LUCID’s Land Use Change Analysis as an Approach for Investigating Biodiversity Loss and Land Degradation Project

Impacts of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Soil Degradation and

Biodiversity on the Slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

LUCID Working Paper Series Number: 26

By

A.E. Majule

Institute of Resource Assessment University of Dar es Salaam

P.O. Box 35097 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

February 2003

Address Correspondence to:LUCID Project

International Livestock Research InstituteP.O. Box 30709Nairobi, Kenya

E-mail: lucid@cgiar.orgTel. +254-20-630743

Fax. +254-20-631481/ 631499

Impacts of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Soil Degradation and Biodiversity on the Slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

The Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics Project Working Paper Number: 26

By

A.E. Majule

Institute of Resource Assessment University of Dar es Salaam

P.O. Box 35097 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

February 2003

Address Correspondence to:

LUCID ProjectInternational Livestock Research Institute

P.O. Box 30709Nairobi, Kenya

E-mail: lucid@cgiar.orgTel. +254-20-630743

Fax. +254-20-631481/ 631499

Copyright © 2003 by the: University of Dar es Salaam, International Livestock Research Institute, and United Nations Environment Programme/Division of Global Environment Facility Coordination. All rights reserved. Reproduction of LUCID Working Papers for non-commercial purposes is encouraged. Working papers may be quoted or reproduced free of charge provided the source is acknowledged and cited. Cite working paper as follows: Author. Year. Title. Land Use Change Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID) Project Working Paper #. Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock Research Institute. Working papers are available on www.lucideastafrica.org or by emailing lucid@cgiar.org.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 GENERAL BACKGROUND ............................................................................................ 1

1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Justification for the study............................................................................................... 1

1.3 Description of the study area ......................................................................................... 2

1.3.1 Biophysical characteristics .................................................................................... 2

1.3.2 Socio-economic characteristics ................................................................................. 2

1.4 Purpose and Objectives.................................................................................................. 2

2.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................... 4

2.1 Land use/cover types analysis........................................................................................ 4

2.2 Soil sampling ................................................................................................................. 4

2.3 Analysis of primary data ................................................................................................ 4

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...................................................................................... 5

3.1 Land use/cover types...................................................................................................... 5

3.2 The influence of land use/cover changes on soil fertility............................................... 8

3.2.1 Machame transect .................................................................................................... 10

3.2.2 Mbokomu transect............................................................................................... 12

3.3 A linkage between soil erosion and land use types...................................................... 13

3.3.1 Machame transect .................................................................................................... 13

3.3.2. Mbokomu transect............................................................................................... 15

3.4 Linkage between soil erosion and species richness ................................................. 16

4.0 CONCLUSIONS.......................................................................................................... 17

5.0. REFERENCES................................................................................................................. 18

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LIST OF FIGURES

1. Sampling Points along the agro-climatic zones gradient.................................................. 3 2.a. Dominant land use types (Upper Machame) .................................................................... 6 2.b. Dominant land use types (Middle Machame)................................................................... 6 2.c. Dominant land use (Lower Machame) ............................................................................. 6 2.d. Dominant land use (Upper Mbokomu)............................................................................. 7 2.e. Dominant land use (Middle Mbokomu) ........................................................................... 7 2.f. Dominant land use types (Lower Mbokomu) .................................................................. 7 3.a. Soil pH and Nutrient Variation Across Zones (Machame).............................................. 8 3.b. Soil pH and Nutrient Variation Across Zones (Mbokomu) ............................................ 8 4. Soil Availability phosphorus (mgP/kg) across Machame/Mbokomu transects............... 9 5.a. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Upper Machame)...................................... 11 5.b. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Middle Machame) .................................... 11 5.c. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Lower Machame) ..................................... 11 5.d. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Upper Mbokomu)..................................... 12 5.e. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Middle Mbokomu) ................................... 13 5.f. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Lower Mbokomu) .................................... 13 6.a. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Upper Machame2 ............................................ 14 6.b. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Middle Machame ............................................ 14 6.c. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Lower Machame.............................................. 14 6.d. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Upper Mbokomu ............................................. 15 6.e. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Upper Mbokomu ............................................. 15 6.f. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Lower Mbokomu ............................................ 16 7. The Effect of Soil Erosion on Species Richness ........................................................... 16

LIST OF APPENDICES 1. Description of land use types ............................................................................................ 19 2. Soil physical properties description................................................................................... 21 3. Soil Chemical properties ................................................................................................... 23

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ABSTRACT

A description of different major land use/cover in two transects, Machame and Mbokomu on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania was made through field investigation. This was based on guidelines provided by Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID) project. Soils along the two transects were also extensively characterized both in terms of their chemical and physical properties in relation to degradation. Soil fertility response to different management strategies for sustaining productivity and livelihood of people was also undertaken. The information accrued from this study particularly on soil degradation forms a basis for understanding degradation process and its impact on food crop productivity and on environment. Further, relationships between different land use/cover types and soil degradation particularly soil erosion and soil nutrient composition as well as a relationship between soil degradation and species richness along the two transects was examined. The magnitude of land degradation varied between two transects, being higher along the Mbokomu transect than Machame transect. Soil degradation varied with land use/cover types whereby a conversion of forest to farmland or exotic woodlots caused a depletion of major nutrients such as organic matter, total nitrogen, available phosphorus and increased soil erosion. Soil degradation, particularly erosion, is negatively correlated to species richness along the two transects. Low potential areas seem to be severely degraded as compared to high potential areas due to extensive land use. However a number of adaptation strategies have been adopted such as the application of organic residues, terrace technology, crop diversification and irrigation. Future study requirements include examining soil nutrient flows along transects since it appears that there is a transfer of soil nutrients from low to high potential areas, accelerating the soil degradation process. 1.0 GENERAL BACKGROUND 1.1 Introduction The development of mankind over the past decades has gone through a number of historical stages. The process of development entails exploitation of natural resource with the purpose of converting it into usable form. For examples, human activities such as land tillage, forest clearing, irrigation practices are both aimed to increase food production in order to feed the population of people which is ever increasing. In many cases, development activities conducted in unplanned way have resulted into serious land degradation. Land degradation means a reduction or loss, in arid and dry sub humid areas of biological or economic productivity or complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes. These processes include those arising from human activities and habitation patterns such as soil erosion caused by wind and or water, deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils as well as loss of natural vegetation. A number of studies have been conducted to assess the various kind of land degradation in Tanzania (see for examples Dejene et al., 1997; Majule et al., 1997; Boesen et al., 1999). Kilimanjaro being one of the high potential areas in Tanzania in terms of natural resources and agricultural production, studies on land degradation, climate change and their implications on the livelihood of the people are inevitable in order to have a sustainable management of resources. 1.2 Justification for the study The Kilimanjaro region is endowed with a number of natural resources such as fresh water, fertile volcanic soils, wildlife and a number of natural vegetation species in the forest. Over decades, there have been a number of pressures on natural resources due to increased human demand associated with development and increased population. The consequences of this increased demand is degradation of natural resources if used in unplanned manner. Understanding the effects of land use/cover changes on the degradation of natural resources particularly soils and biodiversity is rather important in the planning of sustainable management of natural resources.

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1.3 Description of the study area 1.3.1 Biophysical characteristics Mount Kilimanjaro is located in the northeast of Tanzania and is a huge volcanic cone with two major peaks, Kibo (5895 m) and Mawenzi (5150 m). The major relief features of Mount Kilimanjaro are three: mountain, highlands and lowlands (JICA, 1977a). The highland zone is also divided into upper zone and middle depending on elevation. There is a variation in the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro because of aspect and elevation. The southern slopes are the steepest and poorly managed soils have been severely eroded over time by heavy rainfall. The northern slopes are generally gentle with gradient of 5-10 degrees. There are number of rivers on the southern side which supply clean water for domestic and irrigation use (Figure 1). The main ones on the south and southeast facing slopes are Kikafu, Weruweru, Karanga, Rau, Mue, Himo, and Sigana. In the lowland zone, there are fewer rivers and streams and most of them are intermitted due to underground seepage, high evaporation and human diversions. Most of rivers draining Kilimanjaro run into Pangani River. The climate is diverse and it varies with elevation and aspects. Broadly, rainfall increases with altitude. In the southern lowland areas at approximately 800 m a.s.l., the average rainfall is approximately 800 mm and it increases to 2,500 mm at 1,500 m.a.s.l. Above 1,500 m a.s.l., rainfall decreases with elevation. Broadly, more rainfall falls on the southern and southeastern slopes of the mountain than the northern or western slopes. Most areas of Kilimanjaro receive their maximum rainfall in April or May and their minimum from July to September. Moisture deficit is common in lowlands and it occurs during September to March. However in the highlands, only slight deficit occurs from January to March (Maro, 1974). Temperatures are moderate at the middle varying between 22 and 26ºC between the altitudes of 600 and 1050 m (JICA, 1977b). The maximum temperature tends to be reduced by cloud cover. Soils are very varied, most of them having derived from volcanic rocks. In the northern, western, and southern sides of the mountain soils are generally deep and fertile as compared to shallow, stony soils on the eastern side particularly the central and northern Rombo District. 1.3.2 Socio-economic characteristics In the slopes of Kilimanjaro, the socio-economic contribution may be analysed in terms of agriculture, forest and tourism. There is also a number of non-agricultural, forestry or tourism income generating activities like Sunday markets where different items are traded. There has been a spectacular development of agriculture on Kilimanjaro during the last 150 years due to a combination of good soils and favourable climatic conditions (Misana, 1991). Small-scale holders mainly dominate agriculture under a typical Chagga system known as kihamba. A mixture of coffee and banana together with other crops like maize, beans, and Irish potatoes form the major components of the mixed cropping system in the highland zone. The land is intensively used due very high population density, which exceeds 500 people per km2 in some places (JICA, 1977a). The lowland zone is sparsely populated due to low and unreliable rainfall, poor soil fertility and poor physical environment such as high temperatures. However due to high population pressure on the highland, people are forced to move down to the lowland. Major crops in the lowland include maize, beans, sisal, cotton, sugar cane (O’Kting’ati and Kessy, 1991) and irrigated rice (JICA, 1977c). 1.4 Purpose and Objectives The general objective of the study was study the soil degradation in the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro associated with land use/cover changes. Specifically, the following were investigated:

• To identify and characterize different land use/cover types in Machame and Mbokomu transects in the high, mid and low zones;

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• To characterize in detail the soils in terms of their physical and chemical properties; • To assess the various land degradation indicators, particularly soil erosion and nutrient

contents in soils; • To establish linkages between changes in land use/cover types with soil degradation; • To examine the linkage between soil degradation and biodiversity.

2.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2.1 Land use/cover types analysis A number of methodologies were used in the collection of information. Three major transects were selected for the purpose of this study. These were Machame, Mbokomu and Rombo transects. Transects were divided into three major agro-ecological zones viz. upper, middle and lower zones. Figure 1 indicates the two major transects Machame and Mbokomu and villages involved in the study. Demarcations of each zone used for data recording and sampling are summarized below:

• Mountain zone > 1800 m a.s.l. • Upper zone 1800 – 1500 m a.s.l. • Middle zone 1500 – 1000 m a.s.l. • Lower zone < 1000 m a.s.l.

