impact of celebrity endorsement
TRANSCRIPT
Carsten Erfgen
Impact of Celebrity Endorsement on Brand Image: A Communication Process Perspective on 30 Years of Empirical Research
Research Papers on Marketing and Retailing University of Hamburg
No. 36
Tor zur Welt der Wissenschaft
Un iv e rs i t ä t H am b ur g • T o r zu r W e l t d e r W isse n sc h a f t
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No. 40
Carsten Erfgen*
Impact of Celebrity Endorsement on Brand Image:
A Communication Process Perspective on 30 Years of
Empirical Research
July 2011
ISSN 1618-8985
*) Dipl.-Kfm. Carsten Erfgen, Institute of Marketing and Media, University of Hamburg,
Welckerstraße 8, 20354 Hamburg; Email: [email protected];
Tel.: +49(0)40 42838 8717; Fax: +49(0)40 42838 8715
Institute of Marketing and Media Marketing and Branding
Head of the Institute
Prof. Dr. Henrik Sattler
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Abstract
Celebrity endorsement advertising aims to achieve a favourable impact on brand image. By
adopting a communication process perspective, this review is the first to identify 24 brand image
drivers related to (1) celebrity, (2) message, (3) advertising channel, and (4) recipient
characteristics through a systematic analysis of 36 empirical studies. Specifically, credibility and
high image-based congruence are the most important celebrity characteristics. The use of two-
sided appeals, high arousal and low involvement also seem beneficial. This review derives
specific success factors to support practitioners, and it provides a basis for guiding further
research beyond the mere celebrity selection decision.
1 Introduction
Advertising that uses celebrity endorsers enjoys high popularity among brand managers (e.g.,
Amos et al., 2008). Each year, companies spend vast amounts of money to convince celebrities to
endorse their products and brands (e.g., Jaiprakash, 2008; Klaus and Bailey, 2008; Lee and
Thorson, 2008); for instance, Nike spent about $339 million on endorsements and their
dissemination in advertising campaigns in 2004 (Thomaselli, 2004). In the United States,
approximately 25% of all televised commercials feature celebrities (Erdogan et al., 2001); in
Germany, approximately 12% of all advertising campaigns employ these endorsers (Ipsos
Response, 2008). This communication strategy benefits from the widespread belief that
celebrities positively influence the image of the advertised brands, such that a key outcome is a
favourable effect on brand image (e.g., Erdogan et al., 2001; TNS Sport, 2005). Strong, unique,
and favourable brand associations help companies differentiate their products from those of
competitors and thus support a competitive advantage (Aaker, 1991; Krishnan, 1996). As a brand
value driver, brand image also establishes an important foundation for a brand‟s monetary value
(Keller, 1993).
Two prior narrative reviews (Erdogan, 1999; Kaikati, 1987) and one meta-analysis (Amos et al.,
2008) have attempted to summarise celebrity endorsement literature, yet no systematic
investigation reveals success factors for brand image effects. That is, in these reviews the
contribution of celebrity endorsers to brand image has not been examined explicitly or separately
from other measures of advertising effectiveness, such as attention, recall, or purchase intention.
Furthermore, existing reviews are limited to literature pertaining to the selection of celebrity
endorsers, including source effects such as credibility, attractiveness, fit or negative information.
Erdogan‟s (1999, p. 291) review, for example, “seeks to explore variables, which may be
considered in any celebrity selection process by drawing together strands from various literature.”
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However, selection is only one facet of the development and execution of a celebrity campaign,
and existing reviews cover only part of the body of extant research pertaining to celebrity
endorsements.
This study is the first to integrate literature from the broader field of celebrity endorsement
literature. By adopting a communication process perspective, this research can derive
implications regarding the characteristics of the (1) celebrity (e.g., perceived personal attributes),
(2) message (e.g., arguments used in the advertising copy), (3) advertising channel and (4)
recipient (e.g., personality traits that influence advertising receptiveness). A systematic review of
36 studies identifies 24 drivers of brand image in prior literature. Furthermore, by arranging prior
literature around distinct elements of the communication process, this review provides insights
into which success factors have received strong empirical support and which have generated
equivocal findings. Managers who hope to improve their brand‟s image can benefit from these
insights regarding the entire development and execution of an endorsement campaign, rather than
just the selection decision. Finally, this study identifies gaps in current research pertaining to
celebrity endorsement and concludes by delineating directions for further research.
