4th June 2016

IGCSE HISTORYB5 CONFLICT CRISIS AND CHANGE : CHINA C1911-C1989

1. CHINA 1911 - 1934A. The Causes, Events and Results of the 1911 Revolution

i. Causes Decay of Qing Imperialism

The Emperors of the Qing Dynasty was weak and corrupt. Troop morale was low. Because of that, they lost to foreign powers easily. People lost confidence in the Manchu rule. The role of Cixi played a significant role in the decay of Qing Imperialism. The Empress Dowager was deeply unpopular and opposed reforms like the Self-Strengthening Movement and the Hundred Days Reform. Political Decentralisation was also part of the reason for the decay of Qing Imperialism as provinces of China were weakly governed by Beijing.

Education Many Chinese students went abroad to obtain their education in places such as Britain, Japan, America due to the Hundred Days Reform. They returned heavily influenced by westernised knowledge, policies and ideas. Some of these scholars were angered by how backward and underdeveloped China was as a country compared to Western societies. These scholars pushed for modernisation in China which led to the growth of Nationalist movement.

Growth of Nationalist Movement Dr Sun Yatsen, a Methodist scholar who had studied abroad returned to China disgusted to see how little progress had been made to develop China. In 1894, he led the Revive China Movement, campaigning for modernisation and re-establishment of national power in China. In 1903, he released the Three People’s Principles of Nationalism, Democracy and People’s Livelihood. Revolutionaries supported this by giving Dr Sun the ability to form Tongmenhui, a revolutionary political group in

1905. This group gained popularity and seriously threatened the political stability of China. It was considered a dangerous political movement as it paved the way for much local political violence and attack. They supported the Anti-Qing revolution and later joined the Sichuan uprising in 1911, which led to the 1911 revolution. Dr Sun himself organised 8 uprisings in 1911.

Economic Problems China faces a railway problem as protests broke out when government tried to nationalise regional railways in an attempt to gain revenue and control local authorities. This was strongly opposed by provincial authorities especially in Sichuan (this added on to discontent which became a contributing factor to the Sichuan Uprising) because members of gentry, landowners, and merchants had all invested money in railway construction. “Railway Protection Societies” were formed which the government tried to suppress with force. This intensified anti-Qing feelings and led to a series of violent revolts across the country.

During 1839-1860, China had fought two Opium Wars fuelled by Britain’s desire to sell Indian Opium in China for huge profits. China was badly beaten and forced into unequal treaties, in which China was forced to accept missionaries, allow foreign concessions in China, and give ports to foreign powers. In these concessions, foreigners had their own infrastructure, police and courts to keep power over the Chinese. Many employed Chinese workers, causing socioeconomic disruptions in China as villagers moved into cities, leading to overcrowding, shortages and poor living conditions. These treaties gave foreign forces huge power from within China, opening trade routes and the ability to live without Chinese interference. These unfair terms of these treaties along with humiliation of defeat and forced submission to foreign powers fuelled resentment in Chinese people.

ii. Events An uprising in Wuchang was planned by the revolutionaries for 16th

October 1911. However, there was a bomb explosion in the revolutionaries

headquarter in Hankou on 9th October which served as an immediate trigger and cause to the 1911 Revolution. Police found the membership list of revolutionaries. The 300 soldiers were on the list decided to revolt.

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The military governor of Hankou fled and therefore, there were no resistance. As a result, the Wuchang Uprising was brought forward to 10th October. The uprising was spontaneous and disorganised. Despite this, the entire city of Wuchang was captured within a day. Other cities began to join the revolt, in support of the revolutionaries and Dr Sun’s modern political ideas. Within a month, 20 cities had collapsed and all of Southern China fell into revolutionaries.

iii. Effects The Presidency of Yuan Shikai

November 1912, Sun, Song and Huang set up the KMT (Kuomintang, People’s National Party). Elections were held in February 1913, KMT won the majority amount of seats in parliament by 43% of the votes. December 1913, KMT won 269 out of 569 seats in the House of Representatives. Yuan Shikai was not keen on sharing power with parliament dominated by Dr Sun’s party. Real democracy could not be established. Yuan Shikai ignored the constitution and even tried to become a dictator to restore the Monarchy. 12 out of 18 provinces were under his control. Military governors in these provinces made sure that they stayed loyal to Yuan. Yuan orders a bloody repression and negotiates foreign loans, supporting European powers which wanted a strong government in China to protect their trading interests there. When Yuan agreed to go to war with Japan (it was either give control to Japan or go to war), he quickly lost popularity. On Christmas Day 1915, the army in Yunan rebelled against him. Other army garrisons joined the revolt. Faced with the opposition of the army which had brought him to power in the first place, Yuan dropped his plans to become emperor.

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End of Dynasty The revolution ended the Qing Dynasty’s 2000 years of imperial rule in China. The Republic was a new for of government and a milestone for Chinese history.

Lack of Social improvement Little attention was paid to China’s economic and social reforms. Therefore, China still remained weak as a country. In addition, Japan seized German territories in Shandong and economic privileges of WW1. People were naturally outraged by the 21 Demands presented by the Japanese government in January 1915. The Japanese demanded control of China’s factories, railways, and ports, and threatening wars if the demands were refused.

Increased Foreign Aggression Although the new Republic was recognised by most of the world, many foreign powers like Japan still forced China to sign the unequal treaties like the Twenty One Demands in January 1915. China was still weak internationally.

B. China under the Warlordsi. Causes Yuan Shikai’s presidency

In 1913, Yuan Shikai took over Chinese government. He dissolved National and Provincial assemblies, House of Representatives and Senate. They were replaced with “Council of State”. Yuan organised the provincial governments with each province supported by a Military Governor and Civil authority which gives each governor control of their own army. This decentralised power even further. He had himself elected as President and banned the KMT. By 1914, he was dictator of China. By 1915, he proclaimed himself as emperor of China. Many of his military supporters abandoned him and southern provinces declared independence and began to rebel. Yuan’s death in 1916 led to infighting amongst cliques in the government. As a result, government lost control of China to warlords in provinces.

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Power struggle Warlords were only interested in power and wealth and not the people’s wellbeing which led to the implementations of warlord policies. Warlords imposed high taxes to squeeze cash from peasants across China, enlisted peasants into their armies and governed with great severity. The economy collapsed as warlords simply printed more money to pay for their army which led to severe inflation. The competition between the warlords intensified as competing groups of warlords began fighting throughout China. Loyalties shifted constantly. The general division between North and South of China was made worse as it caused further divisions within these regions. Warlord rule was not uniform. The Christian warlord banned foot binding, opium, brothels and wore simple uniform. Zhang Zong Chang (the dogmeat general) of Shandong province was opposite, he kept numerous concubines and has a brutal army of troops. Zhang Zuolin of Manchuria was the most powerful warlord as his area of rule was almost the size of Western Europe.

ii. Events Harsh weather conditions

There were severe droughts in Northern China in 1918. Famines occurred throughout the years of 1920-1921. Flooding occurred in 1923-1925. This brought misery to millions and weakened the control of the Warlords.

Sun Yatsen’s death Dr Sun died from liver cancer. He was replaced by Chiang Kaishek.

Power struggle (covered under causes) Due to the power struggle of warlords, warlord policies were introduced, there was competition between the warlords, and the difference in ruling of individual warlords.

Independent Military Government set up An Independent Military Government was set up in 1917 by Dr Sun based on the 1911 constitution. Dr Sun was elected president supported by other Southern provinces who declared independence from Beijing. Northern provinces supporting the central government tried and failed to capture the Southern provinces.

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iii. Effects Influence of the USSR

The anarchy period of the warlord period convinced Dr Sun that he needed an army if he was to defeat them. This led to Dr Sun appealing to the USSR for help. The USSR established the Whampoa Military Academy in Guangzhou. This supplied arms to the KMT from 1923 onwards. The USSR encouraged the CCP and KMT to cooperate and form a “United Front”. The Warlord period ended with the Northern March which lasted from 1926 to 1928. (further elaborated in the Northern March specification point).

Civil War Conditions in China were worst when warlords fought each other to get control of each other’s provinces. The power struggle and competition between the warlords led to large civil wars took place. In these wars, both sides fought ferociously. 300,000 soldiers were involved. 700 Yunan men stripped entirely naked. Armed with knives and revolvers, Warlords rushed in Sichuan camp with 16,000 men and began a murderous rampage. The attack was a success. Panic seized regiment after regiment and the whole force fled eventually. 10 of the warlords were captured, naked and kept in streets under cold weather, drenching in rain before being murdered. 2 were killed and cut up in streets which their hearts and livers were later sold in a cookshop.

C. The May the Fourth Movementi. Causes Political change

New Culture MovementThere was a new intelligentsia of 5 million by 1919, educated in western-type schools as a result of the Hundred Days Reforms in 1898. Elite who attended school abroad were concentrated in coastal cities, as a result there was urban population growth in those cities, Shanghai. This was the emergence of a bourgeoisie political force. They attacked on Confucianism and perceived the West as a solution to China’s problems. This movement sprang from the disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture following the failure of the Chinese Republic to address China’s problems. Led by scholars like Chen Duxiu, the movement created a desire for change across China. This then gave way to the Intellectual Revolution.

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- New Youth MagazineThis magazine was founded by Chen Duxiu in 1915. It was the focal point for all out assault on Confucianism, regarded as a fundamental cause of China’s weaknesses. Social Darwinism was regarded as old and rotten should be replaced with the fresh and the living. This supports the idea that the youth is strong and the old is weak. It instils the idea that society is sick, Chinese society is sick and should die, thus, giving way for a New Society to be born. The First edition of the magazine was entitled, The Way of Confucius and Modern Life, it denounced restrictions on Women’s and their rights, advocates that Confucius lived in a feudal age, and essays attacking Confucianism were published.

- Language and Literature ReformsClassical Chinese (Wen Yuan) was replaced by vernacular (baihua). From 1910, there was an outpouring of urban popular fiction. They plan to overthrow the painted, powdered literature of the aristocratic few, and create the plain, simple literature of the people. This was led by scholars like Chen Duxiu, Lu Xun, Ding Ling and many more. These scholars sacrificed their dreams in the hopes of reviving China. For example, Lu Xun abandoned a medical career to awaken the Chinese people. Ding Ling rejected an arranged marriage to one of China’s wealthiest men to show that she opposed the traditional Chinese family practises.

Treaty of Versailles In 1917, China had joined WW1 on the Allied side, with the condition that all German spheres of influence in China, like Shandong province, be returned to China. American advocacy of self-determination at the Versailles was attractive to Chinese intellectuals, so the failure to award China the Shandong province was seen as a betrayal. As a result, China declared war on Germany in 1917. They did not send troops to Germany but they sent 140,000 workers to work on the Western Front while 40,000 of them worked for the French and 100,000 of them worked for the British. Their jobs were to carry trunks and risk their lives on the trenches. They were known as Chinese Labour Corps also known as China’s forgotten army. They were treated by the French and British poorly as they were racist. 10,000 died from shelling, poor treatment and the Spanish influenza in 1918.

