establishment of permanent

pastoral coaching routes and a tendency to semi&nomadic pasturing. -he Lower 3nieper area

contained mostly unfortified settlements, while in 'rimea and @estern Scythia the agricultural

population grew. -he 3nieper settlements de#eloped in what were pre#iously nomadic winter

#illages, and in uninhabited lands.

-endency for social ineuality, ascent of the nobility, and further stratification among free

Scythian nomads. -he maEority of royal kurgans are dated from the 4th century B'.

:ncrease in subEugation of the forest&steppe population, archeologically traced. :n the

4th century B' in the 3nieper forest&steppe ?one, steppe&type burials appear. :n addition to the

nomadic ad#ance in the north in search of the new pastures, they show an increase of pressure

on the farmers of the forest&steppe belt. -he Boryspil kurgans belong almost entirely to soldiers

and sometimes e#en women warriors. -he bloom of steppe Scythia coincides with decline of

forest&steppe. Qrom the second half of the 1th century B', importing of antiue goods to the

$iddle 3nieper decreased because of the pauperi?ation of the dependent farmers. :n the forest&

steppe, kurgans of the 4th century B' are poorer than during pre#ious times. At the same time,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurganshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurganshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zopyrionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Olbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Olbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Olbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dnieperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Bughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest-steppe_belthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurganshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zopyrionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Olbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dnieperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Bughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest-steppe_belt

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the cultural influence of the steppe nomads grew. -he Senko# kurgans in the !ie# area, left by

the local agricultural population, are low and contain poor female and empty male burials, in a

striking contrast with the nearby Boryspil kurgans of the same era left by the Scythian

conuerors.

Beginning of city life in Scythia.

rowth of trade with orthern Black Sea reek cities, and increase in Helleni?ation of the

Scythian aristocracy. After the defeat of Athens in the 9eloponnesian war, Attican agriculture was

ruined. 3emostheneswrote that about 4//,/// medimns(=,/// tonne) of grain was eCported

annually from the Bosporus to Athens. -he Scythian nomadic aristocracy not only ser#ed a

middleman role, but also acti#ely participated in the trade of grain (produced by dependent

farmers as well as sla#es), skins, and other goods.

ScythiaPs later history is mainly dominated by sedentary agrarian and city elements. As a result of thedefeats suffered by Scythians two separate states were formed, two Lesser Scythias, one

in -hrace(3obrudEa), and the other in the'rimeaand the Lower 3nieper area.54+

!ater 3cythian kingdomsedit+Ha#ing settled this Scythia $inorin -hrace, the former Scythian nomads (or rather their nobility)

abandoned their nomadic way of life, retaining their power o#er the agrarian population. -his little

polity should be distinguished from the -hird Scythian !ingdom in 'rimea and Lower 3nieper area,

whose inhabitants likewise underwent a massi#e sedentari?ation. -he interethnic dependence was

replaced by de#eloping forms of dependence within the society.

-he enmity of the -hird Scythian !ingdom, centred on Scythian eapolis, towards the reek

settlements of the northern Black Sea steadily increased. -he Scythian king apparently regarded the

reek colonies as unnecessary intermediaries in the wheat trade with mainland reece. Besides,

the settling cattlemen were attracted by the reek agricultural belt in Southern 'rimea. -he later

Scythia was both culturally and socio&economically far less ad#anced than its reek neighbors such

as 0l#iaor 'hersonesos.

-he continuity of the royal line is less clear in the Lesser Scythias of 'rimea and -hrace than it had

been pre#iously. :n the *nd century B', 0l#ia became a Scythian dependency. -hat e#ent was

marked in the city by minting of coins bearing the name of the Scythian kingSkilurus. He was a son

of a king and a father of a king, but the relation of his dynasty with the former dynasty is not known.

ither Skilurus or his son and successor 9alakuswere buried in the mausoleum of Scythian eapol

that was used from c. 5// B' to c. 5// A3. Howe#er, the last burials are so poor that they do not

seem to be royal, indicating a change in the dynasty or royal burials in another place.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peloponnesian_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demostheneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medimn&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Scythiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobrudjahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lower_Dnieper_area&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scythia&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia_Minorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia_Minorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythian_Neapolishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chersonesos_Tauricahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skilurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skilurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palakushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peloponnesian_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demostheneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medimn&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Scythiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobrudjahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lower_Dnieper_area&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scythia&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia_Minorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythian_Neapolishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chersonesos_Tauricahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skilurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palakus