2 Theoretical background
2.1 Celebrity endorsement and brand image
A celebrity endorser is “any individual who enjoys public recognition and who uses this
recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it in an advertisement” (McCracken,
1989, p. 310). This definition explicitly encompasses celebrities who appear to have expertise or
a long-term association with the manufacturer, but it excludes typical customer endorsements
featuring noncelebrities. Because celebrities appear to be gaining increasing influence in society
(Choi and Berger, 2010), marketing managers try to exploit the process of meaning transfer from
an endorser to products or brands involved (McCracken, 1986, 1989). Associative learning theory
details that celebrity endorsements influence brand image through a transfer of meaning from the
endorser to the brand (Till, 1998). Communication activities establish a pattern of connectivity
between the image of the celebrity and the image of the brand. Both entities represent nodes in a
cognitive network, whose connectivity can be modified according to experience. An image
transfer occurs when an advertisement can establish contingency between the two entities (Till,
1998; Till et al., 2008).
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Managers pursue such connectivity with the goal of obtaining a favourable brand image outcome
(TNS Sport, 2005). Brand image encompasses all perceptions of a brand, stored as brand
associations in consumer memory (Keller, 1993). Its importance mainly reflects its ability to
provoke unique perceptions of the brand in competitive settings (Aaker, 1996; Kamins et al.,
1989). It also constitutes a meaningful brand value driver and thus influences the formation of
brand equity (Faircloth et al., 2001). Keller (1993) distinguishes among attitudes, attributes and
benefits as types of brand associations, and Barich and Kotler (1991) regard brand attitude, belief
and impression as ingredients of brand image. Both perspectives imply that improved attitudes
toward the brand favourably influence brand image. In line with this argument, this review does
not distinguish attitudes from image but instead adopts a holistic view of the impact of celebrity
endorsements.
2.2 Celebrity endorsement from a communication process perspective
Communication, including marketing communication that employs celebrity endorsers, can be
characterised as a process in which the sender conveys stimuli to influence the behaviour of
others (Hovland et al., 1953). Lasswell‟s (1948) classical framework of persuasive
communication differentiates the elements of the communication process according to his well-
known formula: “who says what in which channel to whom.”
The first element, „who‟, refers to the message source or sender (Ajzen, 1992; Hovland et al.,
1953). Message sources can be impersonal (e.g., advertisements), interpersonal (e.g., friends,
colleagues) or experiential (Keaveney and Parthasarathy, 2001). In an endorsement context, the
celebrity is an impersonal message source, so his or her characteristics, including perceived
personal attributes like attractiveness or credibility, may determine endorsement success in terms
of the favourable brand image outcome.
The second, „says what‟ element pertains to the message content itself, as conveyed in the
communication process. Message characteristics relate to the execution and arrangement of the
celebrity endorsement‟s communication. For example, marketing decisions involve the degree of
endorsement strength and one- versus two-sided appeals (i.e., only positive arguments about a
product or claiming positive aspects on important determinants while simultaneously conceding
minor negative aspects) (Kamins, 1989).
The third element, „in which channel‟, refers to the means the sender and receiver use to
communicate. The channel bridges any distance between senders and recipients of the message
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(Ajzen, 1992); celebrity endorsement advertising usually employs mass media. The advertising
channel characteristics, or properties of the media vehicles in which celebrity-endorsed
advertising appears, could strengthen or weaken its effectiveness.
Finally, the „to whom‟ element pertains to the audience or recipient of a message (Hovland et al.,
1953). In an endorsement context, recipients differ in their degree of susceptibility to celebrity-
endorsed advertising. Therefore, recipient characteristics (e.g., individual personality traits,
gender, and age) should influence the campaign with regard to the target audience that has the
highest probability of providing a favourable brand image result.
3 Literature search
To determine the state of the art of research from a communication process perspective, a
literature search identified studies in the relevant domain. The included sources were empirical
studies published in scientific journals that provided major implications regarding the use of
celebrities as endorsers; studies that primarily focused on different types of (noncelebrity)
endorsers (e.g., experts, endorsers with long-term associations with the manufacturer) were
excluded. The systematic investigation encompassed the following journals: Advances in
Consumer Research, European Journal of Marketing, International Journal of Advertising,
International Journal of Research in Marketing, Journal of Advertising, Journal of Advertising
Research, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of
Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Product
and Brand Management, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, and Psychology and
Marketing. Moreover, electronic databases (e.g., Business Source Complete) also were consulted.