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ii. Events The May Fourth Movement was the name given to an explosion of

yearning for change and national rebirth. In 1919, news reached Chinese people in China that the Allies at the Versailles Palace in Paris were planning to allow Japan to keep the German spheres of influence in Shandong province. Students at Beijing University began an explosive protest. On Sunday, 4th May, 3000 students assembled in Tiananmen Square. They demanded their government assert itself against the Japanese. They wrecked the house of the government minister responsible for the treaty. A city-wide student union was established devoted to change – which is what is known as the May 4th Movement. This was replicated across China in cities like Shanghai, Wuhan and Tianjin.

iii. Effects Protests

String of protests soon spread across China against Western powers. Campaigns were held to boycott Japanese goods. Shanghai was paralysed with a general strike. This marked the beginning of patriotism in China. The rising tide of protests prevented Chinese delegation from accepting the terms of the treaty and China refused to sign however, Japan still had control of Shandong.

Cultural Turning Point The movement proved that China’s social classes could successfully collaborate given proper motivation and leadership. Traditional Chinese values began to be questioned and people became more willing to support change from the warlords.

Intellectual Turning Point This movement encouraged many people to become more political and also showed that Western-style democracy was the wrong path to take as it hypocritically ignored China’s pleas for fairness.

Marxism This encouraged many Chinese intellectuals to turn to new ideologies (Marxism.) This led to the foundation of the Chinese Communist Party, CCP in 1921. They focused on the urban working class and organised strikes. Chinese Seaman’s Union strike in Hong Kong spread to Guangzhou and Shanghai in 1922 and

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organised peasant unions against the landlords. By the end of 1922, the Guangdong peasant association had 130,000 members.

D. Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang.i. Early stages of KMT (1894-1913) The KMT began life as the “Revive China Society”, founded in

1894 by Dr Sun, a proponent of Chinese nationalism and democracy. In 1905, Dr Sun joined forces with the other anti-Qing groups to form Tongmenhui (Revolutionary Alliance) who planned and supported the 1911 Revolution. In August 1912, the KMT was formed with Sun elected as Party Chairman. It was based on Three People’s Principles; Nationalism, Democracy and People’s Livelihood. The KMT won an overwhelming majority in elections to the National Assembly in November 1912. February 1913, KMT won the majority amount of seats in parliament by 43% of the votes. December 1913, KMT won 269 out of 569 seats in the House of Representatives. Yuan Shikai was not keen on sharing power with a parliament dominated by Dr Sun’s political party. Yuan orders a bloody repression and banned the KMT in November 1913. Dr Sun was forced to flee to Japan.

ii. Re-establishment of the KMT (1919-1925) In Shanghai 1919, the KMT was reformed. Its headquarters

were re-established in Guangdong Province in 1920. In 1923, the KMT accepted aid from the USSR after being denied recognition by Western Powers. Soviet Comintern advisers like Mikhail Borodin arrived with aid and weapons, reforming the KMT along the lines of a Leninist structure. Some elements within the KMT were landlords or from the business classes, so the KMT remained wary of the growing CCP. The CCP was instructed by a Comintern to unite with KMT to establish a United Front to fight warlords and unite China. At the KMT’s first party congress in 1924, Dr Sun’s political theory was adopted which included the Three People’s Principles; Nationalism, Democracy and People’s Livelihood.

iii. Victory Dr Sun died in 1925 and was replaced with Chiang Kai-shek who

was the superintendent of the Whampoa Military Academy in Canton and had near complete control of the military. Chiang launched the Northern Expedition in 1926 to defeat the warlords of Northern China and unite the country. In 1927, a split emerged in

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the KMT and Chiang responded to the power struggle with the Shanghai Massacre.

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E. Mao Zedong and the Emergence of the Chinese Communist Party.i. Early Stages of CCP (1921-1927) The CCP had its origins from the May 4th Movement which

encouraged many Chinese intellectuals to turn to new ideologies like Marxism/Leninism. The Party was co-founded by Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu on 23rd July 1921. Chen was elected as Party Leader and the party was declared to be part of the comintern. The comintern provided $5000 USD per year for support. They supported the CCP financially as they shared diplomatic relations due to similarities in interest such as Communism. Under the pressure from the USSR, the CCP joined forces with the KMT to form the First United Front against the warlords. Mao Zedong was the first delegate at the first Party Conference but did not get on with the CCP leadership of Chen Duxiu, disliking their intellectualism and focus on cities rather than peasants. In 1925, Mao was excluded from the CCP Central Committee and was attracted to the Rural Communism of Peng Pai.

ii. Civil War & WW2 (1927-1949) In 1927, Chiang Kai-shek turned on the Communists massacring

over 5000 in Shanghai. By July 1927, the KMT had expelled all communists from the Party and the CCP was forced to flee to the province of Kiangsi. The CCP reacted by creating the “Red Army”, and by reorganising the Party according to democratic centralism forming a Politburo. In October 1934, surrounded by KMT troops, the CCP was forced to flee on what became known as “The Long March”. At the end of October 1935, Mao Zedong had taken leadership of the Party. In December 1936, at the Xi’an Incident, Chiang was forced to agree to a “Second United Front” with the CCP against the Japanese, who in July 1937 had begun their invasion of mainland China. By the end of the war in August 1945, the CCP controlled over 95 million people. Both the CCP and KMT raced to accept the surrender of Japanese held areas. By early 1946, civil war had broken out again. The CCP had only 900,000 soldiers while KMT had 2.7 million troops. By September 1949, most of China was under CCP control. Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan.

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iii. Ruling Party (1949-Present) The People’s Republic of China was declared by Mao on 1st

October 1949. The ideology of the People’s Republic of China was founded on a Sinification of Marxist-Leninist principles and was officially known as “Mao Zedong Thought” or “Maoism”. During the 1960s, the CCP broke relations with the USSR and began a second Cultural Revolution in 1966 against alleged “class enemies”. Mao died on September 9, 1979, resulting in a power struggle between Hua Guofeng, Deng Xiaoping and the Gang of Four. Deng became leader of the CCP and instigated a reform and process of “Socialism with Chinese characteristics”. This meant that China would be communist in politics but capitalist in economics.

F. The Northern March and Shanghai Massacrei. The Northern March (1926-1928)

Causes

Death of Dr Sun After the death of Dr Sun Yat-sen in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek became leader of the KMT and was eager to destroy the warlords and reunite China.

The emergence of NRAThe Whampoa Military Academy in Canton produced a National Revolutionary Army (NRA) which was superior to many warlords. The NRA was 100,000 strong and equipped with latest Russian and German weapons. Chiang personally relied on the Russian Military advisor, Galen. The NRA was supported by the Communist “Farmers’ Movement Training Institute” in which Mao worked on. Propaganda from this institute persuaded many peasants to serve as guides and labourers for the NRA against their warlords. The declared political objectives of the NRA were to protect the welfare of the people. We must overthrow all warlords and wipe out reactionary power so that we may implement Three principles and complete National Revolution.

EventsThe Northern Expedition was a combined military operation by the United Front (KMT & CCP) against the rule of the warlords in Beijing as well as local warlords. It started in July 1926 and targeted

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the three most notorious and powerful warlords; Zhang Zhoulin of Manchuria, Wu Peifu in Central Plain region and Sun Chuanfang on the East Coast. By 10th October 1926, Wuhan had been captured. The NRA had grown to 250,000. By 1927, Nanjing and Shanghai had been captured. This was achieved by a combination of NRA military success, communist propaganda and bribing many warlords. The United Front ended on 12th April 1927. Chiang Kai-shek arranged the massacre of over 5000 communists with the help of the triad “Green Gang” in Shanghai. The KMT and NRA pressed on along and by June 1928, Beijing had been captured and Chiang set up a new capital of unified China at Nanjing. It was recognised by foreign powers.

EffectsCCP FleeingThe Communists were left with little alternative to armed struggle against the KMT. After the Shanghai Massacre, they were forced to flee the Kiangsi Province, setting up a Soviet which they were eventually forced to abandon in 1934.

Warlord problem not fully resolvedMany warlords simply formed an alliance with KMT to avoid being destroyed. There was little resistance as warlords simply surrendered to the approaching KMT troops because their armies mutinied and joined the KMT. They continued the infighting amongst themselves and treated peasants badly. This led to continual resentment of Chiang’s new government.

Stability of Chiang Kai-shek’s positionChiang Kai-shek’s position was strengthened. He ruled as dictator, similar to Hitler in Germany. He was the chairman of the military committee and commander in chief, prime minister and head of the KMT party.

Army supportChiang’s new regime was supported by the army and enforced control through a secret police called the Military Bureau of Statistics. Most social support came from rich, commercial elites in the cities and richer peasants and gentry in the countryside.

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ii. Shanghai Massacre : 12 th April 1927 Causes

The CCP ProblemIn 1923, Dr Sun concluded an alliance with the USSR after being denied recognition by Western Powers. Cominerns like Borodin arrived with and weapons. This gave KMT financial and military support but in return, the KMT had to cooperate with the CCP to form a United Front. Dr Sun agreed to let individual Communists to join the KMT as long as they remained loyal. Covert Communist activities soon attracted opposition amongst many right-wing KMT members.

The KMT SplitSince the death of Sun in 1925, the KMT was divided between the NRA and Chiang Kai-shek on the right, while KMT leader Wang Jingwei, Communists and Soviet Agents on the left-wing. Chiang was concerned to protect the business interest of many KMT supporters.

Attack on Foreign ConcessionsBetween January – March 1927, the left-wing of the KMT and CCP forces began attacking western interests in Hankou and Nanjing. Chiang Kai-shek needed the support of Western Powers in order to take Shanghai. By April, Chiang and the right-wing of the KMT became determined to purge the party of communist influence.

EventsThe massacre occurred on 12th April 1927 and was the violent suppression of Communist Party organisations in Shanghai by the KMT. After capturing Shanghai, the CCP began inciting huge protests and strikes, demanding the return of international settlements. Chiang immediately made arrangements with representatives of the commercial classes and Shanghai underworld to purge the CCP. On the morning of 12th April, heavily armed members of the triad “Green Gang” moved through international settlement to attack the CCP union strongholds in the working-class districts. Green Gang met with the leader of CCP workers’ union to persuade him to change sides but he refused. As a result, he was beaten to a pulp and buried alive. Green Gang aided by troops, rounded up Communists and either beheaded them or shot them down. Some were thrown alive into the fires of locomotives at the South Railway Station. Police put the death toll at 400 although it was estimated between 5,000 – 10,000 deaths. CCP leader, Zhou

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Enlai escaped.