Data were recorded in the upper, middle and lower zones. For each of the agro-ecological zones, four major sub transects were made at a specified elevation (between the upper and lower limit of the zone) to record and describe the various land use/cover types by following a guide provided by LUCID (Maitima and Olson 2001). Specifically, soils under the different land use types were described in terms of their physical properties such as soil colour, soil moisture, soil erodibility and textural class by finger feel method. Field observations of different plants on a particular soil was also undertaken in order to explain relationships between soil fertility and crop growths as per the LUCID guide. 2.2 Soil sampling After field description of soils, samples were strategically collected in the field from different land use types for laboratory analysis. The W sampling procedure Majule (1999) was used to select the points for soil sampling—this involved the use of a coordinate system where the points sampled were at the intersection of two lines of approximately 50 paces in a W shape. A shovel was used to get a disturbed shallow sample by cutting a V shaped slice to the depth of 0-20cm and then from 20 to 40 cm (Tan, 1996). The sampling units at each depth were then thoroughly mixed to form a composite sample. The soil was then air-dried and ground to pass through a 2 mm sieve for routine soil analysis. Soils were analysed for pH, OC%, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium. Soil pH was determined in 1:2.5 soils: distilled water (DW) and also in 1M KCl, respectively, using a pH meter (MacLean, 1982). Phosphorus (P) was extracted according to the Bray 1 method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945), and the extracted P was determined calorimetrically after colour development using the ascorbic acid method of (Murphy and Rilley, 1962). Total Nitrogen was determined by macro-kjeldahl digestion followed by distillation (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982). Organic carbon was determined by the Wakley - Black method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable cations were displaced using ammonium acetate leachate and exchangeable K+ was determined by the flame spectrophotometry (Thomas, 1982). Laboratory results together with field observations were both used to explain the land degradation associated with changes in land use practices. 2.3 Analysis of primary data The proportions of different land use/cover types along the transects in each zone were all listed and their proportions calculated in terms of their occurrences. Their proportions were plotted on graphs and a detailed description of the representative land use/cover types were presented in a

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tabular form. Soil degradation, particularly soil erosion, on each land use/cover type was assessed by classifying the erosion into the erodibility classes 0=E0, 1=E1 and 2=E2 meaning no visible evidence of erosion, slight moderate sheet wash, and moderate-severe sheet wash respectively. Major nutrients (C, N, P, K) in soils and soil pH were compared with the national standards (NSS, 1993) in order to get different fertility ratings per transect and per land use/cover type. 3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1 Land use/cover types Broadly the land of Kilimanjaro is covered with the following land use types:

• Natural Forest • Open and dense woodlands • Cultivated land (mixed cropping, herbaceous crops, cultivation with tree crops).

Within the above land cover types, a number of land uses were identified along the transects. In order to assess the changes in soil fertility along the two transects (Machame, Mbokomu) a summary of the dominant land use types is made. Table 1a in Appendix 1, presents a descriptive summary of major land use/cover types found along the Machame transect. Figures 2a through 2c present the proportions of different land use/cover types observed along the Machame transect. The dominant land use type in upper and middle Machame is coffee/banana and this accounts for nearly 40 and 50% in the two agro-climatic zones respectively. This type of land use has high economic potential due to its significant contribution to food security and income generation through the sale of coffee. Historically (Table 1a in Appendix 1) this type of land use followed after the clearing of natural forest, which previously dominated. Another report indicates that the first crop to be planted was banana followed by coffee (Misana, 1991). In upper Machame there are still some remnants of natural forest (Figure 2a). Most natural forest is disappearing due to pressure on natural vegetation though the expansion of farming activities (O’Kting’ati and Kessy, 1991). Nearly 50% of the land in upper Machame (Figure 2a) has been converted to grazing land (GRAZ), pasture land (PAS.LD) and woodlots, mainly Eucalyptus specie (WO.LTS). In the middle Machame (Figure 2b), there are short fallows (one year) in response to declining soil fertility. In the lower Machame, there are number of land use types (Figure 2c). Broadly, these are small plots used to cultivate various crops under crop rotation system. Crop diversification in lowlands is one of the strategies to ensure crop yields. Major crops are rice and maize. A descriptive summary of different land use/cover types for Mbokomu transect is summarized in Table 2b in Appendix 1. Along the Mbokomu and Machame transects, the same types of land uses were identified in the three different agro-climatic zones but they differ in their proportions (Table 1b). The dominant land use type in Upper Mbokomu is the coffee/banana (nearly 50%) followed by woodlots (20%) (Figure 2d). The other minor land use types are grazing land, maize field and pastureland. Planted Napier grasses for livestock dominate the pastureland and this is sometime associated with Eucalyptus woodlots. The inclusion of artificial pasture, apart from being a source of livestock feed, is to prevent soil erosion observed to be high in the woodlots. The largest proportion of land in the middle Mbokomu is under the coffee/banana system (Figure 2e). The proportion of the land under the coffee/banana system in the mid Mbokomu is larger (70%) than in Upper Mbokomu (50%). This is probably due to large number of settlements in the middle zone characterized by having coffee/banana plots and other minor crops in their home gardens (Chagga home gardens). Similarly, in the lower Machame, there are a number of land use types (Figure 2f). Broadly, these are small plots used to cultivate various crops under crop rotation or sequential farming practices. Crop diversification in the lowlands is one of the strategies of ensuring production due to poor soil conditions and low rainfall. Major crops include a mixture of coffee and maize, banana and cassava, or banana and maize.

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Figure 2a. Dominant Landuse types (Upper Machame)

0

20

40

60

80

100

GRAZ PAS.LD WO.LTS COFF/BNN FORSLanduse types

Prop

ortio

n oc

cupi

ed (%

)

Figure 2b. Dominant Landuse types (Middle Machame)

0

20

40

60

80

100

GRAZ WO.LTS COFF/BNN FALLOWLanduse types

Prop

ortio

n oc

cupi

ed (%

)

Figure 2c. Dominant landuse types (Lower Machame)

0

20

40

60

80

100

GRAZ PAS.LD PADDY MAIZE FALLOWLanduse types

Prop

ortio

n oc

cupi

ed (%

)

GRAZ=grazing land; PAS.LD= pasture land; WO.LTS= woodlots, mainly Eucalyptus species; COFF/BNN=coffee/banana system; FORS=forest; PADDY=irrigated rice

Both physical and chemical fertility data (Tables 2b & 3b) revealed that the soil along the Mbokomu transect is highly degraded compared to soils located along the Machame transect. This is illustrated by the presence of limited land use types and the cultivation of cassava, which tends to grow on poor soils and to resist drought (Figure 2e). The land uses in the lower Mbokomu are similar to those observed at the lower Machame. There is no dominant land use type probably due to the fact that the land is suited for a number of uses due to a flat inherent landform.

Figure 2f. Dominant landuse types (Lower Mbokomu)

0

20

40

60

80

100

GRAZ CO/MZ PAD/MZ BAN/CAS BAN/MZLanduse types

Prop

ortio

n oc

cupi

ed (%

)

Figure 2e. Dominant Landuse types (Middle Mbokomu)

0

20

40

60

80

100

CASSAVA WO.LTS COFF/BNNLanduse types

Prop

ortio

n oc

cupi

ed (%

)

Figure 2d. Dominant Landuse types (Upper Mbokomu)

0

20

40

60

80

100

GRAZ PAS.LD WO.LTS COFF/BNN MAIZELanduse types

Prop

ortio

n oc

cupi

ed (%

)

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3.2 The influence of land use/cover changes on soil fertility fert ial nutrients in the right

of e

soil fertility ratings developed for Tanzanian soils, soil pH slightly increased from 4.7 in the ry

d

dues to the upland areas.

Soil ility is the measure of the ability of the soil to supply essentamounts, and at the correct proportion at the right time (Rowell, 1993). However the fertilitythe soil is also determined by the quality of soil physical properties. Deterioration of soil structurdue to reasons such as soil erosion, poor land management practices, as well as a failure of soils to supply nutrients in the correct amount and at the right time, are indicators of land degradation. Tables 2a and 2b in Appendix 1 provides a detailed description of soils including their physical degradation from representative land use/cover types. Figures 3a and 3b below indicate selected soil nutrient status along the Machame and Mbokomu transects respectively.

10

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Figure 3a. Soil pH and Nutrient Variation Across Zones (Machame)

0

2

4

6

8

Upper Middle LowerAgro Ecological Zones

Soil

pH, N

utrie

nt C

onte

nts

pHOC%�����������������N%

������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������

Figure 3b. Soil Nutrient Variations Across Zones (Mbokomu)

0

2

4

6

8

10

Upper Middle LowerAgro Ecological Zones

Soil

pH, N

utrie

nt C

onte

nts

pHOC%�����������������N%

Inupper zone to 5.0 (Figure 3a) across the Machame transect. The soil pH range is classified as vestrongly acid. Under extremely acid conditions, most of soil nutrients such as N, P, Ca, M Mg and K became unavailable and other toxic elements like Al, Mn and Cu become more available to toxic levels A slight increase in soil pH is probably due to deposition of basic cations associatewith erosion and irrigation. Soil organic carbon declined across the zone from a medium range inthe highlands to a very low range in the lower zone. A decline in organic carbon is due to vegetation clearing and burning, and the transfer of organic materials, particularly crop resi

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Type Range Classification Soil pH < 4.5 extremely acid

4.5-5.0 very strongly acid

1.26-2.50 medium

0.21-0.50 medium

> 20 high

nes respectively. This can r, which is a major s urce of itrogen (Rowell, 1993,

euss and Johnson, 1986). Available nitrogen is released to the soil through the process of

acid in the on (Ca, Mg and

) accumulation in the lower zone due to erosion and irrigation. The variation in soil pH is ong

ne. A

5.1-5.6 strongly acid OC% < 0.6 very low 0.60-1.25 low 2.51-3.50 high N% < 0.10 very low 0.10-0.20 low 0.51-1.00 high mgP/kg (Bray-1) < 7 low 7.1- 20 medium ________________________________________________________Source: National Soil Service (NSS, 1993), Tanzania. Total nitrogen content ranged from high to low in the upper and low zobe linked with a decline in soil organic matte o nRorganic nitrogen mineralization (Sakala, 1998; Majule, 1999). Available phosphorus (Figure 4) declined across the Machame transect. However the available phosphorus is well above the high level (> 20 mgP/kg).

160

Soil pH along the Mbokomu transect increased from very strongly acid to stronglyupper and lower zones respectively. A slight increase is probably due to basic cati

Figure 4. Soil Available phosphorus (mgP/kg) across Machame and Mbokomu Transects

0

40

80

120

Upper Middle Lower

Agro Ecological Zones

Avai

labl

e P

(mg/

kg),

Bray

-1

Machame

Mbokomu

Klargely influenced by the land use/cover types within zones across transects. Organic carbon althe Mbokomu transect is generally lower than in Machame transect (Figures 3a and 3b). It decreased from medium range (1.68%) in the upper zone to low range (0.99) in the lower zodecrease in soil organic matter negatively related with soil erosion across the zone (Figure 7). Soil total N% is much lower in Mbokomu than in Machame transect. Soil available phosphorus

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declined across transect in the upper and middle zones respectively. An increase in the amount of available phosphorus in the lower zone (Figure 4) is probably due to high level of phosphorus application particularly in crop fields. 3.2.1 Machame transect Over the past few decades there has been a number of land use changes in the region associated

ith changes in agricultural practices (O’Kting’ati and Kessy, 1991). The effects of individual radation along the Machame transect are presented in Figures 5a

op cultivation. Soil pH in other land use types is very strongly acid (pH 4.5-5.0). e amount of soil organic carbon is within the medium range. Soil nitrogen is very low in

igh in in all land

se types. Broadly, soil degradation is most marked in woodlots followed by grazing land.

owell, 993). There is a marked regeneration in soil organic carbon in soils with the exception of the

ue to the following reasons: • Application of animal manures and crop residues,

cting burning,

Soi rt om cultivation to controlled grazing (zero gr ds near the Chagga home gardens.

ntial areas. There are o remnants of natural forest, which could have served as a means of regenerating soil fertility

wland use/cover types on soil degthrough 5c). One of the indicators of land degradation is declining soil fertility (Rowell, 1993; Majule et al., 1997). An assessment of few key chemical soil fertility indicators (soil pH, OC% and total N%) revealed a variation in soil chemical characteristics associated with different land use categories. In the upper Machame (Figure 5a) soil pH is extremely acidic (<4.5) in pastureland and this restricts annual crThpastureland and woodlots but increases to a medium range in forest and grazing land. In middle Machame (Figure 5b), the soil is extremely acid in woodlots. However it is a bit hother land use types. Organic carbon followed a similar pattern while soil total N is lowu In lower Machame (Figure 5c), extreme soil acidity was observed in rice paddy cultivation. Low soil pH is probably due to nitrogen transformation associated with flooding of rice fields (R1grazing land. Organic carbon content, soil pH and total N% in the land under the coffee/banana system is relatively stable d

• Prevention of leaching processes through mulch application, • Proper agronomic practices such restri• Soil erosion control strategies.

l fe ility can also be regenerated when land is converted frazing), which is restricted to fiel

Declining soil fertility in the lower Machame is probably due to intensive land utilization associated with overgrazing and transfer of organic matter to the upper potenthrough the cycling of organic matter.