A search of the references for each identified study added a few other relevant sources. This
approach follows extant recommendations (Hunter and Schmidt, 2004; Rosenthal, 1994) and
produced 36 studies related to the impact of celebrity endorsers on brand image, as summarised
in Table 1 (which also includes the dependent measures that represent brand image variables).
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Table 1
Overview of Reviewed Studies and Dependent Variables
Dependent variable Source
Attitude toward the
manufacturer
Bailey (2007)
Brand affect Misra and Beatty (1990); Till et al. (2008)
Brand attitude Batra and Homer (2004); Cronley et al. (1999); Edwards and
La Ferle (2009); Eisend and Langner (2010); Goldsmith et
al. (2000); Kahle and Homer (1985); Kamins (1989);
Kamins and Gupta (1994); Kirmani and Shiv (1998);
Koernig and Boyd (2009); La Ferle and Choi (2005);
Lafferty and Goldsmith (1999); Lafferty et al. (2002); Lee
and Thorson (2008); Martin et al. (2008); Petty et al. (1983);
Priester and Petty (2003); Ranjbarian et al. (2010); Saleem
(2007, 2008); Sanbonmatsu and Kardes (1988); Sengupta et
al. (1997); Siemens et al. (2008); Silvera and Austad (2004);
Till and Shimp (1998); Till et al. (2008); Um (2008); Van
der Waldt et al. (2007)
Brand attitude (affective) Eisend and Langner (2010); Tripp et al. (1994)
Brand image beliefs Batra and Homer (2004); Kirmani and Shiv (1998)
Expectancy-value brand attitude Kamins (1989, 1990); Kamins and Gupta (1994)
Opinion of the product Freiden (1982); Mowen and Brown (1981)
Overall quality of service Kamins et al. (1989)
Product image Atkin and Block (1983)
4 Literature review
The 36 identified studies contained 24 brand image drivers, which can be condensed into 10
success factors that underlie the impact of celebrity endorsements on brand image. These success
factors also can be arranged according to the four elements of the communication process, as the
following sections outline. Table 2 provides an overview of the results and reveals the focal and
interaction effects.
4.1 Celebrity characteristics
4.1.1 Perceived personal attributes. The roles of likeability, physical attractiveness,
trustworthiness, expertise and credibility have been discussed widely in the celebrity
endorsement domain. Likeability indicates affection toward a celebrity as a result of his or her
physical appearance and behaviour (McCracken, 1989). McGuire (1985) assumes that higher
likeability is associated with greater effectiveness in terms of message persuasiveness. Kahle and
Homer (1985) find no difference between a highly likeable and less likeable celebrity in brand
image effects, but they reveal a significant interaction between likeability and involvement, such
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Table 2
Impact of Celebrity Endorsement on Brand Image – Results of the Literature Analysis
Success factor Brand image driver Source Focal
effect
Interaction
Celebrity characteristics
Perceived personal
attributes
Likeability Kahle and Homer (1985) o + under low involvement, n.s.
Ranjbarian et al. (2010) +
Physical
attractiveness
Kahle and Homer (1985) + implicitly tested: + for product domain
in which attractiveness is relevant
Kamins (1990) o + for product domain in which
attractiveness is relevant, n.s.
Silvera and Austad (2004) o + for product domain in which
attractiveness is relevant
Eisend and Langner (2010) +
Trustworthiness Priester and Petty (2003) + + for weak product-related argument
strength
Expertise Siemens et al. (2008) +
Eisend and Langner (2010) o + in the long term
+ for highly attractive endorsers
Credibility Lafferty and Goldsmith (1999) + + for high corporate credibility, n.s.
Goldsmith et al. (2000) +
Lafferty et al. (2002) +
La Ferle and Choi (2005) +
Similarity
celebrity/recipient
Silvera and Austad (2004) ?
Congruence with
the brand
Attractiveness-
based
Kamins (1990) o
Lee and Thorson (2008) o + under high involvement (?)
Expertise-based Lee and Thorson (2008) o + under high involvement, n.s.
Till et al. (2008) +
Koernig and Boyd (2009) o
(Table 2 continues)
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(Table 2 continued)
Success factor Brand image
driver
Source Focal
effect
Interaction
Image-based Misra and Beatty (1990) +
Kamins and Gupta (1994) +
Sengupta et al. (1997) n.a. + in the long term under low
involvement
Kirmani and Shiv (1998) o + under high involvement
Batra and Homer (2004) ?
