INDIKATOR PENCEMARAN LINGKUNGAN

Oleh

Sudrajat

FMIPA_UNMUL

2010

Pollution Indicators

• The presence or absence of particular organisms can indicate whether the water is polluted or not.

• These are called Indicator Species

Air Pollution Indicators• Lichens

– Different types of lichen have different sensitivities to sulphur dioxide gas.

– 3 main types – crusty, leafy and shrubby

Indicator species present

Appearance of lichen SO2 concentration

Crusty lichens only High

Crusty and leafy Medium

Shrubby low

Air Pollution Map

• Look at the air pollution map, and explain the distribution of the different types of lichen.

Lichen

• Lichen + Green algae not found :

SO2 conc. >170 mg/m3

• Only green algae :

max. 170 mg/m3 close formations of lichen on the trunk of

the tree, even in the cracks :

125-150 mg/m3

Lichen

• leaf shaped lobe plates formed by leafy lichen :

60-70 mg/m3

• lichen growing as a little bush or hanging like a beard :

40-50 mg/m3

Lichen

• Lichen are particularly good indicators of gas pollution in the air

Almost all lichen are sensitive to air pollutions.

Such as SO2, F2, O3, pH or even metal ion

What physiological properties make lichens

useful indicators of air quality? Range of air pollution sensitivities across species. Lichens exhibit a

range of sensitivities to S- & N compounds in acid rain, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and fluoride. Changes in distribution or populations of the most sensitive lichens provide an early warning that air pollution is beginning to adversely affect the ecosystem. The mix of species and abundances at any one site can be used to position the site along an air quality gradient.

High surface area and no roots. Lichens on trees and shrubs obtain nutrients from the air, precipitation, and substrate run-off. Tissue levels of many pollutants are correlated with ambient atmospheric levels.

Readily absorb water and lack specialized barriers to prevent vapor loss. Daily cycles of wetting and drying produce a dynamic equilibrium between concentration and leaching of pollutants. As pollution concentrations change, so do concentrations in lichens. Mobile elements: S, N, K, Ca, Mg, Na. – can change significantly over a few months. Less mobile elements: Pb, Cd, Ni—change more slowly.

What kinds of data are collected?

Lichen communities and floristicsTissue analysesTransplantsLaboratory

What are lichens?

Lichens are symbiotic organisms consisting of a fungus and an alga and/or a cyanobacterium.

British soldiers Button lichen Lung lichen

Hell’s Canyon National Recreation Area% N (dw) By Distance (km)

% N

(dw

)

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

2.0

0 0.4 1.6 >1.6

Distance (km)

With ControlDunnett's 0.05

Means ComparisonsDif=Mean[i]-Mean[j]00.4>1.61.6

00.000000-0.32807-0.33119-0.34119

0.40.3280680.000000-0.00312-0.01312

>1.60.3311930.0031250.000000

-0.01

1.60.3411930.0131250.0100000.000000

Alpha= 0.05

Comparisons with a control using Dunnett's Method|d|

2.48475Abs(Dif)-LSD00.4>1.61.6

0-0.166190.1469650.1500900.160090

Positive values show pairs of means that are significantly different.

Xanthoria Cover (%) By Distance (km)

Xan

thor

ia C

over

(%

)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

0 0.4 1.6 > 1.6

Distance (km)

With ControlDunnett's 0.05

Means ComparisonsDif=Mean[i]-Mean[j]00.41.6> 1.6

0 0.0000-36.4583-39.5833-42.7083

0.4 36.4583 0.0000 -3.1250 -6.2500

1.6 39.5833 3.1250 0.0000 -3.1250

> 1.6 42.7083 6.2500 3.1250 0.0000

Alpha= 0.05

Comparisons with a control using Dunnett's Method|d|

2.65353Abs(Dif)-LSD00.41.6> 1.6

0-19.3091 14.8700 17.9950 21.1200

Positive values show pairs of means that are significantly different.

Nitrogen concentrations in lichen tissue and abundance of the nitrogen-loving lichen, Xanthoria, were highest at sites closest to the Snake River.

Tongass National Forest, Sitka, Alaska

Tongass National Forest, Sitka, Alaska

Lichens were absent from alder <0 .25 mi from the pulp mill, an SO2 source.

Typical cover of lichens onalder in the Sitka area

Klondike Gold Rush National Historic Park, Skagway, Alaska

Mean concentrations of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Ni, P, K, S, Zn in the lichen, Hypogymnia enteromorpha, were higher in Klondike Gold Rush NHP samples than Tongass National Forest samples.

Schematic diagram of the DEEEP approachBiochemical/chemical oxygen demand

(COD<200mg/l or BOD<50mg/l)

Acute toxicity tests(Suggested battery of tests include:

bacteria, algae, invertebrates and vertebrates)

Chronic toxicity tests

Mutagenicity tests

Bioaccumulation

NO HAZARD (General Authorization)

Acute toxicity tests

• Battery, consisting of four tropic levels– Vibrio fischeri luminescent bacteria test

• Bacteria

– Selenastrum capricornutum growth inhibition test• Algae

– Daphnia pulex acute toxicity test• Invertebrate (waterflea)

– Poecilia reticulata acute toxicity test• Vertebrate (fish)

Battery of toxicity test

Toxicity testEffect period

Exposure period

EndpointDetection limit (%)

Standard

Vibrio fischeri luminescence bacterial test

Acute/Short term

30 minutes

% growth inhibition or stimulation, EC20 and

EC50 value

20 ISO, 1998

Selenastrum capricornutum (algal) growth inhibition test

Acute/Short term

72 h

% growth inhibition or stimulation, EC20 and

EC50 value

20OECD, 1984

Daphnia pulex (waterflea)

lethality test

Acute/Short-term

24 and 48 h

% lethality, LC10 and

LC50 value 10

US EPA, 2002

Poecilia reticulata (fish)

lethality test

Acute/ Short-term

96 h% lethality, LC10 and

LC50 value 10

US EPA, 1996

AMES Salmonella typhimurium mutagenicity

test

Chronic/Long-term

72 hDetects

mutagenicity

MR :≥2.0US EPA,

1983

Presentation of data

• Report the screening test endpoints– % effects, such as mortality or growth (results

exceeding detection limits will be marked in red)

• Report the definitive test endpoints– Such as LC/EC50 values

• Report the Toxicity units (TUa) – To classify individual test result and

compare to DEEEP criteria

• Report Hazard rating – Classify battery of tests, using toxicity

indexes, such as Hazard Classification System (Persoone, 2005)

Toxicity units• Toxicity units

– Determine LC/EC50 value from dilution series tested

– Toxicity units (TUa) = 100/LC or EC50– Based on Tonks & Baltus, 1997

• Key to classification system:0-1 Limited to not acutely toxic1-2 Negligibly acutely toxic2-10 Mildly acutely toxic10-100 Acutely toxic>100 Highly acutely toxic