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Figure 5a. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse/cover types (Upper Machame)

0

2

4

6

8

10

PAS.LD WO.LTS COFF/BNN FORS GRAZLanduse types

pH, (

OC

& N

-%)

Soil pHOC%Total N%

Figure 5b. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse/cover types (Mid Machame)

0

2

4

6

8

10

GRAZ WO.LTS COFF/BNN FALLOWLanduse types

pH, (

OC

% N

-%)

Soil pHOC%Total N%

Figure 5c. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse/cover types (Lower Machame)

0

2

4

6

8

10

PAS.LD GRAZ PADDY MAIZE FALLOWLanduse types

pH, (

OC

& N

-%)

Soil pHOC%Total N%

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3.2.2 Mbokomu transect Field observations indicated that land degradation is more serious on the Mbokomu transect than on the Machame transect. Historically, after clearing the natural forest in most parts of upper Mbokomu, the land was cultivated with different crops. Depletion of soil nutrients and acidification forced farmers to abandon their fields and convert them into woodlots dominated with Eucalyptus sp or Grevillia sp planted to demarcate field plot boundaries and provide shade to coffee plants. Soils in upper Mbokomu (Figure 5d) under woodlots are extremely acid (pH < 4.5). Soils under other land use types are strongly acid (pH 5.1-5.6). Soil organic carbon is low (<0.6%) in the soil under Eucalyptus woodlots and in the medium range in other land use types (Figure 5d). Total nitrogen is lowest under Eucalyptus woodlots but low elsewhere as well. In the middle zone (Figure 5e), there is an improvement in soil pH in most land use types (strongly acid). An improvement in soil pH is probably due intensive management of soils through increased organic matter application. Organic matter is low in the soil under cassava, indicating degradation of nutrients, and is in the medium range in soils under woodlots and mixed farming (coffees and bananas). In the lower zone (Figure 5f), soil pH is very strongly acidic in the land under coffee and maize. Other land use types have soil pH slightly higher but still within the strongly acidic range. The acidity in the coffee/maize farming systems is probably due to the application of artificial fertilizers and copper fungicides in treating Coffee Berry disease. Field observations pointed towards low organic matter content in the lowlands; this is validated by laboratory tests which revealed very low soil organic carbon in all land use types (Figure 5f). Total soil nitrogen is low in all land use type categories.

Figure 5d. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse types (Upper Mbokomu)

0

2

4

6

8

10

PAS.LD WO.LTS COFF/BNN GRAZ MAIZE

Landuse types

pH, (

OC

& N

-%)

Soil pHOC%Total N%

LUCID Working Paper 26 12

Figure 5e. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse/cover types (Mid Mbokomu)

0

2

4

6

8

10

CAS. WO.LTS COFF/BNNLanduse types

pH, (

OC

& N

-%)

Soil pHOC%Total N%

Figure 5f. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse/ types (Lower Mbokomu)

0

2

4

6

8

10

COF/MAZ GRAZ PAD/MAZ BAN/CAS BAN/MAZLanduse types

pH, (

OC

& N

-%)

Soil pHOC%Total N%

3.3 A linkage between soil erosion and land use types 3.3.1 Machame transect Soil erosion in Machame transect was common in all three major agro-ecological zones, as depicted in Figures 6a, b and c. The magnitude of soil erosion, due mainly to water, varies with land use type. In order to assess the magnitude of soil erosion in different zones and land uses, a criterion was set based on field observation. In this case number 0 (E0) = no visible evidence of soil erosion, 1 (E1) = slight erosion, 2 (E2) = moderate soil erosion and 3 (E3) = severe soil erosion. Based on field observations, soil erosion in Machame transect varied with land use type. In the upper Machame (Figure 6a) soil erosion was moderate in woodlots and banana fields. It was not visible in pasture land or in the coffee/banana system land use. In mid Machame (Figure 6b), there is no visible soil erosion in most land use types with the exception of land under maize and fallow when it was slight (E1). In the lower Machame a similar pattern was observed (Figure 6c). High levels of soil erosion in the upper zone were probably due to steep slopes and the destruction of the soil structure by woodlots, particularly by Eucalyptus specie. Field observation indicated that there is evidence of gullies developing in the woodlots. Poor cycling of organic matter was also observed and can be linked with soil structure deterioration. Poor soil structure in the land

LUCID Working Paper 26 13

under pure maize or banana farming also contributed to soil erosion. On the other hand, land covered with grasses or under the coffee and banana system had no marked soil erosion. Observed soil erosion in the lower zone, particularly in the land under pure maize, is probably due to land preparation practices such as use of tractors which tend to loosen soils and thus create chances for both water and wind erosion to occur. Soil erosion in fallow land is probably due to severe degradation following intensive cultivation of the land and overgrazing.

Figure 6a. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, upper Machame

0

1

2

3

PAS.LD COFF/BNN MAIZE WO.LTS BANANALanduse types

Soil

Eros

ivity

Figure 6b. Soil Erosin Classes under different LUT, mid Machame

0

1

2

3

PAS.LD COFF/BNN WO.LTS BANANA MAIZE FALLOWLanduse types

Soil

Eros

ivity

Figure 6c. Soil Erosin Classes in Different LUT, lower Machame

0

1

2

3

PADDY CASSAVA MAIZE FALLOWLanduse types

Soil

eros

ivity

LUCID Working Paper 26 14

3.3.2. Mbokomu transect The magnitude of soil erosion varied across zones and land use types. Soil erosion in the upper zone (Figure 6d, e and f) was similar to that of Machame (section 3.3.1). In the mid Mbokomu (Figure 6d), there is no evidence of erosion in the soil under pasture or the coffee/banana system. Erosion increased in pure mono-cropping (maize, banana) as well as in woodlots. In the mid and lower Mbokomu (Figures 6e and f), soil erosion followed a similar pattern as in Machame. Across all land uses assessed in the field, generally soil erosion increased along the transect from E0 to E2 values due to the removal of vegetation cover and overgrazing, particularly in the lower zones. Soil erosion was much higher in the Mbokomu transect compared to the Machame transect. In summary, the following preliminary conclusions can be drawn:

• Soil erosion incidences are common in both transects and in the three major zones; • Soil erosion is a function of steep slopes and land use; • Much soil erosion in the lower zone is due to poor agronomic practices, overgrazing in

marginal lands, and burning; • Land under Eucalyptus woodlots and under pure monocropping, particularly maize and

bananas, is vulnerable to erosion due to poor soil physical conditions. Soil erosion can be significantly reduced by proper incorporation of organic residues, sustainable agronomic practices such conservation tillage, and controlled grazing.

Figure 6d. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, upper Mbokomu

0

1

2

3

PAS.LD COFF/BNN MAIZE WO.LTS BANANALanduse types

Soil

Eros

ivity

Figure 6e. Soil Erosion Classes in Different LUT, mid Mbolkomu

0

1

2

3

COFF/BNN WO.LTS CASSAVA

Landuse types

Soil

Eros

ivity

LUCID Working Paper 26 15

Figure 6f. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, lower Mbokomu

0

1

2

3

COF/MZ GRAZ PAD/MAZ BAN/MZ BAN/CASLanduse types

Soil

Eros

ivity

3.4 Linkage between soil erosion and plant species richness A linkage between plant species richness and soil erodibility is presented in Figure 7. Values of species richness used to construct the linkage are those reported by Lyaruu (2003) and were obtained on the same plots used to collect the soils data for this report. Generally, there are more species in Mbokomu than in Machame transect, particularly in the upper zone. Results indicate a negative correlation (Figure 7) between species richness and soil erosion in both transects. Soil erosion being a form of land degradation, it affects both soil fertility and water availability for plants. An increase in soil erosion tends to remove the fertile topsoil that is vital for the growth of different plants species. Broadly, the following can be concluded

• There are more plant species on land with low soil erosion probably due to suitable soils and water availability

• Increased soil erosion from an E0 to an E2 rating tends to be associated with a decrease in species richness.

The decline in spices richness (a decrease of 14) along the Mbokomu transect is much steeper than on the Machame. This is probably due to soil stability and water availability on the Machame transect.

Figure 7. The Effects of Soil Erodibility on Species Richness

R2 = 0.998

R2 = 0.9944

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

E0 E1 E2Soil Erodibility (E)

Spec

ies

Ric

hnes

s

Machame

Mbokomu

LUCID Working Paper 26 16

4.0 CONCLUSIONS The methodology used during data collection provided enough data for one to examine various component indicators of land degradation at the field level. Other researchers undertaking similar studies can adopt this methodology. The following major conclusions can be drawn:

• Soil degradation (measured by levels of erosion and chemical characteristics) is worse in

the lower zones than in the upper and middle zones. The upper zones are also likely to degrade due to intensive land use.

• Phosphorus is not a major limiting nutrient (none of the plant were recorded having a purple colour)

• The magnitude of land degradation varies with the land use/cover type. It is more marked in soils under woodlots, monoculture cropping, and fields located far from the homestead. There is therefore a need to slowly replace Eucalyptus woodlots with high potential trees such as Grevillea robusta or indigenous species.

• Land degradation has large impact on the richness of plant species diversity due to the inability of the soil to support the survival of many plants. Species richness tends to decrease in the lower zones and with increasing soil erosion. This therefore calls for an intensification of soil erosion control strategies.

• Proper land management practices such as the application of organic residues on soils can significantly contribute to soil and water conservation. Hence a need for promoting these practices.

A study of nutrient flows between altitudinal zones on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro needs to be established. During the field work, a number of vehicles were observed carrying crop residues and fodder grass from the lower zones to the upper zones. This has important implications for sustainable management of the soil resource.

LUCID Working Paper 26 17

5.0. REFERENCES Boesen, N.J., Kikula, I.S. and Maganga, F.P. (1999). Sustainable Agriculture in Semi Arid

Tanzania. University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. ISBN 99-60-311-8. Bray, R.H. and Kurtz, L.T. (1945). Determination of total, organic and available forms of

phosphorus in soils. Soil Science 59: 39 - 45. Bremner, J.M. and Mulvaney, C.S. (1982). Total nitrogen. In: Method of Soil Analysis Part 2.

Agronomy Monograph No. 9. (Edited by Page, A.L., Miller, R.H. and Keeney, P.R.) American Society of Agrnomy Inc., Madison, Wisconsin. Pp. 149 - 157.

Dejene, A., Shishira, E.K., Yanda, P.Z. and Johnsen, F.P. (1997). Land Degradation in Tanzania. Perception from the village. United States of America, ISSN:0253-7494.

JICA. (1977a). The Kilimanjaro Region Integrated Development Plan Summary Report. Vol. 1. Overseas Technical Cooperation. Japan International Cooperation Agency, Japan.

JICA. (1977b). The Kilimanjaro Region Integrated Development Plan Summary Report. Vol. 11. Overseas Technical Cooperation. Japan International Cooperation Agency, Japan.

JICA. (1977c). Water Master Plan, Kilimanjaro Region, Vol. V. Technical Report: Irrigation. Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals, Dar es Salaam.

Lyaruu, H.V. (2002). Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics Project: Plant Diversity Component, Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. LUCID Working Paper 25. International Livestock Research Institute: Nairobi, Kenya.