External
information
Negative
information
Till and Shimp (1998) o - if celebrity is evaluated before brand,
n.s.
Bailey (2007) -
Edwards and La Ferle (2009) - - more pronounced for women than
men, n.s.
Information about
remuneration
Cronley et al. (1999) o
Van der Waldt et al. (2007) o
Multiple
endorsements
Multiple brand
endorsement
Mowen and Brown (1981) - interaction with social status of
advertised product, n.s.
Tripp et al. (1994) o
Um (2008) o
Multiple celebrity
endorsement
Mowen and Brown (1981) o
Saleem (2007) n.a. + for low involvement product category
Um (2008) o
Message characteristics
Arguments Product-related
argument strength
Petty et al. (1983) o
Sanbonmatsu and Kardes (1988) o
Sengupta et al. (1997) o
Martin et al. (2008) o Interaction with susceptibility to
normative influence, n.s.
(Table 2 continues)
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(Table 2 continued)
Success factor Brand image
driver
Source Focal
effect
Interaction
Endorsement
strength
Cronley et al. (1999) o
Martin et al. (2008) + Interaction with susceptibility to
normative influence, n.s.
Two-sided appeals Kamins (1989) +
Kamins et al. (1989) +
Exposures Number of
exposures to the
celebrity
Tripp et al. (1994) o Interaction with number of brands
endorsed simultaneously (i.e., intensity
of multiple brand endorsement), n.s.
Advertising channel characteristics
Advertising medium Prestige of the
media vehicle
Freiden (1982) o
Recipient characteristics
Demographics Gender: women
vs. Men
Kahle and Homer (1985) n.a. + for women under low involvement
Silvera and Austad (2004) o
Saleem (2008) n.a. interaction with single vs. multiple
celebrity endorsement
Age: younger vs.
Older
Atkin and Block (1983) +
Saleem (2008) o
Personality traits Consumer
scepticism
Bailey (2007) - interaction with valence of information
about the celebrity
Susceptibility to
normative
influence
Martin et al. (2008) o
Elaboration
likelihood
Arousal Sanbonmatsu and Kardes (1988) +
Involvement Petty et al. (1983) -
Note. + = positive influence; - = negative influence; o and n.s. = no significant influence; ? = ambiguous findings; n.a. = not analysed.
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that it enhances brand image in low involvement conditions. Ranjbarian et al. (2010) report a
positive brand image effect of likeability in terms of attitude towards the celebrity.
Social psychology research generally shows that physically attractive persons are more successful
in changing beliefs than unattractive people (Chaiken, 1979). For celebrity endorsement though,
the empirical results mainly reveal that the attractiveness of a celebrity endorser benefits the
brand image only if attractiveness is relevant for the pertinent product category. Kahle and
Homer (1985) find that a highly attractive celebrity generates a significantly more positive brand
image than does a less attractive celebrity, though they research only one product category (i.e.,
disposable razors), and their results might reflect the good fit between attractiveness and this
product category. That is, razors serve to enhance physical attractiveness, so a highly attractive
endorser could have more positive effects on brand image. In line with this argument, Silvera and
Austad (2004) reveal that physical attractiveness associated with a product category positively
influences brand image but physical attractiveness unrelated to the product category does not.
Kamins (1990) neither observes a main effect of attractiveness nor finds a significant interaction
between attractiveness and product category, though his results are directionally supportive of the
assumption that attractiveness associated with the product category enhances brand image.
Eisend and Langner (2010) distinguish between immediate and delayed effects of attractiveness
on brand image and find a positive impact of high attractiveness for both conditions.
Trustworthiness and expertise both represent subdimensions of the more general credibility
construct. Trustworthiness refers to the perceived willingness to make valid assertions; expertise
entails the ability to make valid assertions (Hovland et al., 1953; Sternthal et al., 1978). For
celebrity endorsements, the empirical results indicate strong evidence of a key influence of
credibility and its subdimensions on brand image. Priester and Petty (2003) find a positive impact
of trustworthiness, as well as an interaction of trustworthiness with product-related argument
strength. When weak product-related arguments mark the advertising copy, the influence of
trustworthiness is more pronounced than it is for strong product-related arguments. Siemens et al.