EffectsPower StruggleThe KMT left wing government in Wuhan expelled Chiang from the party on the 17th April. However, he simply declared a rival KMT government in Nanjing. Chiang’s financial links with commercial interests in Shanghai enabled him to gain more influence, resulting in the Wuhan Nationalist Government collapsing. Wang Jingwei fled to Europe.

End of KMT/USSR cooperationStalin recalled all Soviet advisors to KMT including Galen and Borodin. Stalin switched his support to the CCP, inciting the Autumn Harvest Uprising in Nanchang in August 1927 and later in Canton but both end up complete failures. Over 300,000 people died in the ensuing anti-Communist suppression.

CCP Forced to FleeThe CCP were forced to flee from the Urban areas of China, with many communists like Mao setting up in Jiangxi and Hunan provinces. Alliance between the CCP and KMT broke down due to the massacre in 1927 led to communist fleeing to provinces the KMT did not control such as the Jiangxi province. In Jiangxi, the CCP set up the Jiangxi Soviet. CCP proposed Land Laws and reduced taxes, set up schools, modernised the living conditions in the countryside. This transformed CCP’s base of support from the urban proletariat to the rural peasantry. The Communist “Red Army” also played a part in winning the support of the peasants as it had rules of discipline such as be courteous and polite to people, return all borrowed articles, replace all damaged articles, be honest in transactions and to be sanitary. Old CCP leaders like Chen Duxiu were discredited and lost their leadership roles to Zhu De as leader of armed forces and Mao Zedong as the political leader.

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2. THE TRIUMPH OF MAO AND THE CCP, 1934-1949A. The events and importance of the Long March 1934-5.

i. Causes Growth of Jiangxi Base Area

After the Shanghai massacre, many Communists regrouped in rural areas such as Jiangxi. In Jiangxi, the CCP set up the Jiangxi Soviet. Communists like Zhu De and Mao Zedong led the Red Army/PLA units in these areas. Zhou Enlai arrived in 1932 and ousted Mao from his military positions. In 1933, the rest of the leadership arrived, along with German Comintern agent Otto Braun. The CCP at this time were led mainly by Zhou, Braun and Bo Gu.

KMT Extermination Camps Chiang Kai-shek regarded the Jiangxi Soviet as a greater threat to his authority than either the warlords or bandits. He organised a 5 massive “extermination campaigns” between 1930-1934 in order to cleanse them. Each extermination camp was bigger than the last. Even though, his army always outnumbered the Communists.

The first four campaigns were complete failures. This was because Mao Zedong and Zhu De used clever tactics to fight them, instead of fighting head on battles, they lured the KMT troops deep into Communist held-territory and then attacked each unit separately. Mao summed up his tactics of guerrilla warfare with flour slogans, when the enemy advances, we retreat. When the enemy halts, we trouble them. When the enemy seeks to avoid battle, we attack. When the enemy retreats, we pursue. There were obviously setbacks in Mao’s tactics. Whenever he lured the GMD into CCP-held areas, the KMT were able to capture CCP villagers as they advanced. In four years, 1 million peasants were brutally killed or starved to death. Many members of CCP criticised Mao’s tactics, saying that they were politically wrong and cowardly.

As a result, Chiang Kai-shek launched the fifth campaign against the Communists in 1933 was finally successful due to the “blockhouse” tactics of German General Seeckt. Instead of invading the Red areas, and trying to capture them by fighting fighting battles, Seeckt’s method was to surround the Jiangxi Soviet with 500,000 troops who then advanced slowly by building blockhouses, digging trenches, putting up barbed fences as they

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went. Seeckt’s aim was to stop all movement in and out of the Soviet, starving the communists of food,fuel, weapons and ammunition. Thus, slowly reducing the area that they controlled. By October 1934, the Communists had lost over half their territory, 60,000 troops in the Red Army had been killed. Area under control was steadily shrinking as the KMT advanced.

ii. Events 16 October 1934, 87,000 soldiers of the Red Army set out on the

retreat by Otto Braun. As they retreated, the Reds took with them all the equipment of the Jiangxi Soviet that would be needed for setting up a new government in Hunan-Hubei. Thousands of bearers carried office furniture, files, a printing press, radio equipment, gold bars, telephone wires were carried. In addition, the Army took with it as much weaponry and ammunition it could carry such as 33,000 guns, 1,800,000 cartridges, 76,000 grenades, 38 mortars and 25,000 mortar shells. It took the Red Army 6 weeks to break through the blockhouse rings encircling the Jiangxi. No sooner had they broken through than they were forced to fight a major battle when they reached the Xiang river. (25 November – 3rd December). By the end of the battle, the Red Army had lost 45,000 men. Many of the Red Army commanders blamed Otto Braun for the great loses of men. The loses had been due partly to the amount of equipment they were carrying, which slowed them down, giving the KMT time to prepare attacks. Otto Braun was also leading the Red Army in a straight line, making it easy for the KMT to predict its movements.

Zunyi Conference When the Red Army reached to the town of Zunyi on 9th January 1935, the leaders of the CCP held a meeting to work out better tactics. At the Zunyi Conference, Otto Braun was suspended and military control of the Red Army was given back to Mao and Zhu De.

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Luding Bridge Crossing At the Upper Yangzi crossing in May 1935, the KMT had destroyed all available boats. Mao built a bridge and crossed it successfully. At the Luding Bridge on the Dadu River, the KMT tore up all the planks leaving only the chains. KMT shot at the Reds who swung across the chains. This was used as propaganda as it shows the Reds bravery. 100 KMT members retreated and joined Mao. The Long March was unsuccessful because the Red Army lost 90% of the men they begun with.

Sungpan Marches The Sungpan Marches were the obstacle as there was 400km of swamp, where the Reds were ambushed by local tribes and many drowned in mud. Only 7,000 out of 10,000 survived the marshes. In October 1935, the Reds finally reached the Shaanxi Soviet and linked up with the troops of Xu Haidong. There Mao set up his HQ in Yan’an, Mao stayed there for the next 10 years and it became the HQ of CCP in China.

Key Events in the Long March During the 5th Suppression campaign, 800,000 KMT troops with tactics of buildings blockhouses and encirclement made it difficult for the Red Army to obtain food, weaponry and ammunition forced the Red Army to retreat on October 19,1934. It was difficult for the Red Army to replenish their men who had fallen to KMT. As a result, they retreated to the North. They crossed the Xiang River as 90,000 Reds broke out of Jiangxi. They carried all they could carry and this limited their speed which enabled KMT to protect their movements. Furthermore, they were led by the Bolsheviks to walk in a straight line, which also proved to be unsuccessful as it was easier for the KMT to attack. As a result, they lost 50,000 people. At the Zunyi conference, only 30,000 left in the Red Army and the Bolshevik leader, Otto Braun was replaced by Mao as he lost influence with the Reds.

iii. Importance of the Long March It removed the CCP from a region in China in which it would have

been vulnerable to the Japanese invasion in 1937 as well as attacks from the KMT.

It was the occasion for a number of crucial party meetings which were to have profound effect on the leadership and policy of the CCP for the next 40 years.

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B. War with Japan 1937-1945 – the role of the CCP, espescially the Red Army, and the limitations of the KMT.

i. Causes The Mukden Incident

As a result of the Great Depression, Japan’s economy collapsed. Since Manchuria was rich in raw materials, Japan believed that they could resolve economic issues by expanding to Manchuria to seize resources there. In September 1931, the Japanese Invaded the Northern province of Manchuria and named it Manchukuo. Fearing a full-scale invasion, Chiang did little to stop them other than complain to the League of Nations. He was more concerned with the communists saying, ‘the Japanese were a disease of the skin, but the Communists were a disease of the heart’.

Xi’an IncidentIn 1936, he ordered another extermination campaign against the CCP base in Yan’an. Chiang decided that the Japanese were not as dangerous as the CCP, he wanted to continue his war with the CCP. However, KMT troops led by Zhang Xueliang, the warlord of Manchuria, refused to fight the CCP. They wanted Chiang to focus on the Japanese. To ensure this, Chiang was kidnapped at Xi’an in 1936 and kept prisoner for 2 weeks. He was eventually released when he agreed to form a Second United Front. The KMT and CCP negotiated a deal to cease fire, the communists and nationalists would join together to go against the Japanese.

Marco Polo Bridge Incident On 7th December 1937, a clash occurred between Japanese and Chinese troops around the famous bridge 10 miles west of Beijing. By 26th July, China was given an ultimatum to withdraw all forces from Beijing. Chiang finally refused and war was declared. 29th July, Beijing fell. 30th July, Tianjin fell. 13th December, 200,000 females were killed and 20,000 were raped. This was known as the Rape of Nanjing. The Three Alls were implemented by the Japanese which were to Kill all, Burn all and Destroy all.

ii. War with Japan 1937-1945 The Japanese swept most of KMT armies away for most of the

war. Shanghai fell in November 1937, Nanjing fell in January 1938, Wuhan and Canton in October 1938 and Hong Kong in 1941. By 1941, the Japanese had a 34/50 division in China and had over extended themselves. Japan declaring war on the USA in

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December 1941 meant that Chiang had just secured a new ally against the Japanese.

Puppet government established (ended in 1941) The Japanese wanted a ‘puppet government’ to get their 2 million strong troops out of China. In March 1941, Wang Jing Wei ‘puppet government’ and signed the Tokyo-Nanjing treaty in October 1943. Occupied China joined the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Japan closely controlled.

Chiang establishing Free China in Chongqing Chiang returned to Chongqing to set up a KMT government of Free China. Free China accounted for half the population of China but its government had no effective control over this area. Chiang maintained support of Warlords by using political repression and censorship. In Chiongqing, he established a war economy such as state control of industry, mining and electricity. Railways and steel factories were built. Inflation was the major economic problem at 230% per annum, causing government borrowing. A greater burden fell on the peasants. The peasants were heavily relied upon and Land tax was introduced to tax peasants heavily.

Chiang and the Japanese The Americans were prepared to help China against the Japanese. The assistance of the American air force helped to fly US supplies into Chiang’s capital of Chongqing over the Himalayas by following a route called ‘the Hump’. In 1938, Japanese established the “New Order” in Asia and tried to seek Chiang’s cooperation. They did not want to continue the war in China. Chiang’s policy to conserve Chinese troops for the fight against the CCP after the war and fighting with the CCP broke out again in 1941.

Ichigo Offensive 1943, Free China suffered a major defeat when Operation Ichigo was defeated and the Japanese captured Changsha. Allies main objective for China was for China’s army to die down Japan’s 2 million strong army. In despite the success of the Ichigo Offensive in 1944, Japan was finally forced to surrender with the dropping of atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagosaki in August 1945. The USSR and declared war and invaded Manchuria on 8th August.

iii. Role of CCP in the War (red army)

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The Red ArmyThe CCP emerged from the war with Japan stronger than the KMT. The Japanese could not guard all the areas they conquered as they went south. This meant that CCP could often move into occupied areas and take control. From 1937 onwards, they carried out successful guerrilla tactics against the Japanese, taking control of many parts of China. In 1940, the CCP began a campaign known as the Hundred Regiments Battle in which they attacked the Japanese controlled railway system and paralysed Japanese transport. Small Red Army units struck deep into Japanese-held territory, hit important targets, and then retreated back into safety. The Communists worked amongst the peasants and soon controlled the country side. The Japanese retaliated with the Three All Campaign in 1941, Kill all, Burn all, Destroy all. Their aim was to turn people against the CCP in areas which supported them, by burning down their villages, crops and killing the peasants. This campaign had the opposite effect which drove many peasants to support the CCP. In 1937, the CCP held 30,000 square miles of China, with 2 million people. By 1945, when the Japanese surrendered, CCP already controlled 300,000 square miles and 95 million people.

CCP LeadershipThe CCP leadership made their final break with the Soviet-orientated groups within the CCP. The CCP leaders were promoting the idea of building Chinese communism with the peasants at the base. Marxism was being sinicised into Maoism. However, Mao’s book, on the New Democracy, encouraged all classes to participate in the Communist revolution – peasants, workers, intellectuals and capitalists. The book played down the idea of levelling classes in order to gain support from the masses/majority. CCP liberated areas were generally far better than areas under the control of KMT. Big estates were confiscated from rich lands and shared among the peasants. Rents and taxes were reduced and peasants were given interest-free loans. Out-dated and undesirable practices such as foot binding were abolished. Women’s associations were set up to help women to free themselves from their violent husbands. The Red Army were disciplined and never treated peasants badly, they helped peasants in the fields and around the villages. In return, peasants kept the Red Army informed about Japanese activities.

iv. The limitations of the KMT 21

Chiang decided that the Japanese were not as dangerous as the CCP, he wanted to continue his war with the CCP. Chiang planned a attack on the CCP despite the United Front. He was kidnapped a result, which makes weakens KMT as a whole because of the lack of cooperation. The KMT appeared unpatriotic and unwilling to attack Japan. Chiang took until 1937 to declare war and had retreated into Sichuan. He was cut off from his main industrial base.

KMT officials were corrupt and did little to improve welfare problems. Rents remained high, lack of medical care and the economy was wracked with high inflation. This helped to give rise to the CCP as the Red Army were helping the peasants in the country side. It made the peasants appeal to the CCP as they offered reforms and better living conditions in CCP liberated areas. Warlords remained able to do what they wished, which meant little change for the people. As a result, the KMT had little support in the country side. The peasants perceive them as a Party of bankers, business owners and land owners.

C. Key Features of the Civil War 1946-1949, The Battle of Huai-Hai.i. Causes Chiang’s conduct during the War

Chiang attacked the CCP, despite the United Front. The United Front was weak as both sides carried infighting whilst fighting the war against Japan. Chiang was seen as unpatriotic where as the communists were perceived in a better light of being true patriots. Corruption, low morale and lack of trust between generals created further infighting amongst them which weakens the KMT and Chiang’s prestige. Chinese were more impressed with the CCP, making a renewed conflict more likely.

A Divided CountryAt the end of the war, Japanese still controlled areas of China, the KMT still held strong authority over the Southern and Central provinces whilst the CCP controlled most of North China. The USSR decided to invade Manchuria. The race was on to capture as much territory as possible. US aircraft lifted 100,000 KMT troops into Northern China. The CCP moved into Manchuria, receiving many captured Japanese weapons for the Red Army. Clashes soon broke between the CCP and KMT.

Failure of Mediation between USA and USSRThe USA and the USSR wished to avoid civil war in China. Under

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USA pressure, Chiang was forced to agree to peace talks. In October 1945, an agreement was reached, however both the KMT and CCP refused to give up military control. Stalin ordered the CCP to hand over cities in Manchuria to the KMT. In 1946, the US sent General George Marshall to mediate again but talks broke down. The CCP took control of Harbin in Northern Manchuria and rural areas. By late 1946, civil war had broken out.

ii. Events First phase of War (July 1946-June 1947)

The Nationalist Offensive. The KMT started the war with 2,800,000 troops and 6,000 artillery pieces. The CCP could only come up with 320,000 troops and 600 artillery pieces. The KMT outnumbered the CCP by 3:1. The KMT took the initiative and captured larger cities, establishing a “corridor” of control through Manchuria. CCP were in full retreat and lost their headquarters in Yan’an. Chiang committed half a million of KMT troops to capture Manchuria but failed to breakthrough Red Army’s defence in Harbin. The CCP had to tactically withdraw.

Second phase of War (June 1947-November 1948)In May, led by Lin Biao, launched a full-scale assault on KMT. PLA avoided major battles with the KMT and concentrated on making guerrilla tactics against them. Despite not having an airforce, the PLA inflicted serious losses on the KMT which sapped the morale of troops. In 1948, the PLA moved to a strategy of conventional warfare with massed infantry assaults. The Red Army (PLA) from their rural bases adopted the guerrilla warfare, ambushing KMT units and keeping them locked down in cities by blowing up railway lines. They captured Laoyang in April 1948 and made gains in Shandong, isolating the KMT consolidating their authority on former bases. The CCP made night raids on KMT bases, blowing up their railway lines and ambushing their patrols.. In October 1947, railway junction of Jinzhou was captured, trapping the KMT troops in Manchuria. The KMT become isolated in cities whilst the CCP controlled the countryside. PLA took much of Central and Northern China in 1947 which forced the KMT to go into defensive. November 1948, Manchuria was lost and Chiang lost over 400,000 troops. More land the CCP conquered, the bigger the PLA army grew as peasants flocked to join the CCP.

Third phase of war (December 1948-October 1949)Northern China was captured in two major offences. The first against the vital railway junction of Xuzhou which lasted 65 days

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from December 1949 to January 1949. Both sides committed over 600,000 troops each. The defeat of the KMT was a major blow and cut off the rest of Northern from Chiang. Tianjin was easily captured first then Beijing on the 31st of January. The whole of Northern China was under control of CCP. In April, the PLA renewed the attack. Chiang’s capital of Nanjing was captured on the 23rd April with Wuhan and Shanghai falling in late May. The PLA divided into two to attack the South. Peng Dehaui struck west towards Xian and Lanzhou, which fell in August 1949. Lin Biao marched South, capturing Canton in October. Chongqing was taken in November with Chiang and the remnants of KMT fleeing to Taiwan. On October 1st 1949, Mao declared the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and appointed himself as Chairman. The Battle of Huai-Hai, November 1948-January 1949, both sides faced each other with half a million men in harsh winter conditions. CCP attacked first and isolated the KMT troops who surrendered on January 10.

D. Reasons for the success of Mao and the CCP in the Civil War. Military factors

Manchuria was well suited for guerrilla warfare with its hills and forests. KMT forces were slowly worn down, reducing their numerical advantage. They were also able to seize the initiative by destroying KMT railway lines, isolating them in cities. The PLA led by Lin Biao became a formidable fighting force. Intensive training and political indoctrination enabled them to adapt and absorb the KMT deserters. Chiang also made a serious error by overstretching his best forces. The KMT was corrupt with poor morale, lacking fighting spirit. Many KMT commanders like Wei Lihuang was in the KMT as a CCP spy supplying information to the PLA. The KMT composed of large conscripted army of reluctant soldiers that were badly clothed and fed.

Political factors The CCP had pro-peasant policies as it is a peasant-based party. It attracted huge support with land reforms such as land expropriation and distribution and the Land Law of 1932 in CCP controlled areas. Land taken from gentry and landlords and redistributed to peasants. Peasant Committees established under the district Soviets, they were able to call for elections or re-elections in local committees. Committees dealt with education, military training, political training, public health and revolutionary defence. They

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need not engage in brutal abuse of the population unless you were a landlord. They were adept at using propaganda to spread support in cities. PLA troops were extremely disciplined and went to help the peasants in the country side, indoctrinating them. This was a direct contrast to the unruly and cruel nature of the KMT troops. As a result, they were extremely popular with the peasants.

Economic Factors The economy under Chiang suffered from high inflation, prices rose up to 3000% in February 1947, reducing support even further. KMT had a corrupt government.

Foreign Factors The KMT failed to make full use of the US equipment whilst the CCP was highly trained and equipped by the USSR. The US brokered a ceasefire in 1946 even prevented the CCP from being wiped out in Harbin. The US became disillusioned with Chiang as they tried to form closer ties to the CCP with the Dixie Mission (August 1944-August 1945).

Role of Mao Whilst Mao made military mistakes, his cult of personality and use of terror made the CCP an efficient fighting force, whilst Chiang’s weak leadership allowed corruption to spread, affecting KMT troop morale.

i. The Battle of Huai-Hai It was the final battle of the civil war but not the end of the civil war. It lasted for two months, November 1948 to January 1949. It was near the Huai-Hai river. CCP had an advantage because they had civilian support (peasants in particular). CCP attacked and destroyed weaker KMT formations and surrounded them. Severe winter, for a few weeks which slowed down productivity as both sides did nothing. KMT troops who were treated horribly by their leaders left and deferred to join the CCP. On the 10th of January, 300,000 KMT troops surrendered. The KMT troops in Shanghai rounded out Communists and executed them before evacuating Shanghai as the CCPs were advancing.

3. CHANGES UNDER MAO, 1949-1963

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i. Changes in Agriculture and industry including the First Five Year Plan, attack on the landlords, the Agrarian Reform Law, cooperatives and collectives.

First Five-Year-Plan ( 1953-1957 ) Influenced by Russian advisers, the Chinese drew up a 5 year plan for the development of their economy. The plan ran from 1953-1957 gave priority to heavy industry such as steel, coal, machinery. 700 new production plans were written up for central China and Manchuria. China’s light industry such as cotton-making, food processing were neglected in favour of heavy industry. People had to put up with only a slow growth in their living standards in the availability of consumer goods. Purpose of five year plan, new ideas to maximise growth of economy, anti-imperialism by centralising economy, high saving and investment, primitive accumulation (peasants forced to sell ¼ or more of their total grain production to the state at extremely low prices.

Attack on landlords Mao’s aim for the Agrarian Land Reforms in June 1950 was to revoke power which landlords held and exercised over peasants. Because of the Agrarian Land Reform, CCP members were sent out to the countryside to organise the peasants against the landlords. The peasants encouraged to hold mass meetings at which landlords are denounced. These “People’s Courts” or “Speak Bitterness” campaigns became increasingly violent and often ended up in execution of landlords. By 1952, 2 thirds of the landlord population had been killed, 750,000 to 1,000,000 landlords had been killed. Land was taken from those who had more than they needed for their own use and given to those who had none. By 1952, 46 hectares of land had been redistributed to 300 million peasants.

Agrarian Land Reform Law CCP had been committed to land reforms since 1921. It has always been an argument in the party on how to proceed. Mao had already begun the process of giving land to peasants in CCP controlled areas. Mao wanted to revoke the power which landlords held and exercised over peasants. The Agrarian Land Reform Law was passed in June 1950 to speed up the process of land reforms. By 1952, land reform had transformed China. 40% of the land was redistributed with 60% of peasants benefitting. Land reforms proved to be a disappointment to many peasants as they did not have the proper equipment and finance to cultivate the land to

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maximise agricultural output. Therefore, mutual aid teams were set up.

Cooperatives and Collectives Mao followed the soviet model of collectivisation with his cooperatives. Peasant farms were too small to be productive and efficient and would not be able to provide maximum agricultural output to meet the needs for the rapidly growing cities as well as to achieve the food production level as targeted in the First Five-Year-Plan. Mao feared that there would be an emergence of a new social class such as the Kulaks in Soviet Union that would only be interested in making profits for themselves. Following the Agrarian Land Reform in June 1950, after redistributing 46 hectares of land to 300 million peasants, peasants were grouped into collective labour.

o Stage 1, Mutual Aid Teams In 1951, They were set up to pool labour and farming equipment. 6-7 households came together and formed a team to pool tools, animals and labour. This had a big impact on China’s food production as food production level increases. Peasant’s worked on each other’s land, fertilising, killing pests and harvesting so that each plot of land would become more productive. Quarrels often occurred regarding whose land should be worked on first. It was difficult to solve these problems. Therefore, they formed a peasant cooperative.

o Stage 2 : Lower Stage Co-operatives In 1953, the government and the CCP made great efforts to persuade peasants to join the lower stage cooperatives. This meant that 30-50 peasants families pooled their land and shared labour to make one bigger and more efficient farm. Similar to Mutual Aid Teams, but with larger amounts of people and trying to make it a more efficient farm than a more efficient land. Families still legally owned their plot of land and the land was kept on permanent loan to the cooperative which each family is paid rent for its land.

o Stage 3 : Higher Stage Co-operatives In 1955, The Five-Year-Plan went much further than this by

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joining the lower-stage cooperatives into a higher-stage cooperative. These consisted of 200-300 families. Families no longer get paid rent (contrast with the lower-stage cooperatives). They only receive wages for labour. They had to surrender title deeds to all land, equipment and animals to cooperatives (contrast to lower-stage cooperatives). They were only allowed to keep small personal plots of land for growing vegetables or raising chickens. End of 1956, 96 out of every 100 peasant families joined the higher-stage cooperatives. Most of the 300 million peasants who gained land from the Agrarian Land Reform were now landless yet again.

B. Changes in the role of womenMao was determined to change old attitudes to women who had been seen as second-class citizens.

i. Problems Many people distrusted modern ideas especially on women’s rights. In traditional Chinese families, marriages were arranged and wives were expected to completely obey their husbands.

ii. Changes 1950 Marriage Law which declared women to have equal rights

with men and broke the traditional male-dominated family which had kept women in subjection. It forbade arranged marriages, dowries, concubinage and child marriage. Women’s property rights also asserted and divorce became available on equal terms.

Prostitution was made illegal with all houses registered and visitor list kept by street committees.

Carefully laid down the rights of women and children. It provided equal pay and maternity benefits as well as child care at the workplace so that women were encouraged to work outside the home.

C. Political changes including Thought Reform, the Three and Five Antis Campaigns.

i. Causes The communists had to prove they were capable of providing a strong government. 37 years of warlords and war had produced social disintegration and criminal habits on a large scale. There were an estimated one million bandits in 1949. Thieves and

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gangsters stalked the cities. Many women had turned to prostitution as a means of survival. There were also many ex-sympathisers with the KMT regime who had not escaped to Taiwan and some even launched sabotage expeditions. Opposition to the government had to be removed or brought under control.

ii. Changes (Thought Reform & Mass campaigns) To strengthen the control of China, the CCP turned China into a one-party state. All other political parties were suppressed in a series of purges in 1950-1952. Foreigners were also driven out and foreign businesses taken over or had their assets frozen. Any who showed any opposition to communism was labelled a counter revolutionary or an imperialist. To avoid accusations, Chinese increasingly tried to prove their loyalty by accusing others.The basis of control was the “danwei”, a working or neighbourhood unit. It exercised surveillance over its members and demanded active participation.

In 1951, the Party began a movement for “thought reform”. It was called the Movement for the Study of Mao Zedong’s Thought encouraged the danwei. This involved close study of his readings, combined with public self-criticism at Party meetings. Special labour camps were set up for those who resisted and by 1953 with over 1.5 million inmates. As many as one million opponents were executed between 1949 and 1951, with over 65,000 killed in Guangzhou alone.

To gain further control, the Party organised mass campaigns to encourage mass participation. 1950 Three Mountains Campaigns, campaign targeted to go against feudalism, capitalism, and imperialism. 1951 Three Antis Campaign, targeted to go against party members and bureaucrats and sought to combat corruption, waste and bureaucracy. 1952 Five Antis Campaign, targeted and to go against businessmen and sought to combat bribery, tax evasion, fraud, theft of government property and spying. People who were found guilty were sent to labour camps to be re-educated with thought reform. The strangest party campaign was the Swat The Fly (lasted throughout the 1950s) where every citizen was asked to kill at least 10 flies a day.

D. The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956-1957)i. Causes

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Trap to Expose Anti-Communist elements. The campaign was a deliberate scheme and plan by Mao to flush out critics of the government and CCP. Mao uses the Hundred Flower’s campaign as a trap to invite people to speak out so that he could then use what they say against them as as an excuse to victimise them.

Serious error of judgement Mao had travelled widely throughout China during the early 1950s and had always been received very warmly. He appears to have believed that it was now possible to allow greater freedom of expression in China. Mao genuinely encouraged free speech and criticism but was shocked by the reaction and criticism he received. He then clamped down on his critics. It became a muddled and inconclusive movement hat grew out of conflicts within the CCP leadership.

Effects of First Five-Year-Plan The First-Five-Year-Plan had been achieved but serious problems of waste and chaos in planning especially in agriculture. This caused debates and disputes to brew within the CCP. Mao wanted to speed up the economic change but faced opposition in the Politburo.

ii. Events February 1957, Mao made a speech on the subject of “On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People” in which he repeated to his early call to “let a hundred flowers blossom, let a hundred schools of thought contend”. He meant that free speech was healthy and should be encouraged. The speech was published widely and Mao supported it with a 3-week train journey through eastern China to spread the message. In April, the Politburo were persuaded by Mao to sanction the campaign and it was officially launched in May, unleashing a torrent of criticisms that attacked the Communist system. In the press, magazines, at rallies and on posters, intellectuals attacked the regime for treating people as their obedient subjects and for developing into a new privileged, bureaucratic class that was out of touch with people. At Beijing University, students created a “democracy wall” that was covered with posters critical of the communist party. Even Mao himself began to be criticised.

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iii. Effects The Anti-Rightist CampaignThis was too much for Mao who in June 1957, suddenly cracked down on his critics. A full-scale counter-attack on intellectuals was launched. In the ensuing “anti-rightist” campaign, perhaps as many as 500,000 intellectuals were branded “rightists” and subjected to persecution. Some were sent to labour camps, others to the countryside for ‘re-education’. Some were sacked from their jobs and a few students were shot in public. People were forbidden from speaking freely and the press was censored. The leading critics were forced to retract their statements.

Silenced Criticism for a GenerationAs a result of this wave of persecution, independence of thought was systematically crushed. Intellectuals in China would never trust Mao or the CCP again and intellectual life was stultified.

Party Unity StrengthenedMao’s position as Party Chairman became unchallengeable which enabled serious problems in the Great Leap Forward to go unchecked by the Party. “After the Three Anti rightist campaign, no one wants to open their mouths”.

E. The Reasons for, key features and effects of the Great Leap Forward. (1958-1962)In January 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, which was his Second Five Year Plan. China was meant to be transformed into a leading industrial power, overtaking Britain in 15 years and the USA soon after. Mao got quickly caught up in the euphoria of his belief that communist rule could finally unlock China’s vast potential. In Autumn of 1957, he declared China would produce 40 million tonnes of steel by 1970. By 1958, he raised this to 100 million tonnes by 1962 and 700 million tonnes by early 1970.

i. Causes Political Reasons

Mao believed mass mobilisation could be used to take China very quickly from the stage of Socialism to fully developed Communism without the need for more bureaucracy. A success like this would further consolidate his political power. Propaganda could be used to encourage peasants to work harder. Mao wanted another revolution to hand control of agriculture and industry. He believed that these

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were being run by middle class “experts” who were similar to mandarin class under the emperors rendering it similar to imperialism, which was everything he was against.

Mao wanted to “decentralise” control away from the centralised State bureaucracy to local party cadres as he feared the revolution as becoming bogged down in bureaucracy. Mao wanted China to be in a continuous revolution. The Great Leap Forward would be a way to “continue the revolution”.

Economic reasons The First-Five-Year-Plan boosted industrial production by 18.7% but agriculture output lagged at 3.8%. Unless agriculture could improve, industrialisation would be held back.

Mao wanted to turn China into a powerful industrial nation as quickly as possible. Much had already been achieved but the pace was too slow and the money to set up new factories were scarce. If China was short of money, it was not short of people. The muscle power of the peasants could be used as they are the majority of China’s population. Mao intended the Chinese economy would overtake that of Britain within 15 years and that of USA in 30 years.

China’s vast resource of manpower were not being used effectively. There was still much unemployment in towns, cities and the countryside. In the countryside, peasants would be fully employed on large irrigation and flood control projects and would also develop small-scale industries. Surplus food would free peasants to work in factories to increase industrial manpower.

International context Mao wanted China to become a country of great power, free of foreign influence and foreign aid such as the USSR and the USA. The “peaceful coexistence” policy with the USA scared Mao and enforced the belief that China should stand alone. The Great Leap Forward was an assertion by Mao of Chinese independence.

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ii. Events Agriculture

People’s CommunesCommunes were a group of villagers. The average commune contained about 5000 families who gave up their land, animals and equipment to common ownership by all members of the commune. The purpose of the communes was to release what Mao called “the tremendous energy of the masses” by making sure that time and effort were not wasted and that members of a commune could work at a great variety of tasks. “The advantage of People’s Communes lies in the fact that they combine industry, agriculture, commerce, education and military affairs”.

Communes were organised so that nothing could distract people from their work. Around 4 million communal eating halls were set up so that the number of people who spent time cooking meals were reduced. Several million children were put in nurseries and schools so that parents were freed for full-time work. Old and infirm people were moved into “houses of happiness” so that their families did not have to take time off work to look after them. Communes controlled almost every activity in a person’s life because they combined several different functions.

o A commune was a unit of local government. It has a committee made up of peasants, party members and soldiers running schools, clinics, nurseries, eating halls, entertainments and other public services.

o A commune was a unit of work organisation Work in the commune was divided by dozen of families grouped into Work Teams. Dozens of Work Teams were then grouped into Work Brigades.

o A commune was a unit of the Communist Party The Party Committee ensures that the communes always followed party decisions.

The speed which communes were created astounded the Chinese. By the end of 1958, 7000 million people (90% of the population) had been placed into 26,500 communes in all parts of the country. By mid 1958, a campaign was launched to abolish private plots.

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The Central Committee of the CCP was dazzled by claims that these mass movements had caused the economic production to double or increase by 10 fold. They endorsed the establishment of the People’s Commune in which all activities are communal.

Industry

The Backyard Steel CampaignBackyard furnaces were an attempt to achieve targets set by Mao. Communes were expected to contribute to Great Leap Forward. Small commune factories were set up to make all kinds of industrial projects such as cement, ball bearings and chemical fertiliser. Communes also had to aid industrial production by building 600,000, “Backyard Furnaces”, to produce iron and steel. Metal implements of all kinds were melted down into pig iron. 11 million tonnes of steel were produced. As 1958 wore on, figures for the production for steel, coal, timber, cement, fertiliser and other industrial products showed a spectacular rise. It began to seem like Mao was right and that it was “possible to accomplish any task whatsoever”.

iii. Effects

Food production slumpedPeasants were forced into industry. In 1958, there was a good harvest of 375 million tonnes of grain recorded but closer to 200 million. Because of this, Mao set a higher figure of 430 million tonnes for 1959. As a result of false reporting, many communal eating halls started giving peasants very generous meals, using up the valuable food stocks. However, the 1959 harvest was a disaster of only 170 million tonnes produced. The situation of false reporting was not helped by three years of disastrous harvest caused by flood and droughts. The failures of the Great Leap Forward (absence of peasants as they neglected agricultural duties to work in backyard steel campaigns to produce steel) combined with bad weather reduced the harvest of 1960. In 1960, it was only 143 million tonnes. This led to major famine in 1960 killing 9 million peasants. The median age of death in 1957 was 17.6 and in 1963, it was 9.7. This led to the introduction of rationing by the government where the maximum was 125 grams of grains per day per person. Between 1959 to 1962, 20 million peasants died of starvation and related diseases.

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China also used the Lysenkoism technique to maximise agricultural output. This was based on the claims of Trofim Lysenko, a soviet scientist. China tried to produce “supercrops” with extremely high production yields. They used “deep ploughing” and close planting. This method rotted the crop, exhausted the soil of nitrates to grow and produced low yields.

Industrial production slumpedParty workers urged people to produce more and faster. As a result, old and overworked factories and machinery fell apart under the strain. 11 million tonnes of steel was produced by 1958. The Great Leap Forward failed as 3 million of the 11 million steel made in backyard furnaces campaign were too impure for industrial use and had to be thrown away as scrap. So many furnaces were built that eventually, 1 person per 10 people was making steel. This took many people away from the feels, thus leaving agriculture yet again neglected which completely goes against the aim for The Great Leap Forward which was to improve agricultural output. Furnaces also used much of the country’s resources as people used all the metal items they owned to make steel including door knobs, hair pins, farming equipment and etc. Targets remained set at impossibly high levels which were never met. Backyard furnaces were eventually abandoned in 1959.

Mao steps downMao took part of the blame and admitted that the Great Leap Forward was a fail in 1959. As a result, he stepped down as China’s head of state. He was still chairman of the CCP but China was now controlled by President Liu Shaoqi. They reversed many of Mao’s policies including reducing communes in size. Peasants working in backyard steel production were sent back to the fields. Peasants were allowed their own private plots again, and to sell what they grew at market for their own profit. Town workers’ wages increased. Although Mao was no longer allowed a say in running the economy, he continued to have great influence over the mass of the people. He used this influence in 1966 to get rid of the moderates by starting a political revolution, the Cultural Revolution.

iv. Why did the Great Leap Forward FAIL?

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Mao ignored economic realities. Economic laws would be ignored as “bureaucratic” or “revisionist”. The speed in which communes were established and the exaggerated production figures which local officials reported to the government (scared and want to avoid being labelled as rightists) caused Mao’s confidence to grow, further, inflating already impossible targets. He was in too much of a hurry and did not give enough thought to the harsh practical realities and problems that would arise from the Great Leap Forward.

It was nonsensical as major industrial development needed capital investment, technology and planning. However, Mao stood against these ideas and labelled them as “rightists” or “revisionists”. He was afraid that this would create a class of experts such as the Kulaks in Russia which will cause Mao to lose his grip of the “continuous revolution”.

Anti-rightist campaigns. Had purged China of crucial experts and scared officials into telling Mao what he wanted to hear. Targets were inflated to ensure survival.

Waste and inefficiency. Military training and factory work took peasants away from food production, leaving grain to rot as agriculture was neglected. Farming tools were even melted down to produce steel as they all desperately used ANY metal scraps they could find to make steel which led to 3 million tonnes of 11 million tonnes being impure.

Failure of commune system. Peasants resented being forced to give up land and private lines. There was no incentive to work hard and many peasants hoarded grain due to lack of food.

Natural disasters. In 1960, north and central China faced droughts, flooding and horrible weather conditions.

Reduction of foreign influence. One of the main causes of the Great Leap Forward was to reduce foreign influence such as the USSR and the US. Foreign businesses and foreign aid was reduced. As a result, in 1960, the USSR withdrew its aid to China by removing all scientists and engineers working in China to return home. This contributed to the failure of the Great Leap Forward as this meant that China was short of technicians and expertise needed to build its economy. Factories under construction could not be finished without Soviet assistance, some factories already built had to be closed down as the supply of spare parts from the Soviet Union dried up. This is ironic as Mao wanted to help China grow as an independent country by removing and refusing help offered by the

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USSR and the USA which caused his plans of the Great Leap Forward to fail dramatically.

4. THE IMPACT OF THE CULTURAL REVOLUTIONA. Mao’s motives for the Cultural Revolution (1966-1969)

i. Power Struggle After the Great Leap Forward, Mao’s political position was

weakened whilst his economic policies had been rejected. One aim was to defeat his opponents, regain political supremacy and ensure his economic policies were accepted. Mao saw “two lines” developing within the CCP, Communism and Revisionism. Revisionism was Mao’s term for those who wanted to change from communism. Communist party officials were the worst culprits in Mao’s eyes. Instead of setting an example by serving the people, they were using their power for their own ends such as obtaining seaside holidays, extra rations of food, clothing and bigger houses for their families to live in. Mao was upset by the direction of the CCP. Incentives undermined the ideal of communist equality. The party leaders leading privileged lives and losing touch with the people contributes to the division between the party and the people. He wanted to revive the people’s faith in CCP and Communism.

Economic Struggle From 1962 to 1966, the leaders of the CCP argued with one another about which road they should follow in developing China. The moderates led by Lu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping wanted to introduce more incentives to get the peasants in the communes to work hard. They wanted to let peasants have large private plots and pay them wages according to how much work they did. They believed by going back to the ideas of the First Five Year Plan to build up industry on Russian lines. This will manage industry more effectively, they wanted to create a new class of skilled managers. By 1962, 20% of of farm land had reverted to private ownership. Mao totally opposed these policies and retained his faith in mass mobilisation. He argued that these changes were turning China into a sick and selfish society where people were more concerned about themselves than their neighbours. The peasants were working harder on their own land than they were on the communes. In the cities, the young were more interested in latest fashions in clothes and pop music than in studying on how to

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become good communists. Therefore, he accused Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping for being “capitalists”.

Revolutionary Immortality Mao was attempting to achieve revolutionary immortality. He was 74. He feared that his revolution would be destroyed after his death. He had to save it using the youth of the next generation. So he turned to the Red Guards to save the revolution. Mao wanted to make a last ditch effort to preserve the “continuous revolution”. He believed in continuous or permanent revolution as he wanted young people to experience revolution. According to Mao, without this there was a danger of returning to old China.

B. Key Features of the Cultural RevolutionC. Red Guards, Education and the “Cult of Mao”

i. In early 1965, Mao began scheming against his “revisionist” rivals, using his allies to place attacks in attacks in newspapers. On 16th May 1966, Mao persuaded the Politburo to issue a circular which launched the Cultural Revolution. Representatives of the bourgeoisie have sneaked into our party. They are a bunch of country-revolutionary revisionists. Some of these have been exposed, others have not.

ii. Red Guards Mao then publically announced his return to political life with a 15km swim in the Yangtze river and gave a speech to the CCP in Beijing, launching the Cultural Revolution with an attack on the Four olds – old culture, old ideas, old customs and old habits. On the 18th August 1966, Mao gave the first of eight giant rallies, calling on Red Guards to attack the Four Olds and root out revisionists. Mao support of the PLA was crucial but Mao decided to mobilise young people to promote his policies to achieve revolutionary immortality.

iii. Education The Cultural Revolution began among school children and students in Beijing. Schools and colleges were shut down for six months so that the curriculum could be rewritten to make young people aware of communist ideals. In 1962, he launched the Socialist Education Movement to get people back on to the right road. Chinese culture and education were criticised by Mao for producing “high and

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mighty bureaucrats”.

iv. The Red Guards were a group of young people and students who were encouraged to do Mao’s bidding. They’re main slogan was “We are critics of the old world, we are builders of the new”. They were given the right to travel free on railways so that they could take part in massive rallies. The Police and PLA were ordered not to interfere. They soon used violence to achieve their aims such as shaving off girls with western haircuts, burning libraries and museums, attacking foreign embassies, smashed windows of shops selling Western merchandise, stopped couples from holding hands. By 1967, there was anarchy as the Red Guards split into rival factions with over 400,000 deaths.

v. Red Guards were inspired by Cult of Mao. Mao was worshipped as a new emperor, with workers forced to worship his portrait and read his sayings in the Little Red Book. 740 million copies were printed in 1966-1969. The meeting closed with everybody sating “May the Chairman live ten thousand years”. Everywhere in China, there were statues and portraits of Chairman Mao whilst loudspeakers blared out songs of the Cultural Revolution. Many bowed before his picture after getting up in the morning and before sleeping at night.

vi. Attacks on the party The main target was Liu Shaoqi who had replaced Mao as Head of State. He was accused of being “number 1 enemy of communism”. The Red Guards broke into his house, physically attacked him and forced him to write down his confession. Eventually in 1969, he was expelled from the party.

vii. By September 1967, Mao attempted to restore order. Schools and colleges were reopened and he called on young people to return to their studies. The PLA was used to quell the fighting in areas of Red Guard violence. Over five million young people were sent to the countryside for compulsory re-education. By 1969, law and order had been restored in most areas and Cultural Revolution was over.

D. Impact of the Cultural Revolution on China and Mao’s positioni. Mao Triumphant

The 9th Party Congress in April 1969 confirmed Mao’s thought as

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the guiding ideology in China. Opponents were killed or sent into exile. All rivals had been demoted or killed although Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping survived by not opposing Mao. Liu Shaoqi was denounced as a “hidden traitor” and died of medical neglect as he was refused medical treatment for his pneumonia and diabetes. Deng Xiaoping was removed from his post as Secretary of the CCP.

ii. Army most powerful institution CCP Committee were now dominated by the PLA. Lin Biao was named successor to Mao and over half of CCP delegates wore army uniforms. The army composed 45% of the 279 members in the new Central Committee. The 25-man Politburo composed of 9 serving soldiers and 3 former marshals.

iii. Education was disrupted During the revolution, schools and colleges were closed for 6 months as the syllabus was rewritten to favour the communist regime. However, some schools closed up to 2 years. Students refused to sit for examinations and the exam system was abolished. Students of all ages were made to learn from peasants and factory workers by spending part of their education in factories or on farms. University places went to students who supported the Cultural Revolution.

iv. Deaths 500,000 have been estimated to have been killed mostly through torture and beatings. Millions more were sent for re-education through hard labour.

v. Industrial output Factories were reorganised to give power to workers. Prizes and bonuses for town workers were abolished. All workers were given equal wages. Instead special importance was placed on team work. Technicians were dismissed and production fell. Transportation ground to a halt. Industrial output dropped by 14% in 1967 and fell dramatically in 1968.

vi. Impact on Mao’s position During the 9th party congress when Mao named Lin Biao as his successor and the second-in-command, Lin Biao began to doubt Mao whilst Mao feared that Lin might try to oust him as leader. Mao god rid of several Party leaders who supported Lin. In retaliation,

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Lin, in 1971, drew up a plan to overthrow Mao which was codenamed “Project 571”. The plot was discovered, Lin and his plotters tried to escape but the aircraft crashed in Mongolia.

Mao dies on 9th September 1976.

5. CHINA 1969-1989A. Changes under Deng in education, birth control, agriculture and

industry. i. Education

Purpose To reverse educational reforms of the Cultural Revolution .

Under Mao, students were admitted to university if they had a good political record. Examinations were boycotted because they were seen as creating an unequal society.

Lack of educated leaders During Mao’s leadership, only 25% of the CCP had formal education. This meant that the remaining 75% of the CCP were uneducated.

To establish his leadership and make people forget about Mao .

Reform Deng restored tough examinations for university places.

Success in academic subjects once again became essential. Special key schools were set up for best performing students.

This provided China with the skills needed to prosper. Time spent on political education and manual labour was

reduced. Young Party cadres with a college education or professional

training were sent to government positions in provinces. Deng believed in the four modernisations – 1963

(modernisation in agriculture, industry, national defence and science and technology). He believed the modernisation in science and technology was the most important and he believed that the foundation of all modernisations was education. Thus, he believed sending students to foreign countries would speed up the process of modernisation. In

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January 1979, Deng and Carter signed a normalisation agreement on the cooperation in science and technology and a cultural agreement. This diplomatic relation and change in attitude towards foreign relations from before shows China’s growth as a nation.

Significance Bilateral exchanges between China and the U.S. in 1979, sending

students and scholars to each other is a significant part of educational cooperation. China has sent more than 700,000 students to the U.S. As a result, China and U.S sharing intellectual understanding that will benefit their countries in generations to come. People of China became educated and there was obvious advancements in science and technology.

ii. Birth Control

Purpose Population Growth

During the Cultural Revolution, birth programmes were abandoned and birth rates spiralled out of control. It was estimated that by year 2000, China’s population would be 1.3 billion (20% of the world’s population).

Crumbling economy In 1982, ¾ of the population worked in agriculture and that population was increasing by 12 million a year. China’s economic growth will be slowed down if this carried on as China has extra mouths to feed. More food had to be constantly produced with less land as land is required to house the increase in population.

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Reform In 1979, he introduced the “one-child” family policy with

massive publicity. It was a series of measures designed to encourage couples from having more than one child. To control birth he offered incentives through housing, wages, and education.

o The minimum age for marriage was 20 for women and 22 for men.

o Couples had to get consent of their commune and take a written test in family planning.

o Those with only one child were given generous family allowances and more rations.

o Single children found it easier to get into higher education whilst their parents got priority housing.

o People who were willing to be sterilised got extra cash and holidays.

Significance Overall, it was a successful policy with disastrous effects. Those who had more than one child did not receive benefits and

were fined. The policy was keenly resisted in rural areas where it was

traditional to have more than eight children. In urban areas, the policy had been enforced strictly but remote

rural areas have been harder to control. Many people acclaim that some women who had been pregnant for the second time, were forced to an abortion and forcibly sterilised. More successful in cities instead of countryside because it was difficult to monitor the countryside’s due to distance and high resistance in those areas. Therefore, it was easier to monitor people in the cities.

The birth rate in China has fallen since 1979 and the rate of population growth is now 0.7% compared to 5% in 1950.

Due to traditional preferences for boys, large numbers of female babies ended up homeless or killed. In 2000, 90% of all aborted foetuses were female. As a result of female infanticide being a traditional practice, balance of Chinese population is distorted, men outnumber women by 60 million.

iii. Industry

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Purpose The economy had suffered hugely under Mao and the Gang of Four

Many machines were old-fashioned and many Chinese factories were old fashioned and inefficient, running at a loss.

The economy was also too micromanaged by Beijing In one area, 2 million pairs of shoes piled up in warehouses. Nobody was buying them because the style was old-fashioned, yet factories were still producing them because managers were under order to do so.

Reforms Ten Year Plan

o New factories builto Workers paid bonuses for extra output (incentives)o People were free to own their businesses. They were now

allowed to retain a proportion of their surplus and distribute it as incentives.

o More consumer goods produced. o Foreigners were encouraged to visit China and invest their

money. Industrial Responsibility system

Less control from the centre. Factory managers were told to run their factories profitably and to produce what people wanted to buy.

o Enterprises now allowed to retain a proportion of their surplus and distribute it

o New management techniques introduced which allows managers much greater freedom of operation.

Special Economic Zones (1979)Encouraged western firms to establish themselves in areas such as Shanghai and Guangdong, through the promise of cheap land and local labour. These foreign businesses were expected to train Chinese personnel and to give priority to using Chinese raw materials.

o Attract foreign capital into Chinao Offered special incentives , suitable sites and cheap labour

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Significance China’s external trade increased from 20.64 billion to 195.8 billion. Gross national product grew at a annual rate at 9.36% per annum Moderate inflation. Shanghai Stock Market opened in 1986. However….,

o Economists pointed out the risk of overheating, productive capacity is unable to keep up with aggregate demand.

o State-owned industrial enterprises were largely unprofitableo Economic growth has been uneven and has produced

discrepancies of wealth. Corruption and uneven economic growth in wealth began to emerge.

o Corruption and other social evils.

iv. Agriculture

Purpose The cooperative farms were failing to produce enough food. In

1982, China had to import 13.7 million tonnes of grain to feed its population. Increasing population meant that there were more mouths to feed. Peasants had to produce more food. The amount of grain required in 2000 would be 50% higher than agricultural output in 1980.

Reform Size of peasant plots increased. Introduction of Responsibility System for commune land started

in 1978. Families were given responsibility for cultivating areas of land within their commune. They signed contracts promising to produce fixed amounts of food for sale to state. They were allowed to sell any surplus at market for profit or retain products as they wished.

By 1983, China had 44,000 markets as farmers could sell their produce privately. The income of agricultural workers tripled between 1977 to 1983. This marked China moving away from communism and towards capitalism.

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Significance First few years were the golden era as 400 million tonnes of grain

was produced. Income of agricultural workers tripled. Situation worsened after 1984 onwards. State monopoly in of trade

in grain ended. Price of gain reduced, therefore farmers’ income was reduced. Peasant’s earned less.

China’s population was rising. Stock of arable land was falling from 112 million to 96 million hectares. More land was required to house increasing population growth. Demands of development led to a sharp decrease of available land. In the 1990s, China had 22% of world population and 7% of arable land.

A new slogan of “to be rich is to be glorious” appeared. A new class of entrepreneurial peasant emerged.

Overall, it was successful to a certain extent. It depends on the political standing of an individual to determine the success of this reform. A moderate would most likely be happy and contented with this reform. A communist, it will most likely be upset as this was moving away from communism towards capitalism.

B. Emergence of privatisation and westernisation. i. Privatisation

A policy by the government to allow people to buy and own their own companies, as an individual or group of people, this is a move away from pure communism.

Purpose Deng was a moderate therefore; he began moderate policies. Due

to the success of privatisation, Deng managed to fill important positions with his supporters without protest. There was less emphasis on equality and more emphasis on people’s initiatives and incentives. This again contrasts Mao’s policies of collectivisation that failed to meet targets.

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ReformIndustry

Why : more emphasis on people’s initiatives and incentives.

AgricultureWhy : Mao’s policies of collectivisation was

failing dramatically. Industrial Responsibility System

(1978), increased consumerism among general populace with consumer goods flooding the market.

Enterprises allowed to keep surplus and distribute as incentives.

New management techniques introduced which gave managers freedom of operation, managers were not forced to adhere to government rules and more freedom to control their business.

Less control from government, industries worked better under party official’s control.

Privately owned businesses were allowed.

Encouraged factory owners to work as they were allowed to keep surplus and sell it on their own as profit.

They were able to choose what they wanted to produce. Establishment of a stock exchange in 1986 was a clear indication of its rapidly privatising economy. Furthermore, the increased foreign presence in economic zones displays the change in attitude of China towards foreigners.

Agricultural Responsibility System (1978)o Grew a class of entrepreneurial

peasants unlike Stolypin’s Kulaks in Russia.

o Signed contracts promising to produce fixed amounts of food for sale to state.

o Ownership of land remained collective but 15% of all team land was allocated for private plots.

o Families given responsibility to cultivate areas of land within their commune.

o Allowed to sell or retain surplus products as they wish.

Communes were abandoned Encouraged peasants to produce more

on private plots and commercially farm.

Production Responsibility Systemo Production of harvest to be handed

to the production team.

ii. Westernisation Conversion to or adoption of Western tradition and customs. This would affect social, economic and political ideas of a country.

Purpose Shortly after Mao’s death, Deng Xiaoping ended the Cultural

Revolution and launched his reforms, which implemented policies such as economic development, and the reconstruction of the legal system. One major principle Deng stood by, was to guide these reforms through the influence of Western powers. Because of this, western-influenced legislative work began in fields such as foreign investment and trade, which soon expanded to the social classes.

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Under Mao, China was virtually closed off from the world. Foreign influences and trade was limited and during the Cultural Revolution, many foreign embassies were attacked. This improved in 1972 when US President Nixon visited China leading to a thaw in relations.

Reform The 1978 “Open Door” policy was designed by Deng to open up

China to world capitalism and western influences. On TV, the Chinese were able to see the Pope or US President. They could buy foreign books in translation and listen to foreign music. There was more entertainment and less political meetings. In communist newspapers, the Chinese could read about the darker side of life in China such as industrial accidents, crime and Party officials scandals and corruption.

Deng realised that economic recovery would be helped by Western technology and expertise. He sent students abroad to study engineering and technology. He encouraged foreign companies to set up projects in China in partnership with state-owned Chinese businesses. These ranged from textiles to hotel construction to oil prospecting.

C. The Rise and Fall of the “Gang of Four”i. Growing Power Struggle After the Cultural Revolution, Mao developed a suspicious hostility

to the power of the army and removed many of Lin Biao’s supporters. In retaliation, Lin drew up a plan to overthrow Mao in 1971 called Project “571” but was discovered. He tried to escape in an aircraft but died when it crashed in the Mongolian desert. After Lin’s death, Mao’s health began to fail and there was growing power struggle between the right-wing moderates and left-wing radicals for control of the CCP.

THE LEFTLed by Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing, and 3 radical politicians from Shanghai known as the Gang of Four, Zhang Chunquiao, Yao Wenyuan and Wang Hongwen. They were supported by the Communist Youth League and control press and radio. They believed in Maoism and wanted to continue the political struggle against the “revisionists”. They put all their energy into series of campaigns against the bourgeoisie and outdated ideas like 1973

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Anti-Confucius campaign.

THE RIGHTLed by Prime Minster Zhou Enlai and Deputy Prime Minister Deng Xiaoping who had been rehabilitated by Mao who wanted to balance the factions within the CCP. The right was supported by the CCP and the PLA, who were eager to end all political arguments. They supported Zhou’s plan for Four Modernisations of China’s industry, farming, national defence and science and technology.

ii. Rise of the Gang of Four In 1976, the right suffered a setback when Zhou Enlai died and

was succeeded by Deng. Thousands went to Tiananmen Square to pay their respects, laying wreaths and posters. On 5th April 1975, visitor found all the wreaths removed. 10,000 people rioted in supported of Zhou and Deng followed by 200 arrests. There were similar protests in other cities such as Shanghai however the left blamed Deng and removed him from the Party and government. He was replaced by a minor official called Hua Guofeng. He was nicknamed “helicopter” due to his speedy rise to power. Mao’s death on the 9th of September 1976 helped the Gang of Four take control of the CCP.

iii. Fall of the Gang of Four When Mao died, Hua Guofeng succeeded to all top positions in

government. Whilst he now controlled the CCP and the army, he lacked real status of his own and the Gang of Four prepared to manipulate him out of power. He was rescued by the army, PLA, There was evidence that they plotted against Hua and on the night of 6th October 1976, the Gang of Four were arrested. Their supporters were also put in prison. They were hated and demanded severe punishments. The CCP used press, radio, newspapers to attack the Gang of Four and in winter of 1980-1981 they were put on trial and found guilty, they were sentenced to long prison terms.

Over the next three years, the moderates led by Deng Xiaoping gently eased Hua from power. 1980, he was excused from office. Under Deng, China began a period of moderate policies, carrying out Four Modernisations of Zhou Enlai. The Cultural Revolution was finally over. In 1981, the Central Committee of the CCP announced that Mao had been 70% correct and 30% wrong.

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The CCP could not condemn its Chairman without fatally undermining its own legitimacy.

D. Origins of Democracy Movement 1979.i. Deng’s Opposition to reform

Although Deng believed in economic reform and Westernisation, he was a communist hardliner and was very conservative towards political change. He believed that China had gone through too much in the Cultural Revolution and needed a rest from political argument. Deng believed popular democracy would undermine his economic reforms.

This was expressed in 1980 by the National People’s Congress which condemned the view that people had a right to speak freely and even criticise the government.

He was influenced by his “four cardinal principles”- Keeping to socialist road- Upholding the people’s democratic dictatorship- Upholding leadership by CCP- Upholding Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought

In addition, Deng wanted to restore authority and control of the CCP after the disasters of the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution. He wanted to show that the CCP was still capable of governing China.

E. The “Democracy Wall” movement and Wei Jingsheng. F. Support of university students from 1986.G. Features and aims.H. Reaction of Deng.

i. The “Democracy Wall” Movement began in early 1979. Wall posters began to appear in the Avenue of Eternal Peace, near Tiananmen Square. It was a common meeting place for students who often attached small letters and posters onto walls. Some were political graffiti whilst others expressed anti-government and anti-Party feelings. Many Chinese suffered during the Cultural Revolution but struggled to benefit from Deng’s reforms, Wei Jingsheng was one such person. He was a writer who on 25th March 1979, published an article called “Democracy or New Dictatorship” which attacked Deng. The attack shocked Deng an

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in summer 1979, the government tore down the posters. Wei Jingsheng was brought to trial and sentenced for 15 years imprisonment. Wei was viewed as the first “martyr” of the movement who saw in Deng’s reforms the opportunity to modernise the political system as well as the economy. It urged Deng to adopt democracy and accused the CCP of corruption. In 1986, major disturbances broke out in universities in Hefei, Wuhan and Shanghai. Thousands following Fang Lizhi at Hefei who was a professor demanded an open government and democracy. On 5th January 1987, students at Beijing University burnt copies of local CCP newspapers and protested against “conservatives”. Deng generally tolerated the movement unless he was personally attacked. The punishment of Wei Jingsheng was a warning and insisted that genuine Democracy was not an option for China.

ii. Growing opposition and unrest. The Democracy Movement was disappointed at his rejection

of democracy and repression of student demonstrations. Many economic reforms proved to be very disappointing.

Inflation had risen as had unemployment. The growing population and rural to urban migration led to severe overcrowding in cities.

Students felt that Deng and the CCP had failed to deliver. Many also resented the lack of jobs and the fact that top jobs

often went to members of the CCP.

I. Tiananmen Square Massacrei. Causes Death of Hu Yaobang

He died on April 15th 1989. Hua had been sympathetic to the democracy movement but had been removed in January 1987 for daring to support the student protests. He had been treated harshly and died from a heart attack. Large crowds gathered in Tiananmen Square for this memorial service. Three students tried to give a petition to Li Peng. His refusal to accept the petition sparked off a series of sit-ins and boycotts of university classes. Students from 40 universities joined their fellow students in Tiananmen Square. Transport workers showed their support by allowing the students to travel free to Beijing.

May Hunger StrikeA group of 300 students had gone on a hunger strike. The government made contact with hunger strikers, urging them to call

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it off. The hunger strikers refused because they were achieving world publicity with camera crews and journalists from every continent reporting the events. Gorbachev was due to visit Beijing. He was popular because of his reforms in the Soviet Union. Moreover the students were convinced that the authorities would not dare crush the demonstration during his visit.

Zhao Ziyang (May 1989)On the sixth day, Zhao Ziyang had asked the students to end the hunger strike. 17th May, Zhao Ziyang summoned students leaders for a televised talk. However, during the meeting, students pulled out saying it was not a dialogue of “equal footing”. This was another failed attempt at discussion between the protestors and the CCP.

19th May, in tears, he promised that the issues over which they were protesting would be resolved. The same evening Zhao was dismissed from his post.

20th May, Deng had decided that the demonstrations would be ended by force and introduced martial law which meant that the military government would take over and ordinary law was suspended. However, then the students voted to end the hunger strikes but continue the protests.

Further SupportWhen the news broke of the decision to continue, thousands who had earlier given up, returned to the Tiananmen Square. This included many residents of Beijing who blocked the roads and avenues leading to Tiananmen Square to prevent the troops from imposing martial law. The troops were withdrawn to the outskirts of Beijing.

Troops move in Early JuneDeng was now determined more than ever to end the protests. Crack troops, led by specially appointed commanders, advanced on Beijing. By 2nd June, 350,000 PLA soldiers surrounded Tiananmen Square and controlled the routes leading to it, ignoring the protests of the local people.

Collapse of Communism in Eastern EuropeOf the immediate concern was the rise of anti-communist

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movements in Eastern Europe. The collapse of Soviet power began in 1989. What goes on in Russia is important to China as it is China’s model and China and Russia have bilateral and diplomatic relations.

ii. The Massacre (3 rd -4 th June 1989) The PLA commanders described the action as a “full military

campaign” to overcome the resistance of “rebels” and recapture the Tiananmen Square. The troops were told to reclaim the Square at all costs.

o At 10pm of 3rd June, the first shots were fired at demonstrators and by midday 4th June, the occupation was over.

o At regular intervals groups of students were marched away and later imprisoned.

o The number of causalities is unknown although it included both PLA soldiers beaten to death by angry crowds and students being shot.

o The government had imposed a news blackout but information of the massacre was leaked out.

iii. Effects In the weeks that followed, demonstrators who escaped were

rounded up and imprisoned. Ringleaders were given heavy sentences.

CCP officials that had supported the protests were dismissed whilst those who opposed the demonstrations were promoted.

The government admitted that 23 students had been accidentally killed.

The massacre marked the ned of democracy movement in China. At the 14th Party congress of the CCP in October 1992, the dictatorship of the CCP was confirmed, no criticism was allowed to be permitted. Political reform would not be allowed.

On June 8th, Li Peng went on national television, praising the troops for doing their best. He also reported that “no one died” from the Tiananmen Square Massacre.

iv. Why was the massacre carried out? Deng could have used riot police, water cannons and tear gas to

disperse the protestors. Instead, he decided to deal with student riots by gunning them down, which was unusual of an Asian

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country. The students were unarmed and not fully united and determined. However, Deng seems to have wanted a violent end to the protest. The massacre was very much in the Chinese tradition of crushing opposition by the severest means in order to act as a deterrent as well as highlighting that this opposition was illegitimate. The use of tanks and bullets was to show Chinese people the determination of the government not to tolerate opposition. There are no other explanations for the severity of Deng’s actions:

o The Chinese government insisted that the students and foreign support and were trying to undo the communist revolution.

o Deng perceived the Student’s Democracy Movement as a serious treat to his leadership.

o There was a power struggle to see who would take over once Deng retired or died. This was between Zhao Ziyang and Li Peng. Li Peng encouraged force against the students, believing this would win him the support of Deng.

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