immanuel kant
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Immanuel Kant. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Who was Immanuel Kant?. Born and died in Konigsberg (1724-1804) A leading figure of the Enlightenment Emphasised the importance of a priori concepts in understanding the world Most Famous Texts: Critique of Pure Reason (1781) - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Who was Immanuel Kant?
Born and died in Konigsberg (1724-1804)
A leading figure of the Enlightenment
Emphasised the importance of a priori concepts in understanding the world
Most Famous Texts: Critique of Pure Reason (1781) Groundwork Concerning the
Metaphysics of Morals (1785)
What is Deontology?
Some acts are right or wrong in themselves because of the type of act they are
Deontological ethics is also known as Duty ethics Some actions are always forbidden and
others are always obligatory – they are your duty
Moral worth of an action therefore has nothing to do with the consequences Consequences are outwith our control so
can’t be the source of moral worth of an act Contrasts with both Consequentialist ethics
and Virtue ethics (as we find in the work of Mill and Aristotle)
The Sovereignty of Reason
Kant thinks that a priori concepts are as important in moral philosophy as they are in epistemology
Reason alone can deduce the principles of morality
The idea fits in with our moral intuitions: We feel that in acting morally we should act in a
disinterested and impartial way We also feel that moral duties should be
universalisable (i.e. should apply to everyone in similar circumstances)
This is why murder is wrong for everyone
A morality based on reason is binding on everyone. It has ‘authority’ or ‘sovereignty’. To break moral rules is to go against reason
The Sovereignty of Reason
The Good Will
What is the only thing that is good without qualification?
Answer: A good will Everything else can be used for bad ends Even if your action produced bad consequences
your “good will would shine through like a jewel” So long as your action has good intentions you can
be guaranteed that is good. Motives are more important than consequences
What motive should we act from?
Duty v Inclination
The only morally valid motive is duty Doing something
simply because it’s the right thing to do
Acting out of respect of the Moral Law
Duty must be contrasted with inclination
People who are naturally kind are not morally praiseworthy
We can only be praised for things we have freely chosen to do
The Honest Shopkeeper
He may have many motives for giving you the right change. It is only when he does so out of
duty that his goodness is conspicuous
We must distinguish between acting ‘from duty’ and ‘in accord with duty’. Even if we act in accord with duty,
our actions may not be morally praiseworthy
Maxims
Kant doesn’t identify specific actions we should do, he identifies maxims of behaviour
Maxims are underlying principles of action that we prescribe for ourselves.
A maxim is a principle beginning with the words “I will…” “I will always take other people’s property
when I can get away with it” “I will always pay my taxes on time” “I will always hold open the door for others”
The Categorical Imperative
The categorical imperative is Kant’s test for identifying appropriate maxims for our actions There are two types of imperative:
hypothetical and categorical Hypothetical imperatives are not morally
binding but categorical imperatives are The categorical imperative has at least
three different formulations in Kant’s work
The Categorical Imperative 1:
The Universal Law Formulation “Act only on that maxim through which you can
at the same time will that it should become a universal law”
Similar to the golden rule: “treat others as we would have them treat us”
However, it is in fact a test of the logical possibility of universalising our maxims
Kant is asking use to imagine changing our maxims from “I will…” to “Everyone should always…”
If we act on un-universalisable maxims we are behaving irrationally or in a self-contradictory way
There are two ways in which our behaviour can be contradictory though: Contradiction in Conception Contradiction in the Will
Contradiction in Conception
When the maxim of an action… “…cannot even be conceived as a universal law of
nature without contradiction, let alone be willed as what ought to become one”.
Some maxims attempt to will something that cannot be willed E.g. “Always make false promises”
Problems of interpretation: A Logical impossibility? You can’t even
conceive of the maxim. A Practical impossibility? You could
conceive it but you could not in fact make the maxim work because people would abandon promise keeping.
A Teleological contradiction? You could make it work but it would fail to achieve its intended goal or end.
Contradiction in the Will
When we try to universalise a maxim that isn’t logically inconceivable but is rationally incompatible with other maxims you may will E.g. “Never help others that are in
need” We can conceive that this maxim could
be universalised without contradiction However, when you are infirm the most
rational way to satisfy your desires would be to accept help from others
The Categorical Imperative 2: The End in Itself Formulation
“Act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other , always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.”
Our fundamental dignity as human beings is worthy of respect in its own right.
We should never use people solely as objects to meet our own ends E.g. Lying, stealing, some forms of
punishment do this A common misinterpretation is that we can
never use people as a means. E.g. Bank Teller This is OK, so long as we don’t merely use
them as a means
The Categorical Imperative 3: The Kingdom of Ends Formulation
“Every rational being must so act as if he were through his maxims always a lawmaking member in the universal kingdom of ends.”
Captures the communitarian aspect of moral behaviour
We are not only law makers but are subjects of these laws
If a maxim could not be willed in such a community of ends then it can’t be a moral one.