(2008) confirm the positive impact of expertise, whose impact on brand image is fully mediated
by perceptions of endorser credibility. Eisend and Langner (2010) report no immediate but only a
delayed positive effect of expertise on brand image. In addition, expertise interacts with
attractiveness so that the favourable impact of high expertise increases with higher levels of
attractiveness. At the more general celebrity credibility level, several studies find evidence of a
positive influence on brand image (Goldsmith et al., 2000; La Ferle and Choi, 2005; Lafferty and
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Goldsmith, 1999; Lafferty et al., 2002). Lafferty and Goldsmith‟s (1999) assumption of a more
pronounced effect of celebrity credibility when corporate credibility is high receives no support
though.
Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) can help explain why perceived similarity between the
celebrity and recipient facilitates brand image effects. That is, consumers may infer from their
perceived similarity with the celebrity whether they can expect gratification from adopting
attitudes or following the celebrity‟s recommendation. However, Silvera and Austad‟s (2004)
empirical results regarding the impact of this perceived similarity are equivocal. Only in one of
their two experiments do they find a positive and significant correlation between similarity and
brand image.
4.1.2 Congruence with the brand. At a general level, congruence describes a match between the
endorser and the brand (Misra and Beatty, 1990). Arguments based in schema theory frequently
indicate that congruence constitutes a prerequisite for the effectiveness of a celebrity
endorsement. When an object seems to have high schema congruence, it should receive
favourable evaluations, in line with a transfer of affect (Wansink and Ray, 1996). However, an
analysis of research on congruence in the celebrity endorsement domain reveals that the notion
has been conceptualised differently across studies. To structure this extant body of research, this
review classifies the concept of congruence into (1) attractiveness-based (e.g., matching a
physically attractive celebrity with a beauty-related brand), (2) expertise-based (e.g., matching an
athlete with a sports-related brand) and (3) image-based (e.g., matching highly accessible
celebrity associations with highly accessible brand associations) congruence.
For attractiveness-based congruence, Kamins (1990) and Lee and Thorson (2008) find no
empirical support for a positive effect on brand image. Nor do their results support the
assumption of an inverse U-shaped relationship between the level of congruence and brand
image; that is, mild incongruence does not outperform high and low congruence. In one of their
data sets, a significant attractiveness-based congruence by involvement interaction emerges and
implies that when involvement is high, the positive effect of congruence is more pronounced (Lee
and Thorson, 2008).
For expertise-based congruence, Till et al. (2008) find empirical support for a positive effect on
brand image, but neither Lee and Thorson (2008) nor Koernig and Boyd (2009) can discern a
significant impact. Therefore, the contribution of expertise-based congruence to brand image
remains equivocal.
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Finally, regarding image-based congruence, existing literature reveals a more conclusive picture.
Misra and Beatty (1990) and Kamins and Gupta (1994) find a positive effect of image-based
congruence on brand image. Even though Kirmani and Shiv (1998) do not confirm a direct effect,
they find a positive influence of image-based congruence in conditions of high involvement.
Sengupta et al. (1997) investigate the robustness of brand image enhancements induced by
celebrity endorsements over a longer period of time. They thus empirically reveal a stable,
positive, long-term effect on brand image when image-based congruence is high and involvement
is low. Batra and Homer (2004) also investigate whether celebrities with highly accessible
associations can reinforce equivalent brand image beliefs; their results confirm the positive
impact of image-based congruence. However, they find a significant increase on the respective
brand image beliefs only in one of the two cases they consider.
4.1.3 External information. Negative information or information about remuneration constitute
types of external information that affect perceptions of the celebrity. Negative information
includes harmful news about a celebrity, which may become public during or after an advertising
campaign. After an associative link has been established between a brand and its endorser,
negative press about the celebrity may directly harm the image of the brand. Bailey (2007) and
Edwards and La Ferle (2009) find significant negative effects on brand image when they present
respondents with a cover story about a celebrity endorser being arrested for domestic violence
and child abuse, respectively. Till and Shimp (1998) find no significant impact of negative
information on brand image, but their cover story, about a cyclist using steroids, clearly was
weaker concerning negativity.
Information about a high endorsement fee paid to the celebrity also could influence consumers‟
attribution about whether the celebrity actually likes the endorsed product or provides the
endorsement only for financial reasons. However, in two studies (Cronley et al., 1999; Van der
Waldt et al., 2007), no significant differences emerge between a scenario in which they provide
information about a high endorsement fee versus a scenario in which the endorser received no
fee.