Maitima, J.M. and Olson, J.M. (2001). Guide to Field Methods for Comparative Site Analysis for the Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics Project. LUCID Working Paper 15. International Livestock Research Institute: Nairobi, Kenya.

Majule, A.E. (1999). The Effects of Organic Residues and Elemental Sulphur Additions to Soils of Southern Tanzania. PhD Thesis. Reading University. UK. 238pp.

Majule, A.E., Toper, C.P. and Nortcliff, S. (1997). The environmental effect of dusting cashew (Anarcadium occidentale L) trees with sulphur in southern Tanzania. Tropical Agriculture Journal (Trinidad) 74: 25 - 33.

Maro, P.S. (1974). Population and land resources in the northern Tanzania:the dynamics of change 1920-1970.Ph.D thesis, University of Minessota.

Misana, S.B. (1991). The Importance of Mount Kilimanjaro and the needs for its integrated management and conservation. In. The Conservation of Mount Kilimanjaro. Edited by William D. Newmark. IUCN.

Murphy, J. and Rilley, J.P. (1962). A modified single solution method for determination of phosphate in natural water. Analytica Chemica Acta 27: 31 - 36.

O’Kting’ati, A. and Kessy, J.F. (1991). The Farming Systems on Mount Kilimanjaro. In. The Conservation of Mount Kilimanjaro. Edited by William D. Newmark. IUCN.

Nelson, D.W. and Sommers, L.W. (1982). Organic carbon In: Method of Soil Analysis Part 2. Agronomy Monograph No. 9. (Edited by Page, A.L., Miller, R.H. and Keeney, P.R.) American Society of Agrnomy Inc., Madison, Wisconsin. Pp. 561 - 573.

Reuss, J.O. and Johnson, D.W. (1986). Acid deposition and the acidification of soils and waters. Ecological Studies 59: 25 - 31.

Rowell, D.L. (1994). Soil Sciences: Methods and Applications. Longman, London. England. pp. 153 - 173.

Sakala, M.G. (1998). The Effect of Incorporating Plant Residues on Soil Acidity in The Management of Tropical Soils. PhD Thesis, Reading University, UK. 220pp.

Tan, K.H. (1996). Soil Sampling, Preparation and Analysis. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. 408pp.

LUCID Working Paper 26 18

App

endi

x 1.

T

able

1a.

Des

crip

tion

of M

ajor

Lan

d us

e/co

ver

Typ

es o

bser

ved

alon

g th

e M

acha

me

Tra

nsec

t, K

ilim

anja

ro

Agr

o E

colo

gica

l zo

ne (A

EZ)

U

nit

Sub-

Tra

nsec

ts D

escr

iptio

n L

and

use

type

s

Mou

ntai

n zo

ne

Upp

er M

acha

me

1 S

03°1

0.42

8, E

037

º.14.

311,

Ele

vatio

n 1,

811

m a

.s.l,

loca

ted

on m

id h

ill w

ith s

lope

of

14º,

2 m

inut

es

wal

king

dis

tanc

e fr

om h

ome,

the

fie

ld w

as i

nher

ited

from

par

ents

in

1997

as

a fo

rest

, th

e re

plac

ed b

y w

oodl

ots

(Euc

alyp

tus)

then

cle

ared

to g

row

gra

ss (

12 m

onth

s). S

oil f

ertil

ity lo

w (

And

osol

), le

achi

ng o

f nu

trien

ts d

ue to

con

tinuo

us c

ultiv

atio

n, s

oil e

rosi

on a

nd fi

re a

re m

ajor

pro

blem

s. C

ultiv

atio

n is

mai

nly

by

hand

hoe

. Con

serv

atio

n st

rate

gies

incl

ude

terr

acin

g (fa

nya

juu)

sinc

e 19

97.

PAST

UR

E LA

ND

(N

API

ER G

RA

SS)

2

S 03

º10.

427,

E 0

37º

14.2

88. E

leva

tion

1841

m a

.s.l,

mid

hill

slo

pe 1

0-14

º, 3

min

wal

k fr

om h

ome.

The

ar

ea in

herit

ed fr

om p

aren

ts s

ince

197

9, a

s a

fore

st th

en c

lear

ed a

nd p

lant

ed w

ith E

ucal

yptu

s on

bou

ndar

ies

with

cof

fee,

ban

anas

and

Iris

h po

tato

es. F

or la

st 1

2 m

onth

s Eu

caly

ptus

tree

s do

min

ated

the

plot

. Mol

lic

And

osol

, po

or s

oil

ferti

lity

due

to b

urni

ng,

soil

eros

ion,

con

tinuo

us c

ultiv

atio

n an

d fir

e. S

oil

eros

ion

obse

rved

and

ther

e ar

e no

pro

per s

oil c

onse

rvat

ion

stra

tegi

es a

dopt

ed.

EUC

ALY

PTU

S W

OO

D L

OTS

.

3 S

03º 11

.190

´, E

037º

14.

291´

; 167

1 a.

s.l, m

id h

ill w

ith sl

ope

of 4

º, 1

min

ute

wal

k fr

om h

ome,

the

land

was

in

herit

ed f

rom

par

ents

sin

ce 1

996

with

mai

ze,

coff

ee,

bana

na,

bean

s, sw

eet

pota

toes

, av

ocad

o an

d ,

coco

yam

. The

se c

rops

wer

e in

fie

ld la

st s

easo

n (p

ast 1

2 m

onth

s). T

he s

oil i

s A

ndos

ol w

ith m

ediu

m s

oil

ferti

lity;

soi

l fer

tility

is im

prov

ed b

y us

ing

farm

yard

man

ure

from

pig

and

cat

tle. L

and

is d

eepl

y cu

ltiva

ted

by u

sing

han

d ho

e.

MA

IZE/

C

OFF

EE/

BA

NA

NA

4

S 03

º11.

580´

, E 0

37º 1

3’ 9

65´,

1570

m. a

.s.l,

2 m

inut

es w

alki

ng d

ista

nce

from

hom

e w

ith s

lope

4º,

It is

a

publ

ic la

nd u

sed

for g

razi

ng, g

rass

es w

as o

n fie

ld d

urin

g pa

st 1

2 m

onth

s, po

or s

oil f

ertil

ity, n

o ch

ange

on

soil

ferti

lity

beca

use

no a

dditi

onal

or

cons

erva

tion

done

to im

prov

e so

il. A

bsen

ce o

f so

il er

osio

n du

e to

gr

ass c

over

. In

som

e pl

aces

stee

p te

rrac

e w

ere

obse

rved

. The

y w

ere

esta

blis

hed

in 1

960.

GR

AZI

NG

LA

ND

.

5

S 03

º12.

473´

, N 0

37º

13. 4

47´,

1489

.6 m

a.s.

l. Lo

cate

d on

val

ley

botto

m w

ith a

slo

pe o

f le

ss th

an 4

º, 3

min

utes

wal

king

dis

tanc

e fr

om h

ome.

The

land

was

inhe

rited

from

par

ents

as

fore

st. P

lant

ed w

ith G

rive

llia

spec

ie. L

ast s

easo

n co

vere

d w

ith n

atur

al f

ores

t for

12

mon

ths.

Soil

(Gle

yic

And

osol

s) w

ith m

ediu

m s

oil

ferti

lity.

Abs

ence

of s

oil e

rosi

on, A

gro-

fore

stry

pra

ctic

e co

mm

on.

CA

TCH

MEN

T FO

RES

T

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

19

Mid

Mac

ham

e 1

S 03

º 14

.538

´, E

037º

13

367´

, 148

5 m

a.s.

l, lo

cate

d on

mid

hill

with

4ºs

lope

, inh

erite

d fr

om p

aren

ts a

s fo

rest

then

con

verte

d in

to g

razi

ng, c

over

ed w

ith g

rass

for t

he p

ast 1

2 m

oth.

Low

nat

ural

ferti

lity,

abs

ence

of

soil

eros

ion.

GR

AZI

NG

LA

ND

.

2

S 03

º 12

.916

´, E

037º

13.

244´

, Alti

tude

138

6 m

a.s.

l, lo

cate

d on

mid

hill

with

4º

slop

e, 2

min

utes

wal

k fr

om h

ome,

lan

d in

herit

ed f

rom

par

ents

sin

ce 1

940

as f

ores

t th

en c

lear

ed a

nd p

lant

ed w

ith c

offe

e an

d ba

nana

. Las

t sea

son

coff

ee a

nd b

anan

a w

ere

on th

e fie

ld fo

r 12

mon

ths.

Poor

soi

l fer

tility

but

is im

prov

ing

due

to d

ue t

o a

cons

tant

app

licat

ion

of m

anur

e an

d fa

rm r

esid

ues

thro

ugho

ut.

Han

d ho

e us

ed f

or

culti

vatio

n, a

bsen

ce o

f ero

sion

.

CO

FFEE

AN

D

BA

NA

NA

)

3

S 03

º18.

466`

, with

an

altit

ude

of 1

040

m a

.s.l a

nd it

’s a

val

ley

botto

m, t

he s

lope

rang

e fr

om 0

to 4

º but

in

mos

t par

ts it

is le

ss th

an 1

. The

land

is lo

cate

d at

10

min

utes

wal

king

dis

tanc

e fr

om h

ome.

The

land

was

in

the

past

giv

en b

y go

vern

men

t, cl

eare

d an

d th

en p

lant

ed w

ith s

isal

and

mai

ze a

s in

terc

rop.

The

lan

d is

co

vere

d w

ith c

rops

for

a p

erio

d of

6 m

onth

s an

d th

em w

ith c

rop

resi

dues

for

the

res

t of

the

sea

son

(6

mon

ths)

. D

ue t

o po

or s

oil

ferti

lity,

the

lan

d is

fal

low

ed f

or a

t le

ast

one

year

and

sup

plem

ente

d w

ith

ferti

lizer

s. La

nd p

loug

hed

by tr

acto

rs.

FALL

OW

LA

ND

4 S

03º1

9.35

8, `

E 03

7º14

.019

`, m

ainl

y fla

t sur

face

, slo

pe <

1°,

The

land

was

allo

cate

d to

the

peop

le b

y th

e G

over

nmen

t, cl

eare

d an

d pl

ante

d w

ith tr

ees

cove

ring

the

land

for t

he w

hole

sea

son

for a

num

ber o

f yea

rs.

The

kind

of t

ree

grow

ing

(Euc

alyp

tus)

tend

s to

deg

rade

soi

l fer

tility

. In

the

patc

hes

the

land

is c

over

ed b

y gr

ass

and

som

e tim

e an

nual

cro

ps a

re p

lant

ed b

ut w

ith th

e ap

plic

atio

n of

ferti

lizer

s. In

som

e pl

aces

ther

e is

an

incr

easi

ng te

nden

cy o

f app

lyin

g FY

M in

ord

er to

impr

ove

ferti

lity.

The

re is

no

eros

ion

due

to g

rass

and

tre

e co

ver b

ut th

ere

are

prop

er so

il an

d w

ater

con

serv

atio

n st

rate

gies

ado

pted

.

EUC

ALY

PTU

S W

OO

DLO

TS

Low

er M

acha

me

1 S

03°2

4, E

037

°14.

Lan

d is

mai

nly

flat s

urfa

ce (

no h

ill)

and

is 5

min

utes

wal

king

fro

m h

ome

with

<4°

sl

ope.

The

lan

d w

as i

nher

ited

from

par

ents

sin

ce 1

970

as a

bus

h, t

hen

clea

red

and

plan

ted

with

cro

ps

(mai

ze, b

eans

, gro

undn

uts)

. Las

t se

ason

pla

nted

with

mai

ze f

or 5

mon

ths,

and

7 m

onth

s re

mai

ned

with

cr

op r

esid

ues.

Ver

y po

or s

oil

ferti

lity

due

to r

emov

al o

f to

p so

il by

rai

n (c

ausi

ng e

rosi

on),

expo

sure

of

rock

s on

the

surf

ace

affe

cts s

oil f

ertil

ity. L

and

plou

ghed

by

ox-p

loug

h an

d th

ere

is li

ttle

soil

eros

ion.