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Later, at the end of the *nd century B', 0l#ia was freed from the Scythian domination, but became a

subEect to $ithridates : of 9arthia. By the end of the 5st century B', 0lbia,rebuilt after its sack by

theetae, became a dependency of the 3acian barbarian kings, who minted their own coins in the

city. Later from the *nd century A3 0lbia belonged to the "oman mpire. Scythia was the first state

north of the Black Sea to collapse with the in#asion of the othsin the *nd century A3 (see 0ium).

Scythia was a loose state that originated as early as th century B'. Little is known of them and their

rulers. $ost detailed description came from Herodotus.

Scylas(c. 1// B') ;Herodotusdescribes him as aScythianwhose mother was reek, he

was eCpelled by his people

0ctamasadas(c. 41/ B') ; was put on the throne after Scylas

Ateas(c. 4*6;6 B') ; defeated by the $acedonians8 his empire fell apart

Skilurus(c. 5*1;55/ B') ; died during a war against $ithridates `: of 9ontus

9alacus(c. 5// B') ; the last Scythian ruler, defeated by $ithridates

ydiaarose as a Aeo-Hittitekingdom following the collapse of the(ittite Empirein the twelfth century %C. ccording to Greeksources,

the original name of the Bydian kingdom was

+aionia.Herodotusrelates that that the *+aiones* were renamed

Bydians after their king, Bydus , son of ttis, in the

mythical epoch that preceded the rise of the (eracleid dynasty. The

!oundaries of historical Bydia varied across the centuries. It was first

!ounded !y +ysia, Caria, Phrygiaand coastal Ionia. Bater on, the

military power of lyattes and !roesuse"panded Bydia into an

empire, with its capital at Sardis, which controlled allAsia Minorwest

of the 8iver (alys, e"cept Bycia. fter the Persian con"uestthe

+aeander was regarded as its southern !oundary, and under #ome,

Bydia comprised the country !etween +ysia and Caria on the one side

and Phrygia and the Aegeanon the other. ccording to (erodotus, the

Bydians were the first people to introduce the use of goldand

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbia,_Ukrainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbia,_Ukrainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scylashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octamasadashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scylashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skilurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skilurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacushttp://www.ancient.eu/lydia/http://www.ancient.eu/hittite/http://www.ancient.eu/empire/http://www.ancient.eu/greek/http://www.ancient.eu/herodotus/http://www.ancient.eu/phrygia/http://www.ancient.eu/ionia/http://www.ancient.eu/croesus/http://www.ancient.eu/sardis/http://www.ancient.eu/Asia_Minor/http://www.ancient.eu/conquest/http://www.ancient.eu/Rome/http://www.ancient.eu/aegean/http://www.ancient.eu/gold/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbia,_Ukrainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scylashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octamasadashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scylashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skilurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacushttp://www.ancient.eu/lydia/http://www.ancient.eu/hittite/http://www.ancient.eu/empire/http://www.ancient.eu/greek/http://www.ancient.eu/herodotus/http://www.ancient.eu/phrygia/http://www.ancient.eu/ionia/http://www.ancient.eu/croesus/http://www.ancient.eu/sardis/http://www.ancient.eu/Asia_Minor/http://www.ancient.eu/conquest/http://www.ancient.eu/Rome/http://www.ancient.eu/aegean/http://www.ancient.eu/gold/

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silver coinsand the first to esta!lish retail shops in permanent

locations. The dating of these first stamped coins is one of the most

frequently de!ated topics in ancient numismatics, with dates ranging

from $$ %C to 44$ %C, !ut the most commonly held view is that they

were minted at or near the !eginning of the reign of 6ing lyattes,who ruled Bydia c. $?-4$ %C. lyattes0 son was Croesus , who !ecame synonymous with wealth-- thus the e"pression *rich as Croesus*. The Bydian capital Sardis was

renowned as a rich and !eautiful city. round 44$ %C, near the

!eginning of his reign, Croesus paid for the construction of

the templeof Artemisat Ephesus, which !ecame one of the Se$en

%ondersof the ncient :orld. Croesus is also famous for asking the

1racle at Delphiwhether he should go to &aragainst Persia. :ithtypical am!iguity the oracle answered that if Croesus attacked the

Persians, he would destroy a great empire. (e went to war and was

defeated in battle!y !yrus IIof Persia in 4= %C, with the Bydian

kingdom losing its autonomy and !ecoming a Persian satrapy... thus

destroying his own empire.