4.1.4 Multiple endorsements. Multiple endorsements refer to two cases: one celebrity endorses
multiple brands at a time (i.e., multiple brand endorsement) or one brand is endorsed by multiple
celebrities at a time (i.e., multiple celebrity endorsement). According to attribution theory
(Kelley, 1973), a simultaneous multiple brand endorsement might elicit trait inferences about the
selfish reasons for a celebrity‟s advocacy (e.g., greed), which should have a negative impact on
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the image of all the endorsed brands. However, only Mowen and Brown (1981) find empirical
support for the negative effect. The anticipated interaction with the social status of the
simultaneously advertised products was not significant. Tripp et al. (1994) and Um (2008) do not
find significant differences in brand image between single and multiple brand endorsement
situations.
Attribution theory (Kelley, 1973) also implies that multiple celebrity endorsements may evoke a
more favourable brand image. That is, the consensus indicated by multiple endorsers might
suggest that their advocacy of a brand is due to the nature of the brand, not situational factors
(i.e., endorsement fee). Mowen and Brown (1981) and Um (2008) find no such influence on
brand image, but Saleem (2007) finds limited support for a positive effect of multiple celebrity
endorsement in a low (but not high) involvement product category.
4.2 Message characteristics
4.2.1 Arguments. During the process of planning a celebrity endorsement campaign, the design of
the advertising demands consideration as well. If a company decides to use supporting
arguments, in addition to depicting the celebrity and the brand, it must determine the degree of
product-related argument strength, degree of endorsement strength, and whether to use one- or
two-sided appeals. Strong product-related arguments provide high persuasive potency compared
with weak product-related arguments (e.g., “outperforms all other brands in performance” versus
“in an attractive new colour”). However, various studies find no empirical evidence of an impact
of argument strength on brand image (Martin et al., 2008; Petty et al., 1983; Sanbonmatsu and
Kardes, 1988; Sengupta et al., 1997).
Endorsement strength refers to the amount of emphasis the celebrity places on his or her
advocacy for a brand (e.g., employing an emphatic tone, repeating the name numerous times).
Empirical findings in this regard are equivocal: Cronley et al. (1999) cannot confirm an impact
on brand image, but Martin et al. (2008) suggest a positive influence of endorsement strength.
Two-sided appeals acknowledge that the advertised product performs well on important
characteristics but contains minor weaknesses on less important characteristics. One-sided
appeals exclusively focus on positive aspects (Kamins and Assael, 1987). According to
attribution theory (Kelley, 1973), the effectiveness of two-sided appeals stems from the greater
probability of internal attributions for the celebrity‟s reason to endorse (i.e., the celebrity actually
recommends the product instead of endorsing it for the money). Two studies that empirically
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researched this topic consistently report positive effects on brand image for two-sided compared
with one-sided appeals (Kamins, 1989; Kamins et al., 1989).
4.2.2 Number of exposures to the celebrity. The mere exposure effect suggests that repeated
contact with a stimulus leads to greater affect toward that stimulus (Zajonc, 1968). This effect is a
relatively robust and reliable phenomenon in advertising research (see the meta-analysis by
Bornstein, 1989). Enhanced affect toward a celebrity endorser due to repeated exposure may
transfer to the advertised brand, yet Tripp et al. (1994) find no significant effect of the number of
repeated exposures to a celebrity. They also anticipate an interaction between the number of
exposures to a celebrity and the number of brands he or she endorses simultaneously (i.e.,
intensity of multiple brand endorsement), but their investigation reveals no support for their
assumption.
4.3 Advertising channel characteristics
Research that considers advertising channel characteristics as a possible intervening variable for
celebrity endorsement success is scant: Only Freiden (1982) investigates the placement of
celebrity endorsement advertising with regard to the prestige of the media vehicle. Specifically,
Freiden analyses whether placing a celebrity-endorsed advertisement in a high versus low
prestige magazine would yield differences in terms of brand image. However, the study could not
confirm any effect.
4.4 Recipient characteristics
4.4.1 Demographics. Several studies have investigated the characteristics of the recipients, which
may promote or impede the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements on brand image. Kahle and
Homer (1985) report an interaction effect of gender and involvement, such that a celebrity
endorser yields a more favourable outcome for women who are less involved. Saleem (2008) also
finds an interaction effect of gender and single versus multiple celebrity endorsement. That is,
male participants react more positively to a single celebrity endorsement than female participants,
but there is no significant difference between men and women with regard to brand image in a
multiple celebrity endorsement. Silvera and Austad (2004) observe no empirical evidence for a
gender impact.