Similar to John Rawls’ concept of the “Veil of Ignorance”
Reconciling the 3 Formulations
All three formulations are supposed to amount to the same thing and prohibit the same actions. Our maxims should be logically
capable of being universalised… …universal laws require universal
compliance and consent and this requirement for consent is to treat people as ends and not means…
…these would be the maxims we would sign up for in a fair society
The Problem with Motives
Do consequences have no role to play in our moral deliberations?
Mustn’t morality have something to do with improving the world?
Would we be obliged to follow maxims which never led to good consequences?
Does Kant himself smuggle in consequences by the back door? In discussing contradiction in the will
he suggests that “others may pay you back in your own coin”
Critical Comment: The Problem with Maxims
Exactly what sort of contradiction do we involve ourselves in when we will a non-universalisable maxim? Logical? Practical? Teleological?
Some maxims that are universalisable aren’t moral at all E.g. “Always eat healthily” This isn’t moral, it’s merely prudent
Does the categorical imperative therefore only identify permissible maxims rather than compulsory ones?
Critical Comment: Discerning our Duties
Doesn’t your duty depend on how you choose to formulate you maxim?
“Always commit adultery” “Always promote sensual pleasure”
Isn’t a conflict of duties possible in certain situations?
E.g. promise keeping Can’t we be morally obliged to
deviate from certain duties? E.g. The Case of the Enquiring Murderer Kant thinks we should never deviate from
telling the truth We can’t predict the consequences of
either action Better avoid the evil you know Is there a way of formulating the maxim so
that it is universalisable
Critical Comment:Ignores other Good Motives
Does Kant’s account lack humanity?
Aren’t there other motives which are as morally worthy as duty? Love Art Joy
Aren’t people who lack these motives also morally lacking?
Can’t we be morally commended for our inclinations if we have spent a long time acquiring them? (Aristotle)
Criticisms of Kant:Misguided Perceptions of Duty
Is acting from duty always the right thing? Is the Committed Nazi
praiseworthy? “If I found out I were Jewish I
would want to be exterminated”
Is such a person being contradictory?
Kant might say our moral duties transcend any other culturally or politically relative ‘duties’
But is reason alone enough to protect us from immoral duties? Is Kant being naïve?
Punishment
The 5 aims of punishment:
1. Protection
2. Retribution
3. Deterrence
4. Reform
5. Vindication
Kant on Punishment
Criminals are guilty of breaching the 1st formulation of the categorical imperative
“Act such that the maxim of your action could become a universal law”
Their maxims are not universalisable which is why murder, theft, deception etc are wrong.
Kant believes that punishment must always be proportionate.
“If you strike another you strike yourself; if you kill another you kill yourself” Critique of Practical Reason
The punishment must therefore fit the crime
Kant on Punishment
Kant believes in Retributive Punishment
People should be punished because they actually committed the crime
Because of the need for proportionality, the death penalty might well be justified for certain crimes such as murder
There must be no exceptions in the prosecution of justice
If an island society chose to abandon their home, their last duty should be to execute every last murderer, not release them, since Justice must always be done
Kant versus Utilitarianism
Kant’s retributive position contrasts sharply with the reformative stance of the utilitarians
“When someone who delights in annoying and vexing peace loving folk receives at last a right good beating, it is certainly an ill, but everyone approves of it and considers it a good in itself, even if nothing further results from it.”
Kant, The Philosophy of Law “Woe to him who creeps through the serpent
windings of Utilitarianism to discover some advantage that may discharge him from the justice of punishment”
Kant, The Critique of Practical Reason
Kant on Punishment
Kant rejects reform, deterrence and protection as justifications for punishment
Kant’s position is based on the 2nd version of the categorical imperative: “Always treat people as ends and never merely
as means” To punish people to set an example, protect
others or rehabilitate them is to use them as a means to your own ends.
By punishing people we are in fact treating them with respect and recognising their status as autonomous rational agents responsible for their actions
Utilitarians are just using people for social experiments
Strengths of of Kant’s Account of Punishment
Fits in with common ideas of justice: The Punishment should fit the crime An eye for an eye Punishment is largely about desert Punishment should not be visited on
the innocent Gives people responsibility for their
actions Treats people with dignity and
respect
Weaknesses of Kant’s Account of Punishment
Seems very harsh No exceptions or mitigating
circumstances allowed Even the very old and very young
should be punished Never forward looking
Utilitarians make something positive come out of something negative.
Do all crimes have an appropriate punishment? (Was hanging too good for Mussolini?)
What is War?
War is “armed conflict between 2 or more groups”
Since 1945, 40,000 people die every month from war somewhere in the world.
30 people are killed every day in Iraq, even now the war is over
There are many types of war: World war Civil war Nuclear war Guerrilla war Defensive war Pre-emptive war
Moral Issues in Wartime
Is there such a thing as a just war? Should you participate if your country goes
to war? Should conscription be used to force
people to fight? What conditions must be met to justify
being a conscientious objector? What should be done with prisoners of
war? How should civilians be treated during a
war? Are there methods or weapons that it is
never justified to use during a war? Are defensive wars any different from
offensive wars?