Ear(y history* Maeonia and +ydiaedit+

Lydia de#eloped as a eo&Hittitekingdom after the hi of the Hittite mpirein the 5*th century B'. :n

Hittite times, the name for the region had beenAr?awa8 it was a Luwian&speaking area. According to

reek source, the original name of the Lydian kingdom was Maionia(]Z^]),

or MaeoniaGHomer(Iliadii. =18 #. 4, Ci. 45) refers to the inhabitants of Lydia

as Maiones(]^Z).=+Homer describes their capital not as Sardis but as 2yde(IliadCC. 1)8

Hyde may ha#e been the name of the district in which Sardis was located.

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Hermus, where a town named $aeonia eCisted, according to9liny the lder(:atural 2istorybook

#G/) and Hierocles(author of Synecdemus).

+ydia in ,ree- mytho(ogyedit+

Lydian mythology is #irtually unknown, and their literature and rituals lost, in the absence of any

monuments or archaeological finds with eCtensi#e inscriptions8 therefore myths in#ol#ing Lydia are

mainly from reek mythology.

Qor the reeks, -antaluswas a primordial ruler of mythic Lydia, and iobehis proud daughter8 her

husbandAmphionassociated Lydia with -hebesin reece, and through 9elopsthe line of -antalus

was part of the founding mythsof$ycenaePs second dynasty. (:n reference to the myth

of Bellerophon, !arl !erenyi remarked, in 3he 2eroes of 3he (ree%s5616, p. . 2AsLykiawas thus

connected with 'rete, and as the person of 9elops,the hero of 0lympia, connected Lydia with the

9eloponnesos, so Bellerophontes connected another Asian country, or rather two, Lykia and !aria,

with the kingdom ofArgos2.)

:n reek myth, Lydia was also the origin&place of the double&aCe, thelabrys.6+0mphale,daughter of

the ri#er :ardanos, was a ruler of Lydia, whom Heracleswas reuired to ser#e for a time. His

ad#entures in Lydia are the ad#entures of a reek hero in a peripheral and foreign landG during his

stay, Heracles ensla#ed the :tones, killed Syleus who forced passers&by to hoe his #ineyard8 slew

theserpentof the ri#er Sangarios (which appears in the hea#ens as the constellation0phiucus)

5/+and captured the simian tricksters, the'ercopes. Accounts tell of at least one son born to

0mphale and HeraclesG 3iodorus Siculus(4.5.) and0#id(2eroides6.14) mention a son Lamos,while pseudo&Apollodorus ($ibliothe%e*.

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king$idasof 9hrygiawashed away the 2$idas touch2 in its waters. :n uripidesP tragedy 3he

$acchae, 3ionysus, while he is maintaining his human disguise, declares his country to be Lydia.55+

According to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first people to use gold and sil#ercoinsand the first to

establish retail shops in permanent locations.5*+:t is not known, howe#er, whether Herodotus meant

that the Lydians were the first to use coins of pure gold and pure sil#er or the first precious metal

coins in general. 3espite this ambiguity, this statement of Herodotus is one of the pieces of e#idence

often cited in behalf of the argument that Lydians in#ented coinage, at least in the @est, e#en though

the first coins were neither gold nor sil#er but an alloy of the two.5+

-he dating of these first stamped coins is one of the most freuently debated topics of ancient

numismatics,54+with dates ranging from

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According to Herodotusthe Heraclids ruled for ** generations during the period from 551 B',

lasting for 1/1 years). Alyattes was the king of Lydia in

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'roesus(1=/&14= B') & the eCpression 2rich as 'roesus2 refers to this king. -he Lydian

mpire ended when 'roesus attacked the 9ersian mpire of 'yrus ::and was defeated in

14= B'.

ersian Em6ireedit+

Main article; 5ydia

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7nder the tetrarchyreform of mperor 3iocletianin *6