Age serves as the possible intervening variable in Atkin and Block‟s (1983) study. They
empirically reveal a significantly higher susceptibility to celebrity endorsements for younger
participants (i.e., 13–17 years) compared with older participants (i.e., older than 17 years).
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Saleem (2008) does not observe empirical evidence of an impact of age, for either single or
multiple celebrity endorsements.
4.4.2 Personality traits. Recipients with different personality traits likely respond in different
ways to the messages they receive (Ajzen, 1992). In a celebrity endorsement context, prior
research considers the influences of consumer scepticism and susceptibility to normative
influence. Consumer scepticism is the individual degree of negatively valenced attitude toward
the motives of advertisers. Therefore, recipients with higher degrees of scepticism are more likely
to believe that the intent of advertising messages is to manipulate them and not necessarily tell
the truth (Obermiller and Spangenberg, 1998). For celebrity endorsements, Bailey (2007)
observes a significantly more positive brand image among recipients with less consumer
scepticism exposed to an advertisement containing a celebrity than for more sceptical recipients.
Consumer scepticism also interacts significantly with the valence of information about the
celebrity (i.e., positive, neutral or negative). For neutral and positively valenced information
about the celebrity, people with less consumer scepticism respond more favourably to the
celebrity endorsement in terms of brand image than sceptics. For negatively valenced information
about the celebrity however, brand image does not significantly differ depending on the degree of
consumer scepticism (Bailey, 2007).
Susceptibility to normative influence (SNI) refers to sensitivity to social influences and the need
to conform to the expectations of others (Burnkrant and Cousineau, 1975). People with a higher
degree of SNI experience a greater desire to be well-respected and need a stronger sense of
belonging (Batra et al., 2001). Because celebrities represent opinion leaders for some consumers
(Rogers and Cartano, 1962), SNI should influence the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements in
terms of brand image enhancement. However, Martin et al. (2008) find no empirical evidence for
such an impact of SNI.
4.4.3 Elaboration likelihood. Both arousal and involvement influence a person‟s likelihood of
elaborating on an advertising stimulus. In the context of the elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
of persuasion (Petty and Cacioppo, 1981, 1983, 1986), arousal constitutes a determinant of
consumers‟ ability to elaborate on a message; it also relates to the degree of psychological
activation or alertness, which stimulates consumers to action (Humphreys and Revelle, 1984). If
available resources for cognitive elaboration are limited (e.g., in states of high physiological
arousal), people focus on simple or less complex information that demands less cognitive
processing (Sanbonmatsu and Kardes, 1988). Consequently, with high arousal, peripheral cues
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such as celebrity endorsers should exert a more pronounced influence on attitude formation.
Sanbonmatsu and Kardes (1988) find a marginally significant effect. In conditions of high
arousal, the celebrity endorser is significantly more effective in terms of brand image than is a
noncelebrity, but this effect does not hold in conditions of low arousal.
Finally, message involvement relates to the degree of perceived personal relevance and
consequences (Engel and Blackwell, 1982). In the context of the ELM for persuasion,
involvement helps determine consumers‟ motivation to elaborate on a message; when they are
less involved, peripheral cues exert a more pronounced influence on attitude formation.
Accordingly, Petty et al. (1983) find a significant effect, such that in low involvement conditions,
the celebrity endorser is significantly more effective in terms of brand image than is a
noncelebrity, but the same is not true in high involvement conditions.
5 Discussion
The use of celebrity endorsers in marketing enjoys high popularity, largely because they may
exert a positive impact on brand image. Noting the importance of brand image as a critical
intangible asset, with a fundamental impact on brand equity, this systematic literature review
pinpoints 24 brand image drivers of celebrity endorsements, arranged around four distinct
elements of the communication process. Thus, the framework includes not only celebrity
selection issues but also the design of the advertising message, the appropriate media vehicle, and
the target group. Extant empirical studies reveal certain success factors that seem somewhat
ambiguous, whereas others receive relatively strong empirical support. Therefore, this review can
help managers derive practical implications for the development and execution of their celebrity
endorsement campaigns: They should focus particularly on the well-documented success factors.
Credibility, physical attractiveness relevant to the product domain, image-based congruence, two-
sided appeals and lower elaboration likelihood all positively influence brand image. When
selecting an appropriate celebrity for an endorsement, brand managers must take care to achieve
high credibility. Extant research consistently verifies the importance of credibility and its
subdimensions, trustworthiness and expertise. Furthermore, most studies show that physical
attractiveness has a positive impact on brand image, though only if that attractiveness is relevant
to the product domain (e.g., a physically attractive celebrity for a make-up brand). This
evaluation of prior literature also reveals that image-based congruence (as opposed to
attractiveness- or expertise-based) constitutes the most important congruence dimension in a
Page 16
celebrity endorsement context and has a positive impact on brand image. The advertising
message also should include two-sided appeals in celebrity endorsements, because the empirical
findings consistently verify their effectiveness. Finally, lower elaboration likelihood among
recipients positively influences the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers for creating a favourable
brand image outcome. Both high arousal and low involvement promote low elaboration
likelihood and can enhance the impact on brand image.
Rather ambiguous findings relate to negative information, multiple brand endorsements and
endorsement strength. In the context of negative information, Bailey (2007) and Edwards and La
Ferle (2009) find that really negative information about the celebrity impairs brand image, but
Till and Shimp (1998) cannot confirm this effect using a weaker cover story. Thus, the severity of
the negative information and the person involved (e.g., the celebrity versus friends of the
celebrity) seem worthwhile candidates for further investigation. Mowen and Brown (1981) report
a negative effect on brand image when a celebrity endorses numerous brands simultaneously, but
Tripp et al. (1994) cannot confirm this result. The omnipresence of multiple brand endorsement
in practice and the high cost of exclusive contracts with celebrities therefore implies the need for
further research to disentangle the boundary conditions for such negative effects. Moreover,
research from the related field of brand alliances (e.g., Simonin and Ruth, 1998) suggests that
even positive effects might emerge in specific conditions (e.g., a less familiar brand might benefit
from more familiar brands in a multiple brand endorsement context). In addition, Martin et al.
(2008) report a positive effect of stronger endorsements, but Cronley et al. (1999) find no
significant differences between stronger and weaker endorsements. In practice, weak and strong
endorsements may represent two extremes. On the one hand, weak endorsements might not
express the celebrity‟s conviction about the product adequately and thus fail to achieve the
greatest persuasive effect. On the other hand, strong endorsements might evoke psychological
reactance, in response to perceived restrictions on freedom and control (e.g., Brehm 1966; Brehm
and Brehm, 1981). Whether moderate endorsement strength might outperform both weak and
strong endorsements should be investigated in ongoing research.
Most studies in this body of research have focused exclusively on celebrity characteristics, to the
detriment of in-depth investigations of other elements of the communication process (i.e.,
message, advertising channel and recipients). Regarding message characteristics, a conceptual
distinction of four endorsement modes suggests celebrities might endorse brands in an explicit
mode (“I endorse this brand”), implicit mode (“I use this brand”), imperative mode (“You should
Page 17
use this brand”) or co-present mode (i.e., celebrity and brand depicted simultaneously without
further explanation) (McCracken, 1989). Yet, research has not considered these different
endorsement modes empirically to determine their effectiveness. Regarding advertising channel
characteristics, research is scant (Freiden, 1982). This gap seems surprising against the
background of prior research that shows media selection exerts a strong impact on advertising
success (e.g., Batra et al., 1996; Korgaonkar et al., 1984). Furthermore, misplaced celebrity
advertising might compromise its effectiveness (Seno and Lukas, 2007). Therefore, an
investigation of the impact of advertising channel characteristics on celebrity endorsements
seems indispensable. With regard, finally, to recipient characteristics, additional research is
necessary to enable marketers to tailor their endorsements to target groups that are more
susceptible to celebrity advertising. Personality traits other than those addressed by prior research
might influence this susceptibility, which would grant consumer behaviour researchers interesting
insights as well. In addition, cross-cultural comparisons of acceptance of celebrity endorsement
seem desirable. For example, U.S. culture might promote a rather strong attachment to
celebrities, such that U.S. consumers would be more amenable to marketing communications that
use celebrity endorsers (McCracken, 1989); Scandinavian cultures appear more reluctant (Avant
and Knutsen, 1993).
Reconsidering celebrity endorsement from a communication process perspective thus highlights
the diversity of elements that managers should take into account when designing their campaigns.
In practice, this insight seems particularly meaningful, because most current attention focuses
solely on the selection of an appropriate celebrity (Miciak and Shanklin, 1994).
Page 18
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