FALL

OW

LA

ND

.

2 S

03°2

5.85

9, E

037

°17.

884.

Fla

t lan

d an

d th

e ar

ea is

rent

ed fo

r mon

ey s

ince

200

0, p

lant

ed w

ith c

rops

and

th

en l

ast

seas

on w

as u

nder

pad

dy.

The

crop

has

bee

n on

the

lan

d fo

r 10

mon

ths

and

2 m

onth

s w

ith

resi

dues

. Soi

l fer

tility

is lo

w a

nd a

farm

er is

app

lyin

g ar

tific

ial f

ertil

izer

s and

cro

p re

sidu

es to

impr

ove

both

ch

emic

al a

nd p

hysi

cal p

rope

rties

. Use

of h

and

hoe

and

tract

ors,

visi

ble

eros

ion/

crus

ting

com

mon

.

PAD

DY

C

ULT

IVA

TIO

N

3

S 03

°23.

162′

E 0

37°

14.8

35, A

ltitu

de 8

95 m

a.s.

l., o

n th

e sh

ould

er w

ith 5

-9°

slop

e. B

ush

and

aban

done

d la

nd d

ue to

sev

ere

degr

adat

ion,

cov

ered

by

shru

bs fo

r 12

mon

ths.

Ver

y po

or s

oil f

ertil

ity a

nd s

oil e

rosi

on

rem

oves

the

tops

oil d

own

the

slop

e, a

ffect

ing

the

soil

ferti

lity

and

expo

sing

the

rock

s.

SHR

UB

S

4 S

03°2

5 83

5, E

037

°17.

808,

Ele

vatio

n is

770

m a

.s.l,

Flat

land

sur

face

with

a s

lope

of <

4°.

The

land

was

in

herit

ed f

rom

par

ents

sin

ce 1

950

and

was

pla

nted

with

ann

ual

crop

s. C

urre

ntly

, th

e la

nd i

s un

der

culti

vatio

n of

mai

ze. T

he s

oils

are

gen

eral

ly p

oor

due

to l

ong-

term

cul

tivat

ion.

Che

mic

al f

ertil

izer

s ar

e us

ed a

nd th

e la

nd is

cul

tivat

ed b

y us

ing

a ha

nd h

oe. T

rash

line

cul

tivat

ion

stra

tegy

is u

sed.

MA

IZE

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

20

Tab

le 1

b. D

escr

iptio

n of

the

Maj

or L

and

use/

cove

r T

ypes

obs

erve

d al

ong

the

Mbo

kom

u T

rans

ect,

Kili

man

jaro

U

pper

Mbo

kom

u 1

S 03

°16′

and

E 0

37°2

5.29

6, 1

705

m a

.s.l a

nd lo

cate

d on

mid

hill

, slo

pe 4

° and

the

land

was

in

herit

ed fr

om p

aren

ts. T

he a

rea

was

nat

ural

fore

st b

ut re

plac

ed

by w

oodl

ot (E

ucal

yptu

s).

Tree

s wer

e pl

ante

d as

bou

ndar

y be

twee

n fa

rmer

s plo

ts b

ut n

ow th

ey h

ave

dom

inat

ed th

e ar

ea.

Ther

e is

a se

rious

pro

blem

of e

rosi

on d

ue to

soil

stru

ctur

e de

terio

ratio

n an

d fir

e.

WO

OD

LOTS

(E

UC

ALY

PTU

S)

2 S

03°1

6′, E

037°

.25.

235,

183

1 m

a.s.

l and

loca

ted

on m

id h

ill a

slop

e of

<30

°. Th

e la

nd w

as

give

n by

the

gove

rnm

ent a

nd w

as c

lear

ed a

nd p

lant

ed c

offe

e fir

st th

en c

offe

e cl

eare

d fo

r mai

ze.

For t

he p

ast 1

2 m

onth

the

land

was

und

er m

aize

cul

tivat

ion.

Cro

p yi

eld

was

repo

rted

to b

e lo

w

prob

ably

due

poo

r soi

l fer

tility

as o

bser

ved

in th

e fie

ld.

MA

IZE

3 S

03°1

6.93

8, E

037

°24.

869,

156

3 m

a.s.

l loc

ated

on

mid

hill

with

slop

e 30

deg

rees

. The

land

w

as in

herit

ed fr

om p

aren

ts p

lant

ed c

offe

e an

d ba

nana

and

last

seas

on (t

he p

ast 1

2 m

onth

s) th

e cr

ops c

over

ed th

e la

nd).

Soil

ferti

lity

is v

ery

poor

due

to e

rosi

on b

ecau

se th

ere

are

not c

ultu

ral

stra

tegi

es a

pplie

d in

con

trolli

ng it

.

CO

FFEE

B

AN

AN

A

4 S

03°1

6.92

7, E

037

°24.

856,

155

9 m

a.

s.l, l

ocat

ed a

t mid

mill

, slo

pe <

2°, t

he a

rea

inhe

rited

fr

om p

aren

ts, m

ajor

cro

p pl

ante

d is

mai

ze, b

ut g

rass

was

on

the

field

last

sea

sons

, for

a p

erio

d of

6 m

oth,

soi

l fe

rtilit

y ve

ry p

oor

(no

appl

icat

ion

of a

nim

al m

anur

e), l

and

is c

ultiv

atio

n by

us

ing

a ha

nd h

oe, t

here

is n

o ev

iden

ce o

f soi

l ero

sion

sinc

e th

ere

are

terr

aces

.

FALL

OW

Mid

dle

Mbo

kom

u

1 S

03°1

6.76

6, E

037

° 24

.103

, 145

0.5

m a

.s.l m

id h

ill o

n st

eep

slop

e <2

0°, l

and

was

inhe

rited

fr

om p

aren

t sin

ce 1

977,

cro

ps a

re in

the

field

on

perm

anen

t bas

is. T

here

has

bee

n a

trem

endo

us

chan

ge in

var

ietie

s of

ban

ana

plan

ted

(3 to

cur

rent

15

type

s) m

ixed

with

cof

fee.

Soi

l fer

tility

is

med

ium

due

to th

e us

e of

fer

tiliz

ers

and

FYM

and

litte

r fr

om tr

ee. T

he la

nd is

cul

tivat

ed b

y us

ing

a ha

nd h

oe a

nd e

rosi

on is

not

a s

erio

us p

robl

em d

ue to

con

trol s

trate

gies

ado

pted

by

a fa

rmer

(ter

race

s).

CO

FFEE

/ B

AN

AN

A

2

S 03

° 16.

776,

E 0

37° 2

4.13

3, 1

464

m a

.s.l,

loca

ted

on m

id h

ill w

ith a

slop

e <4

5°, l

and

inhe

rited

fr

om p

aren

ts s

ince

197

7.

Cro

ps w

ere

in t

he f

ield

but

wer

e ab

ando

ned

and

repl

aced

with

w

oodl

ots

to p

reve

nt w

ind

caus

ed e

rosi

on. M

ixed

cro

ppin

g is

par

tially

don

e bu

t in

1990

-200

0 se

ason

s no

annu

al c

rops

hav

e be

en p

lant

ed. T

he la

nd is

cul

tivat

ed b

y us

ing

a ha

nd h

oe.

WO

OD

LO

TS

/NA

TUR

AL

TREE

S

3

S 03

° 18

.239

, E 0

37°

22.7

93, 1

024

m a

.s.l,

loca

ted

on m

id h

ill w

ith s

lope

<4

° (n

early

flat

on

the

cres

t). L

and

was

inhe

rited

from

par

ents

whe

re th

e m

ajor

cro

p pl

ante

d w

as c

assa

va a

nd la

st

seas

on c

assa

va. T

he c

rop

cove

red

the

land

thro

ught

the

perio

d. T

he s

oil i

s ve

ry p

oor d

ue to

the

fact

that

ther

e is

no

addi

tion

of a

nim

al m

anur

e or

ferti

lizer

on

the

field

. The

re is

an

evid

ence

of

soil

eros

ion.

The

fiel

d is

cul

tivat

ed b

y us

ing

a ha

nd h

oe.

CA

SSA

VA

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

21

Low

er M

boko

mu

1 S

03°

19.1

03, E

037

° 22

.297

, 964

m a

.s.l.

The

loca

tion

of th

e fie

ld is

on

the

foot

hill

of th

e hi

ll w

ith a

slo

pe o

f 3°

. Th

e la

nd w

as i

nher

ited

from

par

ents

sin

ce 1

999

whe

re t

he m

ajor

cro

p pl

ante

d w

ere

bana

na a

nd m

aize

in th

e fie

ld d

urin

g th

e pa

st 1

2 m

onth

s. So

il fe

rtilit

y in

the

field

is

mod

erat

e an

d is

mai

ntai

ned

thro

ugh

the

appl

icat

ion

of a

nim

al m

anur

e in

ban

ana

and

chem

ical

ferti

lizer

in m

aize

plo

ts. T

here

is n

o fa

llow

and

land

is p

repa

red

by u

sing

a h

and

hoe.

So

il er

osio

n is

not

a se

rious

pro

blem

.

BA

NA

NA

/ M

AIZ

E

2

S 03

° 19.

122,

E 0

37° 2

2.30

9, 9

65 m

a.s.

l. Th

e la

nd is

loca

ted

at th

e fo

ot o

f the

hill

with

a sl

ope

of <

4°.

The

land

was

inhe

rited

from

par

ents

whe

reby

the

maj

or c

rop

plan

ted

was

cof

fee

but

mai

ze w

as a

lso

grow

n in

bet

wee

n sp

aces

. Cof

fee

is a

per

enni

al c

rop

and

was

in th

e fie

ld fo

r the

pa

st 1

2 m

onth

s. Th

e so

il fe

rtilit

y is

ver

y po

or b

ut s

ome

impr

ovem

ent h

as b

een

mad

e th

roug

h th

e ap

plic

atio

n of

ani

mal

man

ure

and

chem

ical

fer

tiliz

er w

hen

they

gro

w m

aize

. The

re is

no

fallo

win

g pr

actic

e on

thi

s fie

ld d

ue t

o co

ntin

uous

cul

tivat

ion

whe

reby

han

d ho

e is

use

d to

pr

epar

e th

e fie

ld.

CO

FFEE

/ M

AIZ

E.

3 S

03°

21.0

86, E

037

° 22

.403

, 964

m a

.s.l.

The

loca

tion

of th

e fie

ld is

on

the

flat s

urfa

ce a

nd

land

was

inhe

rited

from

par

ents

and

it w

as p

lant

ed w

ith th

e tw

o cr

ops.

The

land

is v

ery

poor

on

soil

ferti

lity

due

to c

ontin

uous

cul

tivat

ion

with

out m

uch

use

of o

rgan

ic m

anur

e. S

oil e

rosi

on is

no

t a

serio

us p

robl

em i

n th

e la

nd. W

ater

was

rep

orte

d to

be

a se

rious

pro

blem

par

ticul

arly

du

ring

dry

perio

ds. L

and

is ti

lled

by u

sing

a h

and

hoe.

Pre

senc

e de

velo

ping

gul

lies.

BA

NA

NA

/ C

ASS

AV

A

4

S 03

° 25

.109

, E 0

37°

22.7

35, 7

75 m

a.s.

l. Th

e lo

catio

n of

the

field

is o

n th

e fla

t sur

face

and

la

nd w

as in

herit

ed fr

om p

aren

ts a

nd it

was

as

a fo

rest

in 1

960.

It w

as c

lear

ed a

nd p

lant

ed w

ith

mai

ze f

or a

lon

g tim

e. T

he l

and

was

then

aba

ndon

ed f

or a

gric

ultu

ral

activ

ities

and

use

d fo

r gr

azin

g. T

he la

nd is

cov

ered

by

natu

ral g

rass

. Agr

icul

ture

is n

ot p

ossi

ble

due

the

fact

that

soi

ls ar

e ve

ry h

eavy

and

som

etim

e th

ere

is fl

oodi

ng w

hich

tend

s to

affe

ct th

e cu

ltiva

tion

of c

rops

.