"I ain't got no quarrel with the Viet cong." Mohammed Ali
Kant on War
Does war fit in with the categorical imperative?
1st formulation: “Act such that the maxim of your action could
become a universal law” Can we universalise the maxim that we
should kill innocent people to win a war? Civilians Conscripts
Kant says no. War is a form of punishing the innocent (for the crimes of their leaders) which Kant has already ruled out in his consideration of punishment.
I could not rationally will that I should be punished when innocent of a crime.
Kant on War
2nd formulation of the CI: “Always treat people as ends
and never merely as means” During a war people are
conscripted into the army and used as a means to win the war
Sometimes civilians are used as human shields to prevent bombing of important sites
However Kant elsewhere suggests that defensive wars might be justified
Strengths of Kant’s Account of War
Fits in with common ideas of justice: We should never kill innocents Not because killing innocents
produces bad consequences But because it is wrong anyway
Kantians are committed to the concept of rules for fighting wars Killing should only ever be for military
objectives Torture and murder of innocents not
permitted Methods should never be
disproportionate to the intended objective
Weaknesses of Kant’s Account of War
Is Kant inconsistent in advocating defensive wars?
Is anyone innocent during a war? Munitions workers? Pregnant women?
There are never any exceptions to following the rules of war E.g. Should child soldiers be treated differently? This might actually lead to greater atrocities
Conflict of Duties What should we do when we have to choose
between 2 immoral acts? Should we kill the enemy soldier who is about to
find a group of children? Should we torture the prisoner of war who knows
the location of the next attack?
What is Euthanasia?
Comes from the Greek Eu = well Thanatos = death Means “Dying well” or “a good death”
Technology allows us to sustain life longer but not always better
Science allows us to predict how long people have to live and what their quality of life will be
"I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel" (The Hippocratic Oath)
Legalised in the Netherlands in 2000 and in Belgium in 2002
Legalised in Australia in 1996 but revoked in 1997
Types of Euthanasia
Voluntary Euthanasia When a dying person asks for euthanasia
Non-voluntary Euthanasia When the views of the dying person can’t
be known Involuntary Euthanasia
When someone is not asked their opinion even though they could give one and is killed against their wishes
Passive Euthanasia Causing death by withholding treatment
Active Euthanasia Causing death by intervention
Protesters gathered outside Groningen Academic Hospital in the Netherlands over plans
to extend euthanasia to newborns
Kant on Euthanasia
Kant never discusses euthanasia. However he does discuss suicide It is the task of Kantians to try to construct a Kant-like
response to the issue of euthanasia from what he says about suicide.
Kant on Suicide
The 1st formulation of the CI: “Act such that the maxim of your action
could become a universal law” Kant might have said that we can’t
universalise the maxim that: “…from self-love I adopt it as a principle to
shorten my life when its longer duration is likely to bring more evil than satisfaction”.
This maxim, says Kant, is self-contradictory: “Now we see at once that a system of nature
of which it should be a law to destroy life by means of the very feeling whose special nature it is to impel to the improvement of life would contradict itself, and therefore could not exist as a system of nature”
Kant on Suicide
2nd formulation of the CI: “Act that you use humanity, whether in
your own person or in the person of any other , always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.”
The 2nd formulation applies to ourselves as well as others.
It is our duty not to kill ourselves because to do so would be to treat ourselves as means to an end.
Human beings have to be respected and valued which includes respecting ourselves
Could Kant support Euthanasia?
Universalisability: Committing suicide might fit in with the
universal moral law of acting from the maxim of self-love.
Shortening an unbearable life might be the best way of loving yourself.
Treating People as Ends: If someone asks to die are we not
respecting them as rational agents? We are going along with their wishes, not
ours. So perhaps Kant might support voluntary
euthanasia but not involuntary or non-voluntary euthanasia.
Strengths of the Kantian approach to Euthanasia
Fits in with common intuitions: We are uneasy about euthanasia
even when it does have good consequences
Seems to respect the sanctity of human life
Urges us to seek positive solutions to difficult situations
Gives clear guidelines for a complex issue: The Categorical imperative outlines
our duty in such cases Avoids trying to second guess the
consequences: cures being discovered at the last minute; people coming out of 20 year comas etc.
Weaknesses of the Kantian approach to Euthanasia
Kant’s views on suicide might not apply to euthanasia Ill people aren’t just unhappy or depressed, they
objectively and medically have no hope Fails to recognise that there may not be positive
solutions in some situations Is there anything dignified about dying in agony?
The categorical imperative could be interpreted as supporting euthanasia: We could sanction a voluntary death as an example of
universalising the maxim of self-love We treat people as ends when we respect their
wishes Everyone else could subscribe to this practice as a
universal law in the kingdom of ends