GR

AZI

NG

LA

ND

5

S 03

° 25

.778

, E 0

37°

22.5

13, 7

88 m

a.s.

l. Th

e lo

catio

n of

the

field

is o

n th

e fla

t sur

face

and

la

nd w

as in

herit

ed fr

om p

aren

ts a

s fo

rest

in 1

980.

It w

as c

lear

ed a

nd p

lant

ed w

ith m

aize

for a

lo

ng ti

me

and

then

a f

arm

er d

ecid

ed to

gro

w r

ice

in a

situ

atio

n w

here

ther

e is

exc

ess

rain

fall

due

to w

eath

er c

hang

es.

The

soil

is s

omeh

ow f

ertil

e an

d th

ere

is n

o ap

plic

atio

n of

arti

ficia

l fe

rtiliz

ers

desp

ite o

f inc

orpo

ratin

g cr

op re

sidu

es. L

and

culti

vatio

n is

mai

nly

by u

sing

han

d ho

e or

trac

tors

.

PAD

DY

/MA

IZE

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

22

App

endi

x 2.

T

able

2a.

Des

crip

tion

of S

oil P

rope

rtie

s of t

he M

ajor

Lan

d us

e ty

pes i

n K

ilim

anja

ro, M

acha

me

Tra

nsec

t

Agr

o ec

olog

ical

zon

e (A

EZ)

U

nit

Soil

fert

ility

Des

crip

tion

Lan

d us

e ty

pes

Upp

er M

acha

me

1 So

il te

xtur

e is

silt

, dar

k br

own.

The

gro

wth

pla

nt is

vig

orou

s w

ith d

ark

gree

n le

aves

, ave

rage

hei

ght o

f 1.

2 fe

et, t

he c

olou

r of

pla

nt le

aves

is p

urpl

e on

old

er le

aves

, pla

nt c

over

ed a

bout

10%

of

tota

l lan

d. T

he

aggr

egat

e st

abili

ty is

loos

e. T

here

is v

isib

le e

vide

nce

of e

rosi

on o

r ver

y sl

ight

she

et w

ash

due

to th

e fa

ct

that

soil

loss

is v

ery

low

with

hig

h ac

cum

ulat

ion

of o

rgan

ic m

atte

r.

PAST

UR

E LA

ND

/(NA

PIER

G

RA

SS

2 Th

e so

il te

xtur

e is

silt

y w

ith d

ark

brow

n. T

he g

row

th a

nd c

olou

r of t

he p

lant

is v

igor

ous

with

dar

k gr

een

leav

es,

the

aver

age

plan

t he

ight

is

80 f

eet.

The

soil

is v

ery

poro

us i

ndic

atin

g th

e pr

esen

ce o

f as

h,

volc

anic

mat

eria

ls. T

he a

ggre

gate

stab

ility

is st

able

cem

ente

d by

pla

nt ro

ots.

EUC

ALY

PTU

S W

OO

D L

OTS

.

3

The

soil

text

ure

is lo

amy

with

dar

k br

own.

The

pla

nt g

row

th is

stu

nted

. The

mai

ze c

rop

is p

ale

yello

w.

The

plan

t he

ight

ran

ge b

etw

een

3-5

met

res.

The

aggr

egat

e st

abili

ty i

s lo

ose

whi

le t

he s

oil

loss

is

mod

erat

e w

ith n

o vi

sibl

e ev

iden

ce o

f ero

sion

or v

ery

slig

ht sh

eet w

ash

and

the

crop

yie

ld is

mod

erat

e.

.MA

IZE,

/ C

OFF

EE/

BA

NA

NA

4 So

il te

xtur

e is

silt

and

dar

k ye

llow

ish

gree

n, c

over

ed

by g

rass

es o

n to

p. T

he c

olou

r of

pla

nt le

aves

is

gree

n. G

rass

hei

ght r

ange

s fr

om 1

0 to

20

cm ta

ll. T

he so

il ag

greg

ate

stab

ility

is st

able

cem

ente

d by

gra

ss

root

s. N

o vi

sibl

e ev

iden

ce o

f ero

sion

.

GR

AZI

NG

LA

ND

.

5

Soil

text

ure

is s

ilt s

and,

yel

low

ish

brow

n. T

he p

lant

gro

wth

is n

orm

al. T

he s

oil h

as s

hallo

w d

epth

due

to

pres

ence

of

un-w

eath

ered

ash

, ac

cum

ulat

ion

of s

tone

/bas

alt

from

uph

ill a

rea

due

to e

rosi

on.

The

aggr

egat

e st

abili

ty i

s w

eak

and

loos

e. T

he s

oil

loss

is

mod

erat

e as

wel

l as

sed

imen

tatio

n an

d ac

cum

ulat

ion.

The

re is

slig

ht m

oder

ate

shee

t was

h on

ban

ks p

artic

ular

on

the

bank

s of

val

ley

botto

m.

Ther

e is

hig

h yi

eld

of N

apie

s gr

asse

s pl

ante

d on

rive

r ban

ks. T

here

are

dep

osits

of s

oil o

n ge

ntle

slo

pes,

expo

sed

root

s an

d pa

rent

mat

eria

l sed

imen

tatio

n in

stre

ams

and

rese

rvoi

rs h

ills

and

pede

stal

s ar

e al

so

obse

rved

par

ticul

arly

on

the

bank

s of t

he v

alle

y

CA

TCH

MEN

T FO

RES

T

Mid

dle

Mac

ham

e 1

Soil

text

ure

is s

ilt w

ith s

tone

s (g

rave

ls),

yello

wis

h br

own.

Pla

nt g

row

th i

s st

unte

d, p

ale

gree

n le

aves

. Lo

ose

soil

aggr

egat

es b

ut lo

w s

oil l

oss

beca

use

of g

rass

es c

over

. The

re is

littl

e so

il se

dim

enta

tion

dow

n th

e sl

ope

lead

ing

to a

ccum

ulat

ion

of si

lt. T

he c

rop

yiel

d is

poo

r due

to p

oor s

oils

. Hill

s are

obs

erve

d

GR

AZI

NG

LA

ND

.

2

Soil

text

ure

is s

ilt lo

am w

ith d

ark

brow

n. T

he p

lant

gro

wth

is v

igor

ous

beca

use

of a

dditi

on o

f man

ure

in

the

soil.

Pla

nt le

aves

are

dar

k gr

een.

Sta

ble

soil

aggr

egat

es d

ue to

add

ition

org

anic

mat

ter/r

esid

ues.

Soil

eros

ion

not v

isib

le.

The

crop

yie

ld is

hig

h be

caus

e of

app

licat

ion

of m

anur

e an

d pl

ant r

esid

ue

CO

FFEE

/ B

AN

AN

A

3

The

soil

text

ure

sand

loam

, dar

k re

ddis

h br

own.

The

gro

wth

of g

rass

is p

oor.

Loos

e so

il ag

greg

ates

with

lo

w o

rgan

ic m

atte

r con

tent

. Soi

l los

s is

mod

erat

e w

here

by th

e to

psoi

l is

rem

oved

from

the

uppe

r par

ts to

do

wn

slop

e (v

alle

y) so

ther

e is

a sh

eet w

ash

in th

e fie

ld. D

evel

opin

g gu

llies

are

iden

tifie

d. T

he c

rop

yiel

d ne

arby

is lo

w a

nd im

prov

emen

t req

uire

s ap

plic

atio

n of

ferti

liser

s. Th

e te

rmin

ate

mou

nds

are

foun

d an

d ca

ttle

graz

e th

e ar

ea su

ch th

at th

ere

are

no p

lant

resi

dues

.

FALL

OW

/ G

RA

ZIN

G L

AN

D

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

23

4

The

soil

text

ure

is c

lay

loam

y, d

ark

redd

ish

brow

n. N

orm

al p

lant

gro

wth

, dar

k gr

een

leav

es. L

oose

soi

l ag

greg

ates

, soi

l ero

sion

E1

clas

s, so

il is

ver

y dr

y.

WO

OD

LOTS

Low

er M

acha

me

1 Th

e te

xtur

e of

the

sol i

s sa

nd c

lay

with

dar

k br

own.

The

pla

nt g

row

th is

stu

nted

and

the

colo

ur o

f pla

nt

leav

es i

s ye

llow

ish

gree

n th

roug

hout

aff

ecte

d le

aves

. Its

hei

ght

is 3

-5 f

eet.

The

aggr

egat

e st

abili

ty i

s lo

ose

beca

use

of lo

w o

rgan

ic m

atte

r in

the

soil

the

soil

loss

is m

oder

ate

with

slig

ht s

heet

was

h le

adin

g to

re

mov

al o

f the

top

soil

to d

own

slop

e an

d ac

cum

ulat

ion

of s

oil p

artic

les

at th

e fo

ot s

lope

. The

cro

p yi

eld

is lo

w w

ith lo

w fi

eld

prod

uctiv

ity. P

rese

nce

of d

roug

ht sp

ecie

s ind

icat

ors (

scat

tere

d A

caci

a, b

aoba

b).

SH

RU

BS

2 So

il te

xtur

e sa

nd lo

amy,

bro

wn.

Stu

nted

pla

nts

(2-3

feet

), ye

llow

ish

leav

es.

The

soil

of th

e fie

ld is

loos

e w

ith lo

w o

rgan

ic m

atte

r. Th

e so

il lo

ss i

s m

oder

ate

whe

re th

e to

psoi

l is

rem

oved

to a

noth

er a

rea

with

ex

pose

d ro

cks

outc

rops

. The

roc

ks a

nd s

mal

l sto

nes

on th

e su

rfac

e ar

e es

timat

ed to

cov

er 2

0% o

f th

e to

tal f

ield

. The

re is

slig

ht m

oder

ate

shee

t was

h in

the

field

dur

ing

rain

sea

son

lead

ing

to th

e ex

posu

re o

f ro

cks o

n th

e su

rfac

e of

the

field

. The

rills

and

you

ng g

ullie

s are

iden

tifie

d in

this

fiel

d.

GR

AZI

NG

LA

ND

3

The

soil

text

ure

sand

loam

, bro

wn.

The

pla

nt g

row

th is

stu

nted

with

yel

low

ish

leav

es. A

ll pl

ants

on

this

fie

ld a

re d

ry d

ue to

sho

rtage

of

wat

er f

or ir

rigat

ion

and

lack

of

rain

for

the

seas

on. T

he s

oil a

ggre

gate

st

abili

ty i

s lo

ose

with

low

org

anic

mat

ter,

whi

ch i

s us

eful

for

its

sta

bilit

y. T

he s

oil

loss

is

mod

erat

e w

here

by a

ccum

ulat

ion

and

sedi

men

tatio

n of

soi

l par

ticle

s is

dow

n sl

ope

durin

g ra

in s

easo

n. T

here

is n

o co

vera

ge o

f pl

ant r

esid

ues.

Ther

e is

an

evid

ence

of

slig

ht m

oder

ate

shee

t was

h, w

hich

rem

oves

tops

oil

from

upp

er to

dow

n sl

opes

. The

cro

p yi

eld

and

field

pro

duct

ivity

is lo

w b

ut f

or b

ette

r yi

eld

chem

ical

fe

rtilis

ers i

s use

d du

ring

plan

ting.

FALL

OW

LA

ND

.

4

The

soil

text

ure

of th

is fi

eld

is c

lay

loam

, cra

ckin

g an

d da

rk b

row

n. T

he p

lant

gro

wth

is n

orm

al w

ith th

e he

ight

of a

bout

2 ft

. The

sta

bilit

y of

agg

rega

te is

sta

ble

cem

ente

d w

ith p

lant

root

and

cla

ys. L

ow o

rgan

ic

mat

ter i

n so

ils is

due

to th

e fa

ct th

at a

ll pl

ant r

esid

ues a

re u

sed

to fe

ed c

attle

or b

urnt

in th

e fie

ld. T

here

is

no e

vide

nce

of so

il er

osio

n or

slig

ht s

heet

was

h. T

he c

rop

yiel

ds ra

nges

from

mod

erat

e to

hig

h du

e to

the

appl

icat

ion

of c

hem

ical

ferti

liser

s in

field

s.

PA

DD

Y

5

Cla

y lo

am, d

ark

redd

ish

brow

n; p

lant

gro

wth

is n

orm

al, d

ark

gree

n le

aves

indi

catin

g hi

gh fe

rtilit

y. P

lant

he

ight

ran

ge f

rom

1-2

ft.

Stab

le s

oil a

ggre

gate

cem

ente

d w

ith o

rgan

ic m

atte

r. So

il er

osio

n no

t vis

ible

. Fi

eld

crop

yie

ld ra

nges

from

mod

erat

e to

hig

h de

pend

ing

on th

e ap

plic

atio

n of

che

mic

al fe

rtilis

er.

MA

IZE

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

24

Tab

le 2

b. D

escr

iptio

n of

Soi

l Pro

pert

ies o

f the

Maj

or L

and

use

type

s in

Kili

man

jaro

, Mbo

kom

u T

rans

ect

A

gro

ecol

ogic

al z

one

(AE

Z)

So

il Fe

rtili

ty D

escr

iptio

n L

and

use

type

s

Upp

er M

boko

mu

1 So

il te

xtur

e si

lty, d

ark

brow

n. V

igor

ous

plan

t gro

wth

, gre

en (5

0-90

feet

). Th

is fi

eld

is c

over

ed w

ith fe

w

gras

ses

and

soil

aggr

egat

e st

abili

ty is

sta

ble

due

to th

e fa

ct th

at th

e pl

ant r

oots

cem

entin

g th

e so

il. T

he

soil

loss

is

mod

erat

e an

d th

ere

is s

oil

depo

sitio

n do

wn

slop

e. T

here

is

a vi

sibl

e ev

iden

ce o

f sl

ight

m

oder

ate

shee

t was

h an

d ril

ls o

n th

e fo

otpa

th (

E2).

Whi

ch e

xpos

es th

e pl

ant r

oots

. The

cro

p yi

elds

is

high

for w

oodl

ots a

nd p

oor f

or p

astu

re.

WO

OD

LO

TS

(EU

CA

LYPT

US)

2

Soil

text

ure

silt,

dar

k br

own.

The

gro

wth

of t

he p

lant

is v

igor

ous,

gree

n (5

-10

feet

). So

il or

gani

c m

atte

r ap

pear

s to

be lo

w d

ue to

the

fact

that

app

licat

ion

of re

sidu

es in

clud

ing

man

ure

is v

ery

min

imal

. Arti

ficia

l fe

rtiliz

ers

are

supp

lem

ente

d in

cro

pped

land

but

yie

ld is

stil

l bel

ow s

tand

ard.

Soi

l ero

sion

slig

htly

she

et

was

h (E

1).

MA

IZE

3

The

soil

text

ure

in th

is f

ield

is s

ilt lo

am, d

ark

redd

ish

brow

n. P

lant

gro

wth

nor

mal

, dar

k gr

een,

10

feet

hi

gh. H

eavy

app

licat

ion

of p

lant

res

idue

and

ani

mal

man

ure.

Few

pla

nts

have

yel

low

ish

leav

es d

own

slop

e. S

tabl

e so

il ag

greg

ate,

no

visi

ble

soil

eros

ion

(E0)

due

to li

ttle

dist

urba

nce

and

high

org

anic

mat

ter.

CO

FFEE

/ B

AN

AN

A

4

Soil

text

ure

silt

loam

, dar

k re

ddis

h br

own.

Stu

nted

pla

nt g

row

th. S

tabl

e so

il ag

greg

ates

, no

appl

icat

ion

of

anim

al m

anur

e in

the

field

bec

ause

of c

over

age

of g

rass

es a

roun

d th

e fie

ld th

ere

is n

o vi

sibl

e ev

iden

ce o

f er

osio

n or

ver

y sl

ight

shee

t was

h.

PAST

UR

E LA

ND

5

BA

NA

NA

M

iddl

e M

boko

mu

1 So

il te

xtur

e lo

amy

clay

, dar

k re

ddis

h br

own.

The

gro

wth

of

coff

ee is

nor

mal

with

dar

k gr

een

(cof

fee)

, pa

le y

ello

w (b

anan

a). S

tabl

e so

il ag

greg

ates

, ero

sion

E0

in 8

0% o

f the

fiel

d w

ith e

xcep

tion

in p

edes

tals

. D

epos

ition

of s

oil o

n ge

ntle

slop

e is

obs

erve

d. C

rop

yiel

d an

d fie

ld p

rodu

ctiv

ity ra

nges

from

mod

erat

e to

po

or.

CO

FFEE

/ B

AN

AN

A

2

Soil

text

ure

is lo

amy

clay

, dar

k re

ddis

h br

own

indi

catin

g an

inte

nsiv

e w

eath

erin

g. G

rass

gro

wth

is v

ery

poor

pro

babl

y du

e to

sha

ding

and

poo

r na

tura

l soi

l fe

rtilit

y.

Evid

ence

of

soil

eros

ion

(E1)

, mod

erat

e st

able

soi

l ag

greg

ates

due

to

orga

nic

mat

ter

from

pla

nts

(incl

udin

g ro

ots)

pre

vent

s fu

rther

ero

sion

. H

owev

er th

ere

are

area

s, w

hich

hav

e be

en s

ever

ely

erod

ed d

ue to

the

fact

that

the

root

s of

fore

st s

peci

es

on sl

opes

tend

s to

loos

en th

e so

il st

ruct

ure

and

this

faci

litat

es th

e re

mov

al o

f top

soil.

The

pro

duct

ivity

of

the

soil

is v

ery

low

and

this

is o

ne o

f the

reas

ons f

or n

ot g

row

ing

crop

s in

such

land

.

WO

OD

LOTS

/ N

API

ER G

RA

SS

3

Soil

text

ure

is lo

amy,

dar

k re

ddis

h br

own

indi

catin

g an

inte

nsiv

e w

eath

erin

g. P

lant

gro

wth

is n

ot v

ery

norm

al (

stun

ted)

pro

babl

y du

e to

the

infe

rtilit

y of

the

soi

l an

d dr

ough

t due

to t

he f

act

that

the

soi

l is

prop

erly

mai

ntai

ned

resu

lting

int

o sl

ight

she

et w

ash

(E1)

. Th

e so

il ag

greg

ate

is s

tabl

e du

e to

hea

vy

appl

icat

ion

orga

nic

mat

ter

from

pla

nts

and

anim

al m

anur

e. T

he s

tabi

lity

of s

oil

tend

s to

pre

vent

soi

l er

osio

n an

d th

us c

onse

rve

the

soil.

Thi

s fie

ld is

an

exam

ple

of a

wel

l-con

serv

ed a

gric

ultu

ral l

and

sinc

e fr

om th

e ph

ysic

al o

bser

vatio

n of

the

soil,

pla

nt g

row

th w

as b

ette

r and

hig

h yi

eld

wer

e re

porte

d.

CA

SSA

VA

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

25

Low

er M

boko

mu

1 Th

e so

il is

loam

y cl

ay a

nd d

ark

redd

ish

brow

n. P

lant

est

ablis

hmen

t and

gro

wth

is n

ot n

orm

al (s

tunt

ed)

indi

catin

g po

or so

il fe

rtilit

y st

atus

. Soi

l agg

rega

tes a

re st

able

rest

rictin

g m

uch

soil

eros

ion

(E0)

due

to

larg

e ap

plic

atio

n of

FY

M in

plo

ts. I

nfer

tility

is p

roba

bly

due

to la

ck o

f maj

or c

hem

ical

ele

men

ts

parti

cula

rly N

PK.

CO

FFEE

/ M

AIZ

E

2

Loam

y so

il; d

ark

redd

ish

brow

n an

d dr

y. S

oil f

ertil

ity in

the

field

is v

ery

low

but

mai

ntai

ned

thro

ugh

the

appl

icat

ion

of a

nim

al m

anur

e in

ban

ana

field

s an

d ch

emic

al fe

rtiliz

er in

mai

ze p

lots

. The

re is

no

fallo

w

and

land

is p

repa

red

by u

sing

a h

and

hoe.

Slig

ht sh

eet w

ash

kind

of s

oil e

rosi

on (E

1).

BA

NA

NA

/ M

AIZ

E

3

Dec

linin

g so

il fe

rtilit

y, d

ark

redd

ish

brow

n; l

oam

y si

lt w

ith s

light

sta

ble

aggr

egat

es. E

vide

nce

of s

oil

eros

ion

(E1)

but

poo

r wat

er h

oldi

ng c

apac

ity. N

o fa

llow

. App

licat

ion

of m

anur

e is

ver

y m

inim

al.

BA

NA

NA

/ C

ASS

AV

A

4

Dar

k re

ddis

h br

own

clay

ey lo

am s

oil.

Hig

h cl

ay c

onte

nt is

due

to a

ccum

ulat

ion

of f

ine

earth

follo

win

g er

osio

n fr

om u

p-hi

ll ar

eas.

The

land

is c

over

ed b

y na

tura

l gra

ss a

nd so

il po

or in

soi

l fer

tility

. Soi

l is

very

st

able

due

to h

igh

OM

con

tent

with

min

imal

soil

eros

ion

(EO

).

GR

AZI

NG

LA

ND

5

Dar

k re

ddis

h br

own

clay

loa

m s

oil.

Hig

h cl

ay c

onte

nt i

s du

e to

acc

umul

atio

n of

fin

e ea

rth f

ollo

win

g er

osio

n fr

om u

p-hi

ll ar

eas.

Low

and

dec

linin

g so

il fe

rtilit

y. S

oil i

s ve

ry s

tabl

e du

e to

hig

h cl

ay c

onte

nt

with

min

imal

soil

eros

ion

(EO

).

MA

IZE/

RIC

E

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

26

App

endi

x 3.

T

able

3a.

Sel

ecte

d C

hem

ical

Soi

l Pro

pert

ies f

or L

and

Deg

rada

tion,

in K

ilim

anja

ro, M

acha

me

Tra

nsec

t

Agr

o ec

olog

ical

zo

ne (A

EZ)

U

nit

Soil

Che

mic

al F

ertil

ity E

valu

atio

n L

and

use

type

s

Upp

er M

acha

me

1

T

op S

oil

S

ub S

oil

pH

4. 3

(E

xtre

mel

y ac

id)

4

. 7

(V

ery

stro

ngly

aci

d)

Ava

ilabl

e P

130

(H

igh)

8

0

(

Hig

h)

C %

2.

60

(Hig

h)

1. 9

5

(Med

ium

) A

vaila

ble

K

1. 8

0 (V

ery

high

)

0.

60

(M

ediu

m)

Tota

l N %

0. 3

0 (M

ediu

m)

0.

10

(L

ow)

PAST

UR

E LA

ND

/(NA

PIER

G

RA

SS

2

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

4. 5

(V

ery

stro

ngly

aci

d)

4. 4

(Ext

rem

ely

acid

) A

vaila

ble

P

171

(H

igh)

12

7

(H

igh)

C

%

2. 7

0 (H

igh)

2.

75

(H

igh)

A

vaila

ble

K

3. 2

0 (V

ery

high

)

3.

00

(V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0

. 60

(Hig

h)

0. 5

5

(Hig

h)

EUC

ALY

PTU

S W

OO

D L

OTS

.

3

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

4

. 4

(Ex

trem

ely

acid

)

4. 6

(V

ery

stro

ngly

aci

d)

Ava

ilabl

e P

112

(

Hig

h)

107

(

Hig

h)

C %

2.

50

(M

ediu

m)

2

. 10

(Med

ium

) A

vaila

ble

K 2

.65

(V

ery

high

)

2

. 50

(V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0. 2

0

(Low

)

0. 0

5 (V

ery

low

)

MA

IZE/

C

OFF

EE/

BA

NA

NA

4

Top

Soi

l

Su

b So

il pH

5. 0

(Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

4. 6

(

Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

A

vaila

ble

P

82

(Hig

h)

102

(

Hig

h)

C %

2

. 20

(M

ediu

m)

1

. 95

(Med

ium

) A

vaila

ble

K

2. 8

0

(Ver

y hi

gh)

2. 1

5 (V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0

. 28

(M

ediu

m)

0.

19

(Low

)

GR

AZI

NG

LA

ND

.

5

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

4.

8

(V

ery

stro

ngly

aci

d)

4. 4

(E

xtre

mel

y a

cid)

A

vaila

ble

P

10

5

(Hig

h)

1

2

(M

ediu

m)

C %

1. 5

0 (M

ediu

m)

1. 9

5 (M

ediu

m)

Ava

ilabl

e K

3. 3

3 (V

ery

high

)

3. 2

0 (V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0. 8

6 (H

igh)

0. 2

9 (M

ediu

m)

CA

TCH

MEN

T FO

RES

T

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

27

Mid

dle

M a

cham

e 1

Top

Soi

l

S

ub S

oil

pH

4

. 8

(Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

4.

8

(Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

A

vaila

ble

P

169

(H

igh)

29

(H

igh)

C

%

2. 7

5 (H

igh)

1. 7

5 (M

ediu

m)

Ava

ilabl

e K

3

. 40

(Ver

y hi

gh)

3.

10

(Ver

y hi

gh)

Tota

l N %

0. 5

1 (

Hig

h)

0

. 21

(Med

ium

CO

FFEE

A

ND

B

AN

AN

A

2

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

4. 9

(

Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

5. 4

(

Stro

ngly

aci

d)

Ava

ilabl

e P

19

(Med

ium

)

19

(M

ediu

m)

C %

1

. 15

(Lo

w)

1.

80

(M

ediu

m)

Ava

ilabl

e K

3

. 30

(V

ery

high

)

2.

25

(V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0

. 24

(M

ediu

m)

0. 1

9 (

Low

)

GR

AZI

NG

LA

ND

3

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

5. 6

(Mod

erat

ely

acid

)

4.

7

(

Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

A

vaila

ble

P

45

(Hig

h)

2

(

Low

) C

%

1. 1

5

(Low

)

1. 1

5

(Lo

w)

Ava

ilabl

e K

3

. 40

(V

ery

high

)

2

. 10

(

Ver

y hi

gh)

Tota

l N %

0. 1

9

(Low

)

0.

10

(

Low

)

FA

LLO

W

4

Top

Soi

l

S

ub S

oil

pH

3.

8

(Ex

trem

ely

acid

)

4. 5

(

Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

A

vaila

ble

P

5

(

Low

)

92

(

Hig

h )

C %

1

. 25

(Lo

w)

1

. 40

(M

ediu

m)

Ava

ilabl

e K

3

. 10

(V

ery

high

)

2

. 50

(V

ery

hig

h)

Tota

l N %

0. 2

4 (

Med

ium

)

0. 2

5 (

Med

ium

)

WO

OD

LOTS

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

28

Low

er M

acha

me

1

T

op S

oil

Sub

Soil

pH

5.

3

(S

trong

ly a

cid)

5

. 4

(S

trong

ly a

cid)

A

vaila

ble

P

12

(Med

ium

)

29

(

Hig

h)

C %

0

. 15

(V

ery

low

)

4

. 75

(V

ery

high

) A

vaila

ble

K

3. 5

0

(Ver

y hi

gh)

2. 1

0 (

Ver

y hi

gh)

Tota

l N %

0. 0

6

(V

ery

low

)

0

. 68

(H

igh)

FA

LLO

W

2

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

3. 5

(Ext

rem

ely

acid

)

5. 7

(M

oder

atel

y ac

id)

Ava

ilabl

e P

1

4

(M

ediu

m)

135

(H

igh)

C

%

0. 7

0

(Low

)

1. 3

5

(Med

ium

) A

vaila

ble

K

3. 6

0

(Ver

y hi

gh)

2. 5

0

(Ver

y hi

gh)

Tota

l N %

0. 1

3

(Low

)

0

. 26

(M

ediu

m)

PA

DD

Y

CU

LTIV

ATI

ON

/G

RA

ZIN

G

3

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

5. 7

(M

oder

atel

y ac

id)

5. 9

(

Mod

erat

ely

acid

) A

vaila

ble

P

1

78

(Hig

h)

102

(Hig

h)

C %

1. 7

5

(M

ediu

m)

0.

90

(H

igh)

A

vaila

ble

K

3

. 60

(Ver

y hi

gh)

2. 3

0

(Ver

y hi

gh)

Tota

l N %

0

. 33

(Med

ium

)

0. 1

6

(Low

)

MA

IZE

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

29

Tabl

e 3b

. Sel

ecte

d C

hem

ical

Soi

l Pro

perti

es fo

r Lan

d D

egra

datio

n, in

Kili

man

jaro

, Mbo

kom

u Tr

anse

ct

Agr

o ec

olog

ical

zo

ne (A

EZ)

Uni

t So

il Fe

rtilit

y C

hem

ical

Pro

perti

es

Land

use

type

s

Upp

er M

boko

mu

1

T

op so

il

S

ub so

il pH

3

. 7

(Ex

trem

ely

acid

)

4.

9

(Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

A

vaila

ble

P 1

5

(M

ediu

m)

8

(Med

ium

) C

%

1. 5

5 (

Med

ium

)

1. 3

0 (M

ediu

m)

Ava

ilabl

e K

3.

40

(V

ery

high

)

2

. 15

(Ver

y hi

gh)

Tota

l N %

0

. 28

(M

ediu

m)

0.

20

(Low

)

WO

OD

LO

TS

(EU

CA

LYPT

US)

2

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

3. 2

(Ext

rem

ely

acid

)

3

. 7

(Ex

trem

ely

acid

) A

vaila

ble

P

166

(Hig

h)

17

(M

ediu

m)

C %

1

. 80

(M

ediu

m)

1. 1

0 (

Low

) A

vaila

ble

K

3. 1

0

(Ver

y hi

gh)

1

. 80

(V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0

. 31

(M

ediu

m)

0. 2

9

(Med

ium

)

MA

IZE

3

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

4. 4

(Ext

rem

ely

acid

)

5

. 8

(M

oder

atel

y ac

id)

Ava

ilabl

e P

5

4

(H

igh)

52

(Hig

h)

C %

1

. 90

(M

ediu

m)

1. 9

0

(Med

ium

) A

vaila

ble

K

3. 6

0

(Ver

y hi

gh)

2

. 10

(V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0

. 35

(M

ediu

m)

0. 3

4

(Med

ium

)

CO

FFEE

/ B

AN

AN

A

4

T

op S

oil

S

ub S

oil

pH

5. 2

(Stro

ngly

aci

d)

5. 3

(

Stro

ngly

aci

d)

Ava

ilabl

e P

8

(Med

ium

)

3

(

Low

) C

%

0

. 65

(L

ow)

0

. 55

(Ver

y lo

w)

Ava

ilabl

e K

3. 8

5

(Ver

y hi

gh)

1. 5

5 (V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0. 1

1

(Low

)

0. O

8 (V

ery

low

)

FALL

OW

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

30

Mid

dle

Mbo

kom

u 1

Top

Soi

l

Su

b So

il pH

4. 8

(

Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

4.

7

(V

ery

stro

ngly

aci

d)

Ava

ilabl

e P

1

82

(H

igh)

114

(Hig

h)

C %

1

. 25

(L

ow)

0

. 75

(L

ow)

Ava

ilabl

e K

3

. 35

(V

ery

high

)

2. 1

5

(Ver

y hi

gh)

Tota

l N %

0. 2

3

(

Med

ium

)

0. 1

3

(Low

)

CO

FFEE

/ B

AN

AN

A

2

T

op S

oil

S

ub S

oil

pH

4

. 7

(

Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

4

. 7

(Ver

y st

rong

ly a

cid)

A

vaila

ble

P

6

(L

ow)

6

(

Low

) O

C %

0. 8

5

(L

ow)

1. 5

0

(

Med

ium

) A

vaila

ble

K

3

. 10

(V

ery

high

)

1. 9

0

(V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0. 1

5

(Low

)

0

. 27

(

Med

ium

)

WO

OD

LOTS

/ EU

CA

LYPT

US

(MIX

ED W

ITH

TR

AD

ITIO

NA

L TR

EES)

= 3

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

5.

2

(St

rong

ly a

cid)

5.

2

(

Stro

ngly

aci

d)

Ava

ilabl

e P

48

(H

igh)

2

8

(Hig

h)

C %

0. 5

0

(

Ver

y lo

w)

0. 4

0

(V

ery

low

) A

vaila

ble

K

3

. 75

(V

ery

high

)

1.

65

(V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0. 0

8

(Ver

y lo

w)

0

. 09

(Ver

y lo

w)

CA

SSA

VA

Low

er M

boko

mu

1

T

op S

oil

S

ub S

oil

pH

4.

8

(V

ery

stro

ngly

aci

d)

5. 2

(Stro

ngly

aci

d)

Ava

ilabl

e P

10

(M

ediu

m)

1

26

(H

igh)

C

%

0. 8

5

(Low

)

1. 2

0

(Low

) A

vaila

ble

K

3. 2

0

(Ver

y hi

gh)

2. 1

0

(Ver

y hi

gh)

Tota

l N %

0. 2

2

(Med

ium

)

0. 1

4

(Low

)

CO

FFEE

/ M

AIZ

E

2

Top

Soi

l

Su

b So

il pH

6. 1

(Sl

ight

ly a

cid)

5.

0

(V

ery

stro

ngly

aci

d)

Ava

ilabl

e P

1

73

(

Hig

h)

85

(Hig

h)

C %

0. 6

5

(Lo

w)

0.

45

(L

ow)

Ava

ilabl

e K

3

. 55

(

Ver

y hi

gh)

1. 9

6

(Ver

y hi

gh)

Tota

l N %

0. 1

2

(Lo

w)

0.

08

(V

ery

low

)

BA

NA

NA

/ M

AIZ

E

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

31

3

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

5. 4

(Stro

ngly

aci

d)

5

. 2

(Stro

ngly

aci

d)

Ava

ilabl

e P

1

10

(H

igh)

10

5

(

Hig

h)

C %

1. 3

0

(Med

ium

)

1

. 10

(Low

) A

vaila

ble

K

2.

95

(V

ery

high

)

1. 6

4

(V

ery

high

) To

tal N

%

0. 2

4

(Med

ium

)

0.

18

(Low

)

BA

NA

NA

/ C

ASS

AV

A

4

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

5. 9

(M

oder

atel

y ac

id)

5

. 2

(St

rong

ly a

cid)

A

vaila

ble

P

109

(Hig

h)

8

4

(H

igh)

C

%

1.

30

(M

ediu

m)

1

. 05

(Lo

w)

Ava

ilabl

e K

2

. 94

(

Ver

y hi

gh)

2. 1

5 (

Ver

y hi

gh)

Tota

l N %

0. 2

4

(M

ediu

m)

0

. 19

(Lo

w)

GR

AZI

NG

LA

ND

5

Top

Soi

l

Sub

Soi

l pH

5. 7

(M

oder

atel

y ac

id)

5.

6

(Mod

erat

ely

acid

) A

vaila

ble

P

120

(Hig

h)

5

5

(H

igh)

C

%

0.

60

(L

ow)

0. 6

0 (

Low

) A

vaila

ble

K

2.

15

(V

ery

high

)

1. 3

0 (

Hig

h)

Tota

l N %

0.

11

(L

ow)

0. 1

1 (

Low

)

MA

IZE/

RIC

E

LUC

ID W

orki

ng P

aper